Elephant
Bibliographic
Database

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Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org

References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent first.

Aroch, I., King, R., Baneth, G., 2007. Hematology and serum biochemistry values of trapped, healthy, free-ranging rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) and their association with age, sex, and gestational status. Vet. Clin. Pathol. 36, 40-48.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: The rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) is an herbivore prevalent from South Africa to Turkey, and a most common zoo animal. Although many studies of hyrax diseases and physiology are available, clinicopathologic data are limited. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to establish comprehensive hematologic and biochemical reference intervals for trapped, apparently healthy, free-ranging rock hyraxes using modern laboratory methods and to assess differences related to sex, gestation, and age. METHODS: Blood samples were obtained from 27 healthy, free-ranging hyraxes under anesthesia. Gender, body weight, and gestational status were recorded. Hematologic (n = 25) and serum biochemical (n = 22) analyses were performed using standard automated methodology. Data for male vs female, adult vs juvenile, and pregnant vs nonpregnant female hyraxes were compared using the Mann-Whitney U-test. Associations between variables were assessed using Pearson's or Spearman rank correlation tests. RESULTS: Significant age- and sex-related, but not gestation-related differences were observed in several variables. Serum alkaline phosphatase activity and phosphorus concentration were significantly higher in juveniles compared with adults. A unique type of monocyte comprised 1-3% of leukocytes in 4 hyraxes. Markedly high serum creatine kinase (CK) activity was observed in most hyraxes. CONCLUSIONS: The large number of animals and the availability of sex, age, and gestational data in this study will be useful to zoo and wildlife veterinarians working with rock hyraxes. High serum concentrations of betahydroxybutyric acid in the rock hyrax, compared with dogs, cats, and ruminants, may be related to its unique digestive system. High CK activity may have been the result of a capture myopathy-like syndrome. The unique monocytes in hyraxes resemble those of elephants and are a novel finding in this species

Neiffer, D.L., Miller, M.A., Weber, M., Stetter, M., Fontenot, D.K., Robbins, P.K., Pye, G.W., 2005. Standing sedation in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) using detomidine-butorphanol combinations. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36, 250-256.
Abstract: Standing sedation was provided for 14 clinical procedures in three African elephants (Loxodonta africana) managed by combined protected and modified-protected contact and trained through operant conditioning. An initial hand-injection of detomidine hydrochloride and butorphanol tartrate at a ratio of 1:1 on a microg:microg basis was administered intramuscularly, with a dosage range of 50-70 mg (12.9-19.7 microg/kg) for each drug. The initial injection resulted in adequate sedation for initiation and completion of eight procedures, whereas supplemental doses were required for the remaining procedures. The dosage range for the supplemental injections of each drug was 4.0-7.3 microg/kg. Initial effect was noted within 3.0-25 min (mean = 11.6 min, SD +/- 5.9 min), with maximal effect occurring at 25-30 min for those procedures not requiring supplementation. In all but one procedure, this effect was maintained until the end of the procedure, which ranged from 47 to 98 min (mean = 74.7 min, SD +/- 18.8 min). No cardiac or respiratory depression was appreciated. Recovery after administration of reversal agents was rapid and complete, ranging from 2 to 20 min (mean = 9.0 min, SD +/- 7.0 min). On the basis of the authors' experience, recommended dosage ranges for reversal agents would be intravenous yohimbine (73.4-98.5 microg/kg), intravenous naltrexone (48.9-98.5 microg/kg), and intramuscular naltrexone (73.4-98.5 microg/kg). Approximately one-third to one-half of the total naltrexone dose should be administered intravenously. Mild adverse side effects limited to the gastrointestinal tract were observed in association with five procedures including abdominal distention with or without transient anorexia. Administration of reversal agents, encouraging exercise and water consumption, and administration of flunixin meglumine were helpful in the resolution of signs. In addition to gastrointestinal signs, slight ataxia was observed before initiation of surgical stimulation during one procedure in which 19.7 microg/kg of each drug was administered. On the basis of the procedures that did not require supplementation to initiate treatment and taking into consideration the potential for ataxia at higher doses, a starting dosage range of 14.7-16.2 microg/kg of both detomidine and butorphanol in a ratio of 1:1 on a microg:microg basis administered i.m. simultaneously is recommended

Plumb, D.C., 2005. Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook. Blackwell Pub Professional.

Rasmussen, H.B., Wittemyer, G., Douglas-Hamilton, I., 2005. Estimating age of immobilized elephants from teeth impressions using dental silicon. African Journal of Ecology 43, 215-219.
Abstract: High precision condensation dental silicon, Zetalabor^TM, was used to create moulds of the lower jaw molars from 22 immobilized African elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenback) during radio collaring operations. These moulds were used to determine the elephant's age using Laws and Jachmann's molar aging criteria. The technique proved easy and fast and produced useful imprints in 90% of the cases. We found our age estimates, based on physical appearance, made prior to immobilizations were relatively accurate, with 75% within ±3 years and 95% within ±5 years from the age indicated from molar evaluation. When re-collaring the same individuals in 2-3 years, new moulds will be made to compare a known time period with the degree of tooth wear. This will provide verification of Laws age estimates from free-ranging elephants.

Suedmeyer, W.K., Oosterhuis, J., Kollias, G., Fagan, D., Hornoff, B., Dodam, J., Shafford, H. Elephant restraint device assisted anesthesia in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group.  189-191. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Modern elephant management programs often include the use of protected contact. This allows improved safety for the elephant staff but may limit access to medical conditions occurring in elephants.
A 27-yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) weighing an estimated 3,700 kg was anesthetized for evaluation of a chronic, progressive, fistulous tract of the left ventral mandible. The mandible was routinely cultured, flushed with diluted peroxide, chlorhexidine, betadine solution, or alternating antibiotics, based on microbial sensitivities. To properly assess the left mandible, the elephant had to be placed in right lateral recumbency, which was accomplished with the use of a commercially available rotational elephant restraint device (ERD). Because of the protected contact management program, right lateral recumbency could not be guaranteed at the time of immobilization. Malpositioning, tusk fracture and/or related injury could occur upon recumbency without the additional control afforded by the ERD. The ERD is a hydraulically operated unit that comfortably restrains an elephant, minimizing safety risks to the animal and staff. The ERD consists of one solid wall, three side panels, and hinged floor. The ends of the restraint are closed with moveable shift doors. The three side panels can be moved independently depending upon the size of the animal and are further subdivided with moveable "subpanels" to allow direct access to various areas of the animal. In addition, support straps help gently stabilize limbs when performing medical procedures. The unit is positioned within the elephant holding facility at the Kansas City Zoo. The unit was installed in 1994 during renovation of the elephant exhibit, whereupon the elephant management program was changed from free-contact to protected contact. The ERD is utilized for reproductive assessments, semen collection, transabdominal ultrasound, evaluation of integumentary wounds, ophthalmic and aural examination, and administration of injectable medications. However, no elephant had been anesthetized and rotated in the restraint. The affected animal could not be guaranteed to re-enter the ERD once rotated, but would enter and station in the ERD on a daily basis. Because of this, a conspecific was conditioned to allow rotation without the use of sedatives or tranquilizers, to prepare for the actual immobilization. Adjustments in strap placement, cushioning, critical evaluation of mechanical stability, and placement of hydraulic panels allowed staff to prepare for the actual immobilization, minimizing complications. The elephant was conditioned to enter and station in the ERD. After strapping the distal limbs, thorax and caudal abdomen for support, the elephant was immobilized with a combination of 3,000 IU of hyaluronidase (O'Brien Pharmacy, Kansas City, MO USA), 10 mg acepromazine maleate, and 7 mg etorphine hydrochloride (Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins, CO USA) via pole syringe. Close monitoring of induction was performed and when stage III anesthetic plane was achieved, the elephant was rotated into right lateral recumbency, elevating the elephant 6 feet above the floor. No voluntary movement of the animal was noted while the restraint was in motion. Direct arterial blood pressure, indirect oscillometric blood pressure, blood gases, respiratory rate, excursion characteristics, cardiac rate and rhythm, and pulse oximetry was routinely monitored during the procedure. Anesthesia was maintained with intermittent boluses of etorphine hydrochloride. Intravenous physiologic fluids (lactated Ringers solution) were maintained via an i.v. aural catheter, and insufflation with oxygen was provided on a continual basis. Oral examination and palpation demonstrated an incomplete transverse fissure of the left mandibular molar, intact gingival, and proper dental occlusion with the upper arcade.  Digital radiographs of the left mandible were performed based on exposures obtained with a set of skeletonized jaws. Advantages of this diagnostic modality are the immediate imaging results, portability, and digital imaging and storage, and does not require a developer or fixative. Adjustments in radiographic angle and technique were made to obtain the best diagnostic image. Radiographic imaging demonstrated a sequestrum consisting of a fractured enamel plate  ²of the mandibular molar with a fistulous tract that coursed ventrally to communicate through the skin. The elephant was elevated 6 feet above the ground, which presented unique challenges. Because of the relatively small operating space, intubation was not possible, but insufflation was readily achieved and successful based on pulse oximetry trends. A commercial lift was utilized to elevate two large-animal circle anesthetic units to the level of the elephant's head. During immobilization the legs were cushioned and restraint straps removed to lessen the potential for occlusive damage to the tissues. The ERD allows an elephant to be positioned in either right or left lateral recumbency.
Upon completion of diagnostic procedures, the narcotic agent was reversed with 1,400 mg naltrexone hydrochloride (Zoopharm, Laramie, WY USA) administered 25% intravenously and 75% subcutaneously. The elephant awoke within 90 sec and was rotated to a standing position within the restraint. Thereafter, the elephant was confined in the restraint for approximately 45 min, until no untoward effects were likely to occur. The elephant was released from the restraint and resumed normal eating and drinking within 8 hr, and voluntarily entered the restraint within 2 wk following the procedure. The elephant was stable throughout the procedure; however, a predetermined objective for mean arterial blood pressures (<200 MAP) was not achieved. Hyaluronidase was utilized to promote rapid absorption of the narcotic and neuroleptic agents.³ Acetylpromazine was used to maintain peripheral perfusion by reducing the hypertensive effects of etorphine,¹ which has been documented in previous immobilizations of African elephants.^3-5 Etorphine hydrochloride, a powerful narcotic agent, has been successfully used as an immobilizing agent in both wild and captive African elephants.^3-5 Use of an ERD allowed full control of the immobilization, increasing safety for personnel, preventing injury to the elephant, and positioning the left mandible on the dorsal plane. Disadvantages are the elevated height of the elephant, relatively small operating space, and disrupted line of sight communication. A second procedure will be performed in the near future to address the fracture and subsequent sequestrum diagnosed during the first immobilization. The elephant is currently being conditioned to allow restraint in a holding stall that will allow greater access to the oral cavity and surgical manipulation of the affected mandible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the staff of the Kansas City Zoological Park for their care, concern, and expertise in helping make this procedure a success.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Booth, N.H. Psychotropic agents. In: Booth, N.H., and R.E. McDonald (eds.). Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics.  W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA. P. 329.
2 Fagan, V.D.A., J.E. Oosterhuis, and A. Roocraft. 2001. Captivity disorders in elephants: impacted molars and broken tusks. Der Zoologische Garten 71:281-303.
3 Honeymoon, V.L., G.R. Pettifer, and D.H. Dyson. 1992. Arterial blood pressure and blood gas values in normal standing and laterally recumbent African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus)    elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 23:205-210.
4. Kock, R.A., P. Morkel, and M.D. Kock. 1993. Current immobilization procedures used in elephants. In: Fowler,
M.E. (ed.).  Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA.  Pp. 436-441.
5 Raath, J.P. 1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., and R.E. Miller (eds.). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA.  Pp. 525-533.

Abou-Madi, N., Kollias, G.V., Hackett, R.P., Ducharme, N.G., Gleed, R.D., Moakler, J.P., 2004. Umbilical herniorrhaphy in a juvenile Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
696. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 35, 221-225.
Abstract: An umbilical hernia was diagnosed in a 2-wk-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) by physical and ultrasonographic examinations. Umbilical herniorrhaphy was elected because the defect was large (approximately 7 cm long and 10 cm deep) and could potentially lead to incarceration of an intestinal loop. General anesthesia was induced with a combination of ketamine, xylazine, and diazepam and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. The hernial sac was explored and contained fibrous tissue, fat, and an intestinal loop but no adhesions. The hernial sac was resected and the body wall closed using the technique of simple apposition. Following a superficial wound infection, the surgical site healed with no further complications.

Janssen, D.L., Oosterhuis, J.E., Fuller, J., Williams, K. Field technique: A method for obtaining trunk wash mycobacterial cultures in anesthetized free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana). 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE.  582-583. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants 2003 (Guidelines) of the National tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species were written to protect the health and safety of captive elephants together with their handlers and the viewing public.1 The Guidelines specifically address the display and transport of captive elephants but do not address the unique situation of free-living elephants being imported and subsequently displayed to the public.

Although the Guidelines describe a technique for collecting and handling a trunk wash in a trained, standing, non-anesthetized elephant, it does not describe a similar technique for anesthetized elephants in lateral recumbency. In an attempt to detect active mycobacterial infection in a group of 3 male and 8 female free-ranging African elephants scheduled for import into the United States, a technique was developed for collecting trunk washes in recumbent,  anesthetized elephants for mycobacterial culture.

A South African game-capture crew, experienced in translocating elephants, anesthetized elephants in groups via remote drug delivery and from a helicopter. The ground crew accomplished multiple simultaneous procedures including anesthesia maintenance and monitoring, physical and reproductive examinations, collection of general diagnostic and investigative samples, and trunk washes for mycobacterial cultures. This was accomplished while the capture crew was preparing animals for loading into specially designed trailers for transport to a holding boma. Little time was available for any one of procedure with multiple
animals being attended to at one time.

Once an elephant was stable in lateral recumbency, a 3-m foal stomach tube, prepackaged and sterilized, was inserted into the dependent side of the trunk tip. It was then gently fed up the trunk approximately 2.5 m. A 50-ml sample suction trap was attached to the end of the foal tube.The suction trap was then attached to a battery powered, portable aspirator pump designed for emergency medical care. The aspiration pump was activated to collect secretions from the most proximal portion of the trunk. If little or no secretions were collected by this means, the system was disconnected between the sample trap and the foal tube. Then, 100 ml of sterile saline was placed into raised end of the foal tube allowing it to drain toward the tip through gravity. The suction trap and aspiration pump were reattached to collect a sample in the sample trap. Then, the sample trap was replaced with a new trap, and the foal tube was inserted into the oral pharynx for collection of a separate oropharyngeal sample. This same procedure was repeated
with each elephant.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
So African veterinarians, Mike Bester, Larry Killmar, Janet Payeur, ARC/OVI, Thomas Hildebrant, Eric Zeehandelar, Kevin Reily, Denise SoFranko.

LITERATURE CITED
1. National tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species. 2003. Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants 2003. USDA-APHIS: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf

Loomis, M.R., Loomis, J.M. Equipment for use in monitoring anesthetized animals in remote geographic locations. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE.  499-501. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Monitoring anesthetized animals in remote geographic locations with no electrical power source can be accomplished with the use of commercially available equipment or with modifications of available equipment. The use of portable solar panels to recharge batteries can supply adequate power to operate most equipment. Equipment for monitoring oxygenation, ventilation, cardiac rhythm and rate, blood pressure and core temperature have been successfully used in areas without an electrical grid or electrical generators.

Criteria for Choice of Equipment for Field Use
Size, weight, power requirements, durability and the ability to operate in harsh environmental conditions should be considered when choosing monitoring equipment for field use. Of concern are the power requirement and the source of the power, particularly in areas where there is no power grid or generator available.

Power Source
There are a number of types of rechargeable batteries on the market.1 Nickel metal halide batteries (NiMH) were chosen for use in monitoring equipment in this study (MAHA Powerx 2100mAh, Thomas Distributing, 128 East Wood, Paris, IL 61944). NiMH batteries have several features that make them attractive for remote use.1 They can be recharged 500 to 1000 times, have no memory, have a fairly steady discharge curve and have the least negative environmental impact when disposed of than other available batteries.1 One disadvantage of NiMH batteries is that they have a self discharge rate of 2-3% per day when not in use. AA NiMH batteries produce 1.2 volts.
Battery energy output is measured in milliamp hours (mAh)2. A battery rated at 1700 mAh will produce 1700 mA for 1 hr. Different manufacturers produce batteries with different power outputs. AA NiMH batteries are rated at up to 2400 mAh. The higher the mAh, the greater the output of the battery.

Batteries are charged using fast, smart chargers attached to portable solar panels (iPowerUS fast smart charger, iPower corporation, CA, USA). A fast charger delivers the amount of current necessary to recharge the battery in 1 hr or less. In general, a slower charge rate will extend the overall life of the battery.3 To overcome the deleterious effects of rapidly charging a battery, a smart charger has a current-limiter built into it that reduce the current as the battery is charged, thereby preventing most of the deterioration.3 The fast smart charger is attached to a portable solar panel (Sun Catcher Expedition solar charger, PowerQwest, Inc.3400 Corporate Way, Suite C Duluth, GA 30096 USA) via a 12 volt "cigarette lighter" type plug. The panel produces 25 watts of power, which is more than enough power to charge 8 AA NiMH batteries at a time. Equipment that uses AA or AAA batteries is preferred so that a large number of different sized rechargeable batteries are not required in the field.

Monitoring Equipment
Oxygenation is measured with a pulse oximeter or by arterial blood gas determination using a portable clinical analyzer. Several brands of pulse oximeters have been successfully used and recharged in the field. An Invacare model 3402NV (Sims BCI, Inc., Waukesha, WI 53186) is relatively small, light weight and operates on 6 AA batteries. This oximeter is durable and operates well on rechargeable AA NiMH batteries.

An I-Stat portable clinical analyzer (Heska Corp. 1613 Prospect Parkway, Fort Collins, CO 80525 USA) has been successfully used in the field using rechargeable 9-volt NiMH batteries. A challenge of using the I-Stat in the field is the analyzer's normal operating temperature of 16-30°C (61-86°F). The I-Stat has been kept in the proper operating temperature range by placing it in a 12-volt thermoelectric cooler (Coleman, Spirit Lake, IA 51360, USA). The thermoelectric cooler runs directly off of the solar panel.

Ventilation is measured using capnography or arterial blood gas determination. The criteria for choice of a capnograph include a waveform display, mainstream and sidestream capabilities and powered by rechargeable AA batteries. The Novametrix Tidal Wave model 615 (Novametrix Medical Systems, INC., Wallingford, and CT USA 06492) meets these criteria. The Tidal Wave comes standard with a rechargeable computer-type battery, but can be ordered with a battery tray, which holds 7 AA batteries. This instrument is durable and operates well on rechargeable NiMH batteries. The sidestream capability allows a large gauge needle to be placed in the lumen of a large endotracheal tube for sampling.

Cardiac rate and rhythm are monitored by use of an electrocardiograph (ECG). A compact ECG unit (Heska Vet/ECG 2000, Heska Corp., 1613 Prospect Parkway, Fort Collins, CO 80525 USA) that operates on 3 AAA rechargeable NiMH batteries is durable and dependable in the field. Blood pressure is measured by a direct arterial line or by indirect methods. Of the indirect methods, automated oscillometry has been successfully used in the field. No automated oscillometric blood pressure machine that runs on replaceable batteries could be found. A compact, durable instrument, Oscillomate 9300 (CAS Medical Systems, Inc., 44 East Industrial Blvd., Branford, CT 06405), was modified for field use. A transformer was manufactured which is inserted between the internal battery of the blood pressure monitor and the solar panel. This allows the internal battery of the blood pressure monitor to be recharged directly from the solar panel.

All monitoring equipment, battery chargers and rechargeable NiMH batteries are transported into the field in a backpack that is designed for photographic equipment (Lowepro Supertrecker AW II, Lowepro USA, P.O. Box 6189, Santa Rosa, CA 95406). All of the above equipment has been dependably used to monitor immobilized elephants in a variety of remote habitats in Cameroon, including dry, hot habitat,2 hot humid habitat.

LITERATURE CITED
1. New technology batteries guide: available battery types. http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/batype. htm, March, 2004.
2. New technology batteries guide: performance, economics and tradeoffs.http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/ba-type.htm, March, 2004.
3. New technology batteries guide: battery chargers and adapters.http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/ba-char.htm, March, 2004.
4. Horne, W.A., M.N. Tchamba, and M.R. Loomis. 2001. A simple method of providing intermittent positivepressureventilation to etorphine-immobilized elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field. J. Zoo Wildl.Med. 32: 519-522.

Sarma, K.K., Sarma, M., Sarma, D.K., 2004. Safety of repeated xylazine hydrochloride administrations in elephants. Indian Veterinary Journal 81, 886-889.

 2003. Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Ollivet-Courtois, F., Lecu, A., Yates, R.A., Spelman, L.H., 2003. Treatment of a sole abscess in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) using regional digital intravenous perfusion. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 34, 292-295.
Abstract: Regional digital i.v. perfusion was used to treat a severe sole abscess associated with a wire foreign body in a 19-yr-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) housed at the Paris Zoo. The cow presented with acute right forelimb lameness and swelling that persisted despite 4 days of anti-inflammatory therapy. Under anesthesia, a 10- x 0.5- x 0.5-cm wire was extracted from the sole of the right foot. There was a 2-cm-deep, 7-cm-diameter abscess pocket that was subsequently debrided. Regional digital i.v. perfusion was performed and repeated 15 days later, using cefoxitin and gentamicin on both occasions. Between treatments, the cow received trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and phenylbutazone orally. Within 2 days of administering anesthesia and the first perfusion treatment, the lameness improved dramatically. When phenylbutazone was discontinued 1 wk after the first treatment, the lameness had completely resolved. At the second treatment, there was no evidence of further soft tissue infection, and the abscess pocket had resolved.

Pathak, S.C., 2003. Restraint and chemical immobilization of elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 23-27.

Pitts, N.I., Mitchell, G., 2003. In vitro succinylcholine hydrolysis in plasma of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and impala (Aepyceros melampus). Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 134, 123-129.
Abstract: In elephants the time lapsed from i.m. injection of an overdose of the muscle relaxant succinylcholine (SuCh) until death, is significantly longer than in impala. To determine a difference in the rate of SuCh hydrolysis, once the drug enters the circulation, contributes to this phenomenon we have measured the rate of hydrolysis of SuCh in elephant and impala plasma, and by elephant erythrocytes. Rate of hydrolysis was determined by incubating SuCh in plasma or erythrocyte lysate at 37 degrees C and quantifying the choline produced. Plasma SuCh hydrolytic activity in elephant plasma (12.1+/-1.7 Ul(-1) mean+/-S.D.; n=9) was significantly higher than it was in impala plasma (6.6+/-0.6 Ul(-1); n=5), but were approximately 12 and 21 times lower, respectively, than in human plasma. Elephant erythrocyte lysate had no SuCh hydrolytic activity. Applying this data to previous studies, we can show that the ratio of SuCh absorption to SuCh hydrolysis is expected to be 1.25:1 and 1.41:1 for elephants and impala respectively. It will thus take at least 1.7 times longer for elephant to achieve a plasma SuCh concentration similar to that in impala. We conclude that a more rapid hydrolysis of SuCh in elephant plasma is one factor that contributes to the longer time to death compared to impala.

Schmitt, D.L., 2003. Proboscidea (Elephants). In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Elsevier Science USA, pp. 541-550.

Steiner, M., Gould, A.R., Clark, T.J., Burns, R., 2003. Induced elephant (Loxodonta africana) tusk removal. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 34, 93-95.
Abstract: Elephant tusk removal usually requires costly surgical procedures that are time-consuming and present a significant risk to the animal when performed using general anesthesia. Such techniques require gauges, chisels, and forceps to remove the tusk. This article reports the simple removal of the tusk of an 18-yr-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana) without the use of surgical instruments and anesthesia. Rubber elastics were placed around a tusk, causing loss of alveolar bone with subsequent exfoliation of the tusk within 3 wk. The healing process was uneventful. Department of Surgical and Hospital Dentistry, School of Dentistry, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, USA.

Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Elephant - an overview. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 8-11.

Cheeran, J., 2002. Adverse drug experiences in elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 61.

Cheeran, J.V., Panicker, K.C., Kaimal, R.K., Giridas, P.B., 2002. Tranquillization and translocation of captive bulls. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 219-222.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org

Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 2002. Tranquilization and translocation of elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 42-46.

Kreeger, T.J., Arnemo, J.M., Raath, J.P., 2002. Handbook of wildlife chemical immobilization. Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S.A.

Milroy, A.J.W., 2002. A.J.W. Milroy's Management of Elephants in Captivity. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun, New Delhi, India.

Nayar, K.N.M., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 2002. Management of surgical affections in captive elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 55-59.

Pitts, N.I., Mitchell, G., 2002. Pharmacokinetics and effects of succinylcholine in African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and impala (Aepyceros melampus). Eur J Pharm Sci 15, 251-260.
Abstract: The phenomenon of slow onset of succinylcholine (Sch) effect in elephants was investigated by analyzing blood concentrations of Sch and its metabolite choline in elephant and impala. To assess whether the slow onset phenomenon is related to the pharmacokinetics of Sch following i.m. administration, we analyzed the time course of plasma concentrations of intact drug and its metabolite and determined its pharmacological effects. Blood samples were obtained from anaesthetized elephant (n=6) and impala (n=7) following i.m. administration of a lethal dose of Sch. Time from Sch injection to onset of apnoea and to death was significantly longer for elephant than impala (mean+/-S.D. apnoea 4.4+/-1.5 and 2.3+/-0.9 min, respectively; death 32.6+/-7.3 and 6.2+/-3.4 min, respectively). The C(max) was not different between elephants and impala (20.3+/-7.9 vs. 14.4+/-6.8 nmol ml(-1), respectively) but the t(max) was significantly longer for elephants (23.0+/-7.6 vs. 3.7+/-2.2 min). Analysis of the plasma Sch and choline concentrations over time revealed that the relative amount of Sch entering the circulation within the first 30 s after i.m. injection is greater for impala than elephant. No greater rate in the plasma hydrolysis of Sch in elephant compared to impala was apparent.

Rajkamal, P.J., Rajeev, T.S., 2002. Training the Mahouts. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 24, 30-30.

Sarma, B., Pathak, S.C., Sarma, K.K., 2002. Medetomidine a novel immobilizing agent for the elephant (Elephas maximus). Research in Veterinary Science 73, 315-317.
Abstract: Medetomidine was injected by the intramuscular route at the rates of 3 and 5 microg/kg body weight into two groups of Indian elephants (Elephas maximus). Sedation was induced at 6.20 (0.81) and 5.90 (0.60) min respectively after injection. The duration of anaesthesia was 66.20 (10.4) and 134.20 (24.12) min, respectively and recovery occurred at 125.80 (25.23) and 205.89 (29.3) min. The notable signs of sedation exhibited by the elephants were protrusion of penis, complete relaxation of trunk, flaccidity of tail and drooping of the ears with a head down position. During sedation, physiological parameters recorded were bradycardia, decreased respiration and hypothermia.

Tongwongsa, S., Diskul, M.L.P., Kanchanapangka, S., Mahasawangkul, S., Lungka, G., Angkswanich, T., 2002. The use of an etorphine-acepromazine cocktail for immobilization and diprenorphine as it's antagonist in an elephant (Elephas maximus indicus). Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 32, 45-51.
Abstract: Etorphine hydrochloride (2.45 mg/ml) in combination with acepromazine maleate (10 mg/ml) is a very potent neuroleptanalgesic. The drug principally affects psychomotor activities. With a bundle of roughage still in his mouth, Plai Kum-Sand, a 3400 kgs, bull elephant, 35 years of age lay down 6 minutes after an intramuscularly injection. In lateral recumbency and snoring, the heart rate was 44 beats/minute with respiration at 4 breaths/minute. This heavy level of sedation was reversed quickly and successfully using 9.78 mg of the antidote, diprenorphine hydrochloride intravenously, 18 minutes after anaesthetic challenge. The bull opened his eyes 2 minutes afterward. He moved, stood upright, and started nibbling food 6 minutes 30 seconds after diprenorphine administration.

du Toit, J.G., 2001. Veterinary Care of African Elephants. Novartis and south African Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria, Republic of Southhttp://bigfive.jl.co.za./elephant_book.htm Africa.
Abstract: This manual is a project of the South African Veterinary Foundation and Novartis South Africa (Pty) Ltd. It is distributed by Wildlife Decision Support
PO BOX 74610, Lynnwood Ridge, Pretoria, RSA, 0040; Tel: +27 12991-3083; Fax: +27 12991-3851 Online:http://bigfive.jl.co.za./elephant_book.htm

Horne, W.A., Tchamba, M.N., Loomis, M.R., 2001. A simple method of providing intermittent positive-pressure ventilation to etorphine-immobilized elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 32, 519-522.
Abstract: Five African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were immobilized with etorphine in Waza National Park, Cameroon, for the purpose of deploying radio/satellite tracking collars.  A portable ventilator constructed from two high-flow demand valves and the Y-piece of a large animal anesthesia circuit was used to provide intermittent positive-pressure ventilation with 100% oxygen.  Oxygenation status improved dramatically in all five elephants.  In one hypoxemic elephant, arterial PaO2 increased from 40 to 366 mm Hg.  The results of this study demonstrate that both oxygenation and ventilation can be readily controlled etorphine-immobilized elephants even under remote field conditions.

Rietschel, W., Hildebrandt, T., Goritz, F., Ratanakorn, P. Sedation of Thai Working Elephants with Xylazine and Atipamezole as a Reversal. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  121-123. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Sarma, K.K., Pathak, S.C., 2001. Cardio vascular response to xylazine and Hellabrunn mixture with Yohimbine as reversal agent in Asian elephants. Indian Veterinary Journal 78, 400-492.
Abstract: Xylazine (0.1 mg/kg body weight) produced highly significant bradycardia and hypotension in recumbent Asian elephants, with a peak depression observed at the 30th minute for heart rate and 30th minute in the mean arterial pressure (MAP). Ketamine (1.25 : 1 ratio with xylazine) mildly marginalised the bradycardia, but remarkably improved the MAP. Yohimbine, used to reverse the sedation produced by xylazine did not appear to influence these parameters to any appreciable levels.

Sarma, K.K., 2001. Musth in Asian Elephant. Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi, India.

Sarma, K.K., 2001. Medetomidine as an immobilizing agent in free ranging Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Intas Polivet 2, 209-211.

Heard, D.J. Captive elephant anesthesia.  Proc.North Am.Vet. Conf.  1043-1044. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Horne, W.A., Tchamba, M.N., Loomis, M.R. A simple method of providing intermittent positive-pressure ventilation to etorphine-immobilized elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field. Proceedings AAZV and IAAAM Joint Conference.  27-30. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Osofsky, S.A., Hirsch, K.J., 2000. Chemical restraint of endangered mammals for conservation purposes: a practical primer. Oryx 34, 27-33.

Ramsay, E. Standing sedation and tranquilization in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet.  111-114. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E., 1999. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.

Fowler, M.E., Steffey, E.P., Galuppo, L., Pascoe, J.R. Standing immobilization and anesthesia in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet.  107-110. 1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Gage, L.J., Blasko, D.R., Galuppo, L.D. Diagnostics and treatment of severe swelling of the pharyngeal tissues of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  105-108. 1999. 10-9-1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Hoare, R., 1999. Reducing Drug Inductions Time in the Field Immobilization of Elephants. Pachyderm 27, 49-54.
Abstract: Individual elephants have been routinely immobilized by remote injection (darting) methods for research, translocation or the treatment of injuries. Any operation to immobilize an elephant is both expensive and a considerable logistical exercise in which much can go wrong.  Logistical problems, veterinary complications, danger to people and wastage of money can be largely avoided by limiting the animal's post-darting travel.  Although operator technique plays a large part, safe recumbency can be greatly facilitated through the rapid knock-down effect of high doses of the immobilizing drug propelled in a type of dart which overcomes two common problems: poor placement and malfunction of the internal detonation mechanism.

Mohan, A.B., Lakshmi, B.B., 1999. The successful capture and training of two strayed wild elephants "Jay - Vijay" in Sri Venkateswara Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh. Zoos' Print Journal 14, 1-6.

Nielsen, L., 1999. Chemical Immobilization of Wild and Exotic Animals. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.

Raath, J.P., 1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 525-533.

Sarma, K.K., 1999. Bizarre behaviour of an elephant during xylazine anaesthesia. Indian Veterinary Journal 76, 1018-1019.

Stegmann, G.F., 1999. Etorphine-halothane anaesthesia in two five-year-old African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 70, 164-166.
Abstract: Anaesthesia of 2 five-year-old female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) was required for dental surgery. The animals were each premedicated with 120 mg of azaperone 60 min before transportation to the hospital. Before offloading, 1 mg etorphine was administered intramuscularly (i.m.) to each elephant to facilitate walking them to the equine induction/recovery room. For induction, 2 mg etorphine was administered i.m. to each animal. Induction was complete within 6 min. Surgical anaesthesia was induced with halothane-in-oxygen after intubation of the trunk. During surgery the mean heart rate was 61 and 45 beats/min respectively. Systolic blood pressures increased to 27.5 and 25.6 kPa respectively, and were treated with intravenous azaperone. Blood pressure decreased thereafter to a mean systolic pressure of 18.1 and 19.8 kPa, respectively. Rectal temperature was 35.6 and 33.9 degrees C at the onset of surgery, and decreased to 35.3 and 33.5 degrees C, respectively, at the end of anaesthesia. Etorphine anaesthesia was reversed with 5 mg diprenorphine at the completion of 90 min of surgery.

Elkan, P.W., Planton, H.P., Powell, J.A., Haigh, J.A., Karesh, W.B., 1998. Chemical immobilization of African elephant in lowland forest,southwestern Cameroon. Pachyderm 25, 32-37.

Hattingh, J., deVos, V., Ganhao, M.F., Pitts, N.I., 1998. Physiological responses of the buffalo Syncerus caffer culled with succinyldicholine and hexamethonium. Koedoe 31, 91.
Abstract: Changes in the blood composition of elephants and buffaloes herded by helicopter and killed with succinyldicholine (Scoline) indicate stress. Death is probably due to decreased PO2 levels. The collective percentage change of eight blood constituents used to measure physiological stress was reduced from 30% in buffaloes killed with succinyldicholine alone to 22% in those killed with succinyldicholine plus hexamethonium, as opposed to 17% with herding alone and 10% with succinyldicholine alone without herding.

Honeyman, V.L., Cooper, R.M., Black, S.R. A protected contact approach to anesthesia and medical management of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).  Proceedings AAZV and AAWV Joint Conference.  338-341. 1998.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Bosi, E.J., Kilbourn, A.M., Andau, M., Tambing, E. Translocation of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Sabah, Malaysia. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  302. 1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The East Malaysian State of Sabah is believed to be home to about 1000 wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).  Some forest habitat has been lost through agricultural development.  In some cases, elephants are stranded in small pockets of forest which are unable to sustain them.  The Wildlife Department of Sabah has adopted a policy of capturing and translocating these animals to wildlife forest reserves.  The capture of these wild animals is made possible using chemicals such as Immobilon (etorphine HCl and acepromazine maleate) and Xylazil-100 (xylazine HCl).  The reversal agents are Revivon (Diprenorphine) and Reverzine (Yohimbine), respectively.  A recent capture and translocation exercise carried out involving eight wild elephants employed xylazine hydrochloride.  The dose of xylazine used was calculated based on the diameter of the front footprint which provides information on body dimensions when actual weights are not available.  Xylazine doses used ranged from 100-550 mg with a mean of 0.209 mg/kg body weight.  Sedation was observed within 26 min after the darting.  The animals were then shackled and tethered.  The time for the capture operations ranged from 27-110 mins, with a mean of 72 min.  Xylazine is used again during the loading of the animals onto the lorries.  It is an effective sedative for wild elephants which can be adjusted or reversed.  The choice and used of this drug depends entire on the ability to track the animal after darting and the ability to maneuver the captive elephants into suitable locations for tethering prior to loading.  Heavy machinery is required to load the animals, unlike most other wild Asian elephant translocations were trained elephants are used to facilitate loading.

Karesh, W.B., Smith, K.H., Smith, F., Atalia, M., Morkel, P., Torres, A., House, C., Braselton, W.E., Dierenfeld, E.S. Elephants, buffalo, kob, and rhinoceros:  immobilization, telemetry, and health evaluations.  Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  296-230. 1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Osofsky, S.A., 1997. A practical anesthesia monitoring protocol for free-ranging adult African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 33, 72-77.
Abstract: Twenty free-ranging adult African elephants in northern Botswana were immobilized with a mean (± SD) of 9.5 ± 0.5 mg etorphine hydrochloride and 2000 IU hyaluronidase by i.m. dart. The mean time to recumbency was 8.7 ± 2.4 min. All animals were maintained in lateral recumbency. The anaesthesia monitoring protocol included cardiothoracic auscultation; palpation of auricular pulse for quality and regularity; checking of rectal temperature, and monitoring of respiratory and heart rates. Results of basic physiological measurements were similar to those of previous field studies of African elephants immobilized with etorphine or etorphine-hyaluronidase. In addition, continuous real-time pulse rate and percent oxygen saturation of haemoglobin (SpO₂) readings were obtained on 16 elephants with a portable pulse oxygen meter. Duration of pulse oximetry monitoring ranged from 3 to 24 min (mean ±SD = 8.2 ± 4.8 min). Differences between minimum and maximum SpO₂ values for any given elephant ranged from 1 to 6 percentage points, evidence for relatively stable trends. The SpO₂ readings ranged from 70% to 96% among the 16 elephants, with a mean of 87.3 ± 2.8%. 15 of 16 elephants monitored with a pulse oximeter had mean SpO₂ values = 81 ± 2.4%, with 11 having mean SpO₂ values = 85 ± 1.5%. All 20 animals recovered uneventfully following reversal: diprenorphine at 23.3 ± 1.5 mg (IV) with 11.7 ± 0.5 mg IM, or 24 mg diprenorphine given all IV.

Sarma, K.K., Pathak, S.C., 1997. A review of the anaesthetic management of elephants. Journal of Assam Vet. Council, 7-8,  16-17.

Sharma S.P., 1997. Surgical treatment of gunshot wounds under xylazine and ketamine anaesthesia in an elephant: clinical case report. Indian Veterinary Journal 74, 973-974.

Bengis, R.G. Chemical capture of the free ranging African elephant. Proc.North. Am.Vet.Conf.  892-894. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Bush, M., Raath, J.P., de Vos, V., Stoskopf, M., 1996. Serum oxytetracycline levels in free-ranging male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) injected with a long-acting formulation. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 27, 382-385.
Abstract: Thirteen adult free-living male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were anesthetized and given 20-100 g of a long-acting tetracycline (OTC) preparation either i.m. or i.v.  Five dosages were established based on body measurements (the sum of the body length and the girth in centimeters)  Serum concentrations of OTC were measured 48 hr after injection.  Serum concentrations >/= 0.5 mg/ml were measured in 11 of 12 elephants receiving OTC dosages of 52-133 mg/cm either i.v. or i.m.  The i.m. administration route produced serum concentrations from 0.75-1.6 mg/ml in four of four elephants.  A dosage of 60-80 mg/cm i.m. or i.v. should provide a therapeutic serum concentration of OTC for at least 48 hr.  The use of an i.v. catheter avoids multiple i.m. injections of large drug volumes.

Coetsee, C., 1996. Elephant Translocations. Pachyderm 22, 81.
Abstract: Notes: Following immobilization for translocation of 670 elephants in family units in 1993, haloperidol (40 to 120 mg depending on body size) was used as a tranquilizer during transport. In addition, azaperone, (50-200 mg) was often administered to avoid aggression. Trilafon (perphenazine (100-300 mg) was administered to keep animals calm after their release into bomas.

Manna, S., 1996. Chemical immobilization and treatment of a wild elephant. Indian Veterinary Journal 73, 1260-1261.

Njumbi, S.T., Waithaka, J., Gachago, S., Sakwa, J., Mwathe, K., Mungai, P., Mulama, M., Mutinda, H., Omondi, P., Litoroh, M., 1996. Translocation of elephants: the Kenyan experience. Pachyderm 22, 61-65.

Sarma, K.K., Kalita, D., Dutta, B., Barua, S.K., 1996. Determination of mean arterial pressure (MAP) in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Indian Veterinary Journal 73, 777-778.

Schaftenaar, W. Vaginal vestibulotomy in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  434-439. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Due to its dimensions, dystocia in elephants presents a difficult problem.  This paper describes the delivery of a dead calf by surgical intervention.  A vestibulotomy was performed under local anesthesia.  Complications in wound healing resulted in a permanent fistula of the vestibulum.  The difficulties in decision making and the interpretation of clinical signs are discussed.

Schmitt, D., Bradford, J., Hardy, D.A. Azaperone for standing sedation in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).  Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  48-51. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Azaperone was used for standing sedation in four Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in 93 trials at Dickerson Park Zoo (DPZ).  Procedures including surgical artificial insemination, semen collection, and routine foot trimming were completed while utilizing azaperone as a sedative.  All procedures were performed within an elephant restraint device.  Azaperone has proven to be a safe and reliable drug for facilitation of routine health and reproductive-related procedures in captive Asian elephants when administered at 0.30 mg/kg.  the procurement of azaperone in the United States has been difficult due to changing manufacturing and distribution procedures.  The utilization of an Investigational New Animal Drug permit from the Food and Drug Administration is described, to facilitate procurement of azaperone from Canada for use in the United States.

Schmitt, D.L., Bradford, J.P., Hardy, D.A. Foot care in Asian elephants using rotating elephant restraint device. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  52-53. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Foot care for elephants is an area that many veterinarians often become involved with only when individuals are not responsive to normal foot care provided by keepers or when intractable elephants require veterinary attention for sedation to enable access to the animal for treatment.  The use of a rotating elephant restraint is described and the methods for foot treatment that are useful in the normal care of elephants with or without the use of a rotating elephant restraint.

Singh, L.A.K., Nayak, B.N., Acharjya, S.K., 1996. Chemical capture of a problem-elephant in Bolangir, Orissa. Indian Forester, Special issue: wildlife management. 122, 955-960.
Abstract: A detailed account is given of the method used to capture an elephant which had been regularly (over 18 yr) entering villages in the Bolangir and Padampur areas of NW Orissa, and causing damage to buildings, eating stored grains and injuring humans. Some 45 people took part in the capture operation which involved the use of darts containing Immobilon (etorphine hydrochloride and acepromazine maleate) to the animal, and of (diprenorphine hydrochloride) for revival. The human antidote for (Nar can) was kept on hand. The communication system, the operational strategies used, and then care and revival processes adopted for the animal are described. It is thought that the animal (with a female) had originally been in the care of a mahout who was taken into custody for some crime so that the animals were abandoned. The female appeared to have been accepted back into the wild, while the male continued to follow the routes used by the mahout. The purpose of capture was to control or translocate the animal.

Still, J., Raath, J.P., Matzner, L., 1996. Respiratory and circulatory parameters of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) anaesthetised with etorphine and azaperone. J S Afr Vet Assoc 67, 123-127.
Abstract: Department of Companion Animal Medicine and Surgery, Medical University of Southern Africa, Medunsa, South Africa.
Respiratory rate, heart rate, blood-gas tensions (PO2 and PCO2) and pH of arterial (a) and peripheral venous (v) blood, concentration of haemoglobin in arterial blood (Hb), saturation of arterial haemoglobin with oxygen and the end-expiratory concentration of oxygen were measured in 22 juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta africana) anaesthetised with etorphine and azaperone during a period of 35-65 minutes after they had assumed lateral recumbency. Based on these parameters the alveolar-arterial and arterial-peripheral venous differences of PO2 [P(A-a)O2 and P(a-v)O2 respectively] and oxygen content of arterial blood (CaO2) were calculated. Elephants with body mass of < or = 600 kg showed statistically significant changes in the following parameters, compared with elephants with a body mass of more than 600 kg (x +/- SD): PaO2 (64 +/- 11 versus 82 +/- 8 mmHg), P(a-v)O2 (9 +/- 5 versus 22 +/- 9 mmHg), P(A-a)O2(37 +/- 16 versus 15 +/- 8 mmHg) and Hb (148 +/- 20 versus 130 +/- 10 g/l) (p < 0.05). These findings suggested a tendency towards impaired oxygen exchange in the lungs, reduced peripheral extraction of oxygen and elevated oxygen-carrying capacity of arterial blood in smaller elephants. These changes were theoretically attributed to the respiratory-depressant and sympathomimetic effects of higher dosages of etorphine used in the smaller elephants to maintain a clinically acceptable anaesthetic plane. Individual elephants spent 35-150 minutes under anaesthesia and all recovered uneventfully after reversal of etorphine with diprenorphine.

Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 1995. Principles and Practice of Fixing Dose of Drugs for Elephants. In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 430-438.
Abstract: The traditional thumb rule of determining dose in domestic animals has been Cat - 1/2, Dog - 1, Sheep and Goat - 3, Horse - 16, Cattle - 24. However this was valid only for galenicals like Tinctures and Pulvis and also to some extent for pure chemicals used as drugs like potassium iodide, ammonium chloride etc. Development of modern techniques like determination of half life and minimum effective concentration changed the course and pattern of determining the dose of drugs in animals as well as in man. Some drugs which are of low therapeutic margin is, even recommended considering the surface area of the body (e.g. antineoplastic drugs). Wild animals provide not enough number, for experimental purposes to arrive at a proper recommendation. In such circumstances pharmacologists often extrapolate the dose from their "evolutionary cousins" some of which are domestic animals. But unfortunately in elephants such "close cousins" do not exist neither in the wild nor in the domestic category. This makes fixing of dosage all the more difficult. Hence often the dose has been arbitrarily fixed from clinical experiences. The article details the above principles as well as lists of dose of various pharmacological and chemotherapeutic agents used in clinical practice in elephants (Table 1).

Ebedes, H. The use of long term neuroleptics in the confinement and transport of wild animals. Joint Conf AAZV/WDA/AAWV.  173-176. 1995. 1995.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Fowler, M.E., 1995. Elephants. Restraint and handling of wild and domestic animals. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 265-269.

Fowler, M.E., 1995. Restraint and handling of wild and domestic animals. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA.

Kramer, B., Hattingh, J., 1995. The neuromuscular junction in the African elephant Loxodonta africana and African buffalo Syncerus caffer. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 25, p14, 3p, 2bw.
Abstract: Differences in the physiological response to the drug succinyldicholine occur between the African elephant Loxodonta africana and African buffalo Syncerus caffer, irrespective of the route of administration of the drug. The response in elephants has suggested the presence of unique acetylcholine receptors in their respiratory muscles. In this paper the first observations of the neuromuscular junction in the African elephant and African buffalo are reported. While the basic structure of the junction was found to be typically mammalian in both species, differences were found in the morphology of the postjunctional area where these receptors reside. Elucidation of the structure and function of this junction in these animals is important in the selection of drugs that act as neuromuscular blockers.

Osofsky, S.A. Pulse oximetry monitoring of free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana) immobilized with an etorphine/hyaluronidase combination antagonized with diprenorphine. Joint Conference AAZV/WDA/AAWV.  237-277. 1995.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Schumacher, J., Heard, D.J., Caligiuri, R., Norton, T., Jacobson, E.R., 1995. Comparative effects of etorphine and carfentanil on cardiopulmonary parameters in juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta africana).  Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 26, 503-507.
Abstract: Fourteen African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were immobilized with either etorphine hydrochloride (3.2 ± 0.5 µg/kg i.m.) or carfentanil citrate (2.4 µg/kg i.m.). Induction time with etorphine was significantly longer (30 ± 21 min) than with carfentanil (8 ± 2 min).  Immediately following immobilization all elephants were placed in lateral recumbency and respiratory rate, heart rate, and rectal body temperature were monitored every 5 min throughout the immobilization period.  Arterial blood samples, collected from an auricular artery, were taken 10 min after immobilization and every 15 min thereafter for up to 1 hr.  At the first sampling, mean values for arterial blood gas variables for etorphine immobilized elephants were pHa, 7.29 ± 0.03; PaCO₂, 53.4 ± 5.2 mmHg; PaO₂, 71.8 ± 13.8 mmHg; standard base excess (SBE), -1.6 ± 2.9 mEq/L; and HCO3, 25.7 ± 2.7 mEq/L. After 1 hr of immobilization, mean arterial blood gas values were pHa, 7.32 ± 0.06; PaCO₂ , 57.2 ± 9.6 mm Hg; and PaO₂ , 53.8 ± 10.5 mm Hg; SBE, 2.7 ± 1.4 mEq/L; and HCO_3-, 30.6 ± 1.6 mEq/L. For carfentanil immobilized elephants, blood gas values at the first time of collection were pHa, 7.28 ± 0.04; PaCO₂, 52.1 ± 2.8 mmHg; PaO₂, 78.3 ± 14.7 mmHg; SBE, -2.3 ± 24 mEq/L; and HCO_3-, 24.3 ± 2.1 mEq/L.  Sixty minutes after the first sampling, blood gas values of one elephant were pHa, 7.38; PaCO₂, 48.7 mmHg; PaO₂, 52 mmHg; SBE, 3.4 mEq/L, and HCO_3-, 28.8 mEq/L.  Over time there was a progressive decline in arterial PO2 in all elephants.  It is concluded that elephants immobilized with either etorphine HCl or carfentanil developed hypoxemia (PaO₂ < 60 mmHg) after 30 min of immobilization.  It is recommended that the administration of one of these opioid drugs be accompanied by supplemental oxygen, or followed by an inhalant anesthetic in 100% oxygen for prolonged procedures.  Diprenorphine or nalmefene reversal was rapid and uneventful in both the etorphine and carfentanil group.  No cases of renarcotization were noted. Additional excerpt: All elephants in the etorphine group (n=8) received diprenorphine at a mean dosage of 8.3 ± 1.1 µg/kg IV. Two elephants in the carfentanil group (n=6) were administered diprenorphine at a dosage of 8.9 µg/kg IV and IM.  Three elephants in this group received nalmefene hydrochloride.  One of the three elephants was given nalmefene 166.7 µg/kg both IV and SC. Two of the three elephants were given nalmefene IV and IM. The dosage was 88.9 µg/kg IV and IM in one elephant and 53.3 µg/kg IV and IM in the other. One elephant in the carfentanil group was administered nalmefene (88.9 µg/kg IV) followed by diprenorphine (8.9 µg/kg IM).

deSilva, D.D.N., Kuruwita, V.Y. Sedation of wild elephants (Elephas maximus Ceylonicus) using Detomidine HCL ("Domosedan") in Sri Lanka. Fifth International Congress of Veterinary Anesthesia.  1994.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Full text: Eight wild elephants weighing 3818-4500 kg were sedated using detomidine HCl 1% (Farmos) after being captured using Large Animal Immobilon (C-Vet) and revived with Revivon (C-Vet) in the process of wild elephant capture and translocation program carried out in Sri Lanka.  The total volume of detomidine used on each animal ranged from 2.0 to 2.5 ml using a Cap-Chur pistol.  Exsheathment of the penis in males was evident within 5 to 10 minutes of administration of detomidine.  From 5 minutes post-administration, gradual flaccidity of the trunk was observed and complete "limping" of the trunk was seen in 12 to 15 minutes.  Dribbling of urine, slaiva, ptosis, gradual cessation of ear flapping were the other changes indicating sedation.  Seven out of 8 animals remained standing and were nonresponsive to low threshold physical or auditory stimuli, but moved steadily when traction was applied on the ropes tying the legs.  With this dosage of the drug, animals could be loaded onto a truck within 30-45 minutes of medication and were ready for transportation.  Antisedan (Farmos) had to be given to one animal which adopted lateral recumbency after detomidine.  After sedating and loading into trucks, the elephants were transported to a distance of 40 to 100 km (average transport time was 8 hours) during which there was no need for further "topping-up".  Animals started eating and moving the trunk about 6 hours after detomidine administration but never adopted a recumbent position while being transported.  It is concluded that wild elephants are very sensitive to detomidine and the dosage needed is much lower (approximately 5.5 µg/kg) than that needed for some other species of animals (equine and bovine).

Dunlop, C.I., Hodgson, D.S., Cambre, R.C., Kenny, D.E., Martin, H.D., 1994. Cardiopulmonary effects of three prolonged periods of isoflurane anesthesia in an adult elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205, 1439-1444.
Abstract: Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins 80523.
An adult 3500-kg female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was anaesthetized 3 times for treatment of subcutaneous fistulas over the lateral aspect of each cubitus (anaesthesia 1 and 2) and for repair of a fractured tusk (anaesthesia 3). Lateral recumbency and anaesthesia were achieved with etorphine (anaesthesia 1 and 2) or etorphine and azaperone (anaesthesia 3). The trachea was intubated and anaesthesia was maintained by isoflurane and oxygen delivered through 2 standard large animal anaesthesia machines joined in parallel. The range of total recumbency time was 2.4 to 3.3 h. Breathing and heart rates, systemic arterial pressure, rectal temperature, PaO2, pH and end-tidal gases were monitored. After administration of etorphine, measurements were made while the elephant was recumbent and breathing air, then every 5 min (cardiovascular) or 15 min (blood gases) after the start of administration of isoflurane and oxygen. Tachycardia and hypertension were detected after administration of etorphine, but heart rate and systemic arterial pressure decreased to within normal ranges after administration of isoflurane and oxygen. The elephant remained well oxygenated while anaesthetized and breathing a high oxygen mixture. The elephant had an uneventful recovery from each anaesthesia.

Gross, M.E., Clifford, C.A., Hardy, D.A., 1994. Excitement in an elephant after intravenous administration of atropine. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205, 1437-1438.
Abstract: A 28-year-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was anaesthetized for cesarean section to remove a dead calf. The elephant was sedated with azaperone, and atropine was administered i.v. 90 minutes later in preparation for induction of anaesthesia with etorphine HCl. Within a minute of the injection of atropine the elephant began swaying kicking and moving in an agitated manner around the stall. It was concluded that there is considerable variation among species in the toxicity of atropine, although development of toxicosis usually is associated with overdosage.

Hattingh, J., Knox, C.M., 1994. Arterial blood pressure in anesthetized African elephants. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 24.
Abstract: A number of elephants previously captured in the Krueger National Park developed a pink frothy discharge from the external nares. Some of these elephants subsequently died and histopathological examinations indicated severe lung oedema.  In view of the current hypothesis that high blood pressure could be a causative factor, arterial blood pressure was measured in elephants immobilized with etorphine alone (n=71) and with etorphine/azaperone (n=109) and with carfentanil/azaperone (n=26) mixtures. Arterial pressure was found to be significantly lower in the groups immobilized with azaperone mixtures than in the group immobilized with etorphine alone (p < 0.05).  In addition, no cases of lung oedema were observed in animals immobilized with etorphine/azaperone and carfentanil/azaperone mixtures.  It is strongly recommended, therefore, that azaperone be added to immobilization mixtures when elephants are subjected to herding prior to darting. Additional excerpt: all elephants in this study were juveniles 200 to 1300 kg.  Group 1 (n=71) was immobilized with 4-8 mg etorphine; group 2 (n=109) was immobilized with 4-8 mg etorphine and 50-90 mg azaperone; and group 3 (n=26) was immobilized with 4-8 mg carfentanil and 50-90 mg azaperone.

Hattingh, J., Knox, C.M., Raath, J.P., 1994. Arterial blood pressure of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) under etorphine anaesthesia and after remobilisation with diprenorphine. Veterinary Record 135, 458-459.
Abstract: Six adult, male elephants (bodyweight approximately 5000 kg) were immobilized, with 8 mg etorphine (M99) for semen collection by electroejaculation. Before electrostimulation (about 10 minutes after the elephants initially became recumbent) their mean arterial pressure was 186 ± 25 mm Hg. During the electrostimulation procedure to which each elephant was subjected intermittently over a period of about 20 minutes using a rectal probe, the mean was 263 ± 30 mm Hg. After 10 to 15 minutes stabilization, 26 mg diprenorphine (M50/50) was administered i.v. The elephants adopted a rocking motion in an attempt to stand up. This motion was accompanied by wide fluctuations in arterial pressure which peaked at 245 ± 19 mm Hg immediately before they rose. Arterial pressure subsequently decreased to a mean of 200 ± 28 mgHg once they were standing. Since these values were higher than that previously observed in standing, conscious elephants (145 ± 3 mmHg) it appears the standing, remobilized elephants in this study were hypertensive. Possible reasons for this are discussed. It is suggested that in view of the observed and possible detrimental increase in arterial pressure during electrostimulation simultaneous blood pressure monitoring should be carried out when this procedure is employed.

Sarma, K.K. Evaluation of Xylazine-Ketamine as general anesthetic in Asian elephant (Elephas Maximus).  1-2. 1994.  College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati-781022).
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation

Bechert, U., 1993. Anesthesia. Animal Keepers' Forum 20, 351-353.

Bengis, R., 1993. Care of the African elephant Loxodonta africana in captivity. The capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision Support Services : South African Veterinary  Foundation, Pretoria, pp. 506-511.

du Toit, J.G., Bengis, R., 1993. Accomodation of the African elephant. The capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals pp. 498-505.

Ebedes, H., 1993. The use of long-acting tranquilizers in captive wild animals. The capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision Support Services : South African Veterinary  Foundation, Pretoria.

Fowler, M.E., 1993. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.

Johnsingh, A.J.T., Joshua, J., Ravi, C., Ashraf, N.V.K., Krishnamurthy, V., Khati, D.V.S., Chellam, R., 1993. Etorphine and acepromazine combination for immobilising wild Indian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 90, 45-49.

Kock, M.D., Martin, R.B., Kock, N., 1993. Chemical immobilization of free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Zimbabwe, using etorphine (M99) mixed with hyaluronidase, and evaluation of biological data collected soon after immobilization. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24, 1-10.
Abstract: Sixteen adult female free-ranging elephants were immobilized in July 1990, using a mean (±SE) dose per animal of 11.6 ± 0.3 mg of etorphine (M99) mixed with a standard dose of hyaluronidase (4500 IU), at the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe, to attach telemetry and infrasound detection collars. The 16 elephants were reimmobilized in December 1990, using higher doses of etorphine (standardized at 15 mg total dose) with hyaluronidase (4500 IU), to remove the collars. The higher doses of etorphine produced more rapid inductions. Biological data were collected on both occasions. Significant differences in selected measures indicative of stress, including lactic dehydrogenase and aspartate transaminase, were seen between immobilizations. Comparisons were made of selected health measures between samples collected in the early winter and late winter/early spring season. Significant differences were seen with total protein, albumin, urea nitrogen, creatinine, calcium, magnesium, inorganic phosphorus, chloride, and alanine transaminase.

Kock, R.A., Morkel, P., Kock, M.D., 1993. Current immobilization procedures used in elephants. In: Fowler, M.E. (Ed.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 436-441.

Kollias, G.V. The use of heavy moving equipment to facilitate immobilization and loading procedures for elephants. Proc.Amer.Assoc.ZooVet.  112. 1993.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Lloyd, M., Goddard, M., Zeinowicz, R., Harper, J.S., III, 1993. One approach to the removal of an aural rhabdomyoma in a 7 year old african elephant. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 115-119.

McKenzie, A.A., 1993. The Capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision Support Services : South African Veterinary  Foundation, Pretoria.

Petrini, K., Keyler, D.E., Ling, L., Borys, D. Immobilizing agents - developing an urgent response protocol for humans. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  133-140. 1993.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Raath, J.P., 1993. Chemical capture of the African elephant. The capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision Support Services : South African Veterinary  Foundation, Pretoria, pp. 484-511.

Still, J., 1993. Etorphine-azaperone anaesthesia in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Veterinary Anaesthesia 20, 54-55.

Swan, G.E., 1993. Drugs used for the immobilization, capture, and translocation of wildlife. The Capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision Support Services : South African Veterinary  Foundation, Pretoria.

Aik, S.S., 1992. Preliminary observations on the training of Burmese elephants using xylazine. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 40, 81-84.
Abstract: A traditional elephant training method was chosen to be modified by the use of xylazine as a sedative and muscle relaxant. Three elephant calves with different degrees of tameness were trained using xylazine. The drug was helpful in the training process. Xylazine made restraint of the elephants much easier and safer. During training, repeated doses of xylazine were used to prevent beatings, the wounds worsening and to pacify the elephants. The tamest elephant calf was punished less and took less time to be trained than the others. It is concluded that it is important to play with elephant calves to win their acceptance of man.

Appayya, M.K., Khadri, S.S.M.S., 1992. Chemical capture of wild elephants and their translocation carried out in Karnataka state. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 107-112.

Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 1992. Transportation of elephants by rail. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 120-122.

Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 1992. Tranquilization and translocation of elephants. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 176.
Abstract: Full text:  A total of 140 captive rogue tuskers were successfully tranquilized and translocated during the period for April 1979 to December 1988.  Most of the animals were those used in festivals or in lumbering operations.  The requests handled by the tranquilization team were of urgent nature and no kunkies were available to assist the operation.  Hence the animals were tranquilized retaining certain amount of ambulatory property and not allowing the animals to assume recumbency.  After ascertaining complete sedation which took nearly 45 minutes after darting the limbs were noosed were polypropylene ropes and pulled by volunteers numbering from 15 to 20 on each rope on the forelimb.  The animals were also given oral and percussion commands and coaxed to move.  Animals could be moved on an average of 100 meters to be tied in a safe tethering area.  The chemical used at first was nicotine and was subsequently replaced by xylazine alone or its combinations for better margin of safety.  The combination of xylazine with acepromazine and ketamine was discarded due to photosensitization of elephants and subsequent skin lesions on the back of the elephants. The dose of xylazine varied from 100 to 120 mg/ton body weight.  The data show that 85% of the cases were attended while the bulls were in premusth or post-musth period indicating lack of sufficient precaution taken by the mahouts.

Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 1992. A case of ochlophobia in a tusker. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 176.
Abstract: Full text: An adult captive tusker to be used for ceremonial purpose could not tolerate crowd (ochlophobia - fear of the crowd). The animal was put on 2000 mg of chlorpromazine twice daily orally and behaved normally during the entire festival season of 6 months.  The animal again showed symptoms of fear of the crowd when the owner withdrew the drug.  So the animal was put on 100 mg haloperidol twice daily orally.  Thid relieved the symptoms very well but without sedation compared to chlorpromazine hydrochloride.

Kock, M.D., 1992. Use of hyaluronidase and increased etorphine (M99) doses to improve induction times and reduce capture-related stress in the chemical immobilization of the free-ranging black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in Zimbabwe. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 23, 181-188.

Lahiri-Choudhury, D.K., 1992. Translocation of wild elephants. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 91-106.

Nayar, K.N.M., Radhakrishnan, K., Chandrasekharan, K., Cheeran, J.V., Ravindran, S., George, P.O., 1992. Anaesthesia for surgical manipulations in the elephant. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 156-158.
Abstract: Anaesthesia using chloral hydrate, thiopentone sodium, xylazine and ketamine was induced in ten elephants. The effects, duration of induction and anaesthesia were recorded. Post anaesthesia complications were not encountered in any of the animals. Surgical manipulations could be carried out under anaesthesia induced with these drugs.

Rao, K.T., Rama, Y., 1992. Capture of a wild elephant calf. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 118-119.

Ashraf, N.V.K., Johnsingh, A.J.T., Panwar, H.S., Sale, J.B., Joshua, J., Ravi, C., Krishnamurth, V. Chemical immobilization of wild Asian elephants: pharmacological, biological and ecological considerations. International Seminar on Veterinary Medicine in Wild and Captive Animals, Nov. 8-10, Bangalore, India.  21. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: An analysis of pharmacological, biological and ecological parameters while immobilizing wild Asian elephants with Etorphine hydrochloride was done to establish their interrelationships and considerations during immobilizations. A significantly lower dose of Etorphine/1000 kg body weight (BW) has been used in India than in other Asian countries (P<091) There was no significant association between dosage and induction time (IT) in cases where immobilization was complete. While total dose of Etorphine used increased with increasing BW (r=0.618, P<0.0001), the dosage unit BW increased (r=0.705, P<0.001). Adding Acepromazine did not affect either the amount of Etorphine used or the IT. Sternal recumbency was reported in 4 out of 37 cases. Out of 26 cases, where search time (ST) and IT were differentiated, visual contact with the darted animal was lost on 13 occasions out of 46 dartings, mortality was 13% but none due to high dosage
Pharmacological considerations include choosing an appropriate dose, taking into account the biology of elephant and the drug's undesirable effects. Inability to access the health of the animal and predict its psot-darting reaction is an important consideration and constraint. As dosage and IT did not have any significant association with ST, the timely location of an immobilized animal depends on a combination of many ecological factors and operational difficulties. As most of these considerations are interrelated and difficult to put into practice, immobilization in the wild involves some amount of risk.

Atapattu, N. Antagonism of xylazine induced sedation and immobilization in wild elephant (Elephas maximus maximus). International Seminar on Veterinary Medicine in Wild and Captive Animals, Nov. 8-10, Bangalore, India.  20. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Xylazine HCL has been the drug of choice for sedation of elephants. Sedated animals recover on its own after few hours.  But there had been number of deaths in immobilized elephants after Xylazine induced sedation. Yohimbine HCL was tried on 10 wild elephants to antagonize Xylazine induced sedation.  An initial dose of 50 mg of Yohimbine HCL was administered intravenously followed by a singular dose intramuscularly, similar doses were repeated in half an hour intervals.  All the elephants recovered from Xylazine induced sedation after the treatment of Yohimbine HCL.  The dose of Yohimbine HCL varied from 50 mg to 250 mg to complete recovery.  The recommended dose of 0.13mg/kg had no significance on the body weight.  The physical state of the animals, the dose of Xylazine HCL administered and other stress factors were more significant in deciding the dose of YohimbineHCL.  All these animals were monitored for a period of one month and found their behaviour is normal.

Blumer, E.S. A review of the use of selected neuroleptic drugs in the management of nondomestic hoofstock. Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet.  333-339. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Hall, L.W., Clarke, K.W., 1991. Anesthesia of the sheep, goat and other herbivores. Veterinary Anesthesia. Bailliere Tindall Ltd., London, pp. 260-274.

Hattingh, J., Pitts, N.I., De-Vos, N.I., Moyes, D.G., Ganhao, M.F., 1991. The response of animals to suxamethonium (succinyldicholine) and succinylmonocholine. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 62 , 126-129.
Abstract: The time which elapses before cessation of breathing, and blood pressure and blood gas changes after the i.m. administration of suxamethonium, or a mixture of suxamethonium and hexamethonium, was compared in immobilized African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and buffaloes (Synceros caffer). In addition, the respiratory responses of elephants and other animals to i.v. administration of suxamethonium and succinylmonocholine are reported, as are the effects of darting animals with succinylmonocholine. Respiration was affected in a similar fashion in all species investigated. However, the characteristic gradual decrease in respiratory rate seen in elephants during culling, using suxamethonium, resembles the effects observed when succinylmonocholine is administered. It is suggested that elephants are killed by this first breakdown product of suxamethonium during culling and/or that unique acetylcholine receptors may be involved.

Lance, W.R., 1991. New pharmaceutical tools for the 1990's. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 354-359.

Morton, D.J., Kock, M.D., 1991. Stability of hyaluronidase in solution with etorphine and xylazine. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 22, 345-347.
Abstract: During capture of free-living wildlife, stress is potentially the greatest problem encountered. For this reason, reduction in induction time during immobilization is of paramount importance. Hyaluronidase reduces induction times, although no reports have assessed stability of the enzyme in drug mixtures used for chemical capture. This report presents information on the stability of hyaluronidase in combination with etorphine and xylazine,one of the most common drug mixtures used in chemical immobilization of wildlife. Hyaluronidase activity remains high for at least 48 hr, provided storage temperatures can be maintained at less than or equal to 30º C. Storage at greater than or equal to 40ºC is associated with rapid loss of enzyme activity in the mixture.

Nanjappa, K.A., 1991. Anaesthesia and treatment of a wounded wild Makana elephant (Elephas maximus). Indian Veterinary Journal 68, 360.

Pathak, S.C. Xylazine-ketamine anesthesia in Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) - trial on 53 clinical cases. International Seminar on Veterinary Medicine in Wild and Captive Animals, Nov. 8-10, Bangalore, India.  21. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Veterinarians are often required to attend and undertake surgery on elephants.  Unless the animal is deeply sedated or anesthetized certain works become impractical.  Xylazine has proved to be a good sedative and analgesic in elephants.  This drug is not freely available in India and is costly.  The drug is usually used by intramuscular route but to reduce the dose it has been used intravenously.  Intravenous use may be risky for its bradycardia effect and fall in cardiac output.  Ketamine, on the other hand, has no depressant effect on the cardiovascular and respiratory system but produces muscular tremor and stiffness of the skeletal muscle.  Combination of Xylazine and Ketamine minimizes the undesirable aspects of both the drugs.  A mixture containing 100-150 mg xylazine and 50-100 mg ketamine injected intravascularly to the laterally recumbent elephant produced quick, safe and dependable analgesia, anesthesia, and muscular relaxation.  Surgical operations like tusk extraction, bullet extraction, umbilical and pleural herniorraphy, trunk injury, extensive wound repair, etc. were performed in 53 elephants.  Recovery followed without excitement and untoward effect based on the observations of this trial on clinical cases, combination of Xylazine and Ketamine is recommended in elephant.

Schmidt, M.J., Henneous, R.L., Haight, J.D., Rutkowski, C., Sanford, J., 1991. The elephant restraint chute owner's manual. Washington Park Zoo, Portland, Oregon.

Sedgwick, C.J. Allometrically scaling the data base for vital sign assessment used in general anesthesia of zoological species. Proceedings of American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  360-369. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The object of this parper is to demonstrate allometric scaling techniques useful for calculating a data base of physiological indices (vital signs) needed to monitor potential depression of a zoo animal during inhalation anesthesia.  Allometric scaling utilizes predictive mathematical formulas for linear regressions projected on log-log graphs. The formulas relate lean body size (kilograms) to a variety of discrete indices that include masses of various organs, physiological variables and biological cycles. Many times in zoological practice, allometrically scaled variables needed for vital sign assessment would be the only such data available, lacking a source of empirical observations. Determining critical levels of physiological depression due to general anesthesia is a demanding and important professional obligation that cannot be overlooked for lack of published empirical data. For illustration, the allometrically scaled data base for a 4,000 kg anesthetized elephant is presented in this paper, together with the basis of clinical judgment used to discontinue an elective surgical procedure and wake up the animal when its clinical vital signs did not correlate with minimum allometric signs.

Ghosh, S., 1990. Drug immobilization -- operation Lalbahadur. Indian For. 115, 842-846.

Hattingh, J., Pitts, N.I., Ganhao, M.F., Moyes, D.G., de Vos, V., 1990. Blood constituent responses of animals culled with succinyldicholine and hexamethonium. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 61, 117-118.
Abstract: Blood constituent responses of elephants and buffaloes culled in the Kruger National Park, using a mixture of succinyldicholine and hexamethonium, were compared to those of animals culled with succinyldicholine only. The results show a decreased physiological response in the animals culled with the mixture, characterized by lower total catecholamine, cortisol and glucose concentrations. Neither a delay of up to 30 min in obtaining blood samples from culled animals, nor a delay of up to 30 min in processing samples obtained immediately after cessation of respiration, gave any significant difference in the blood constituents which were measured.

Pathak, S.C., Saikia, J., Lahon, D.K., Deka, K.N., Barua, S.K., Dewan, J.N., Vety, A.H., 1990. Attempted ventral herniorrhaphy in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) using xylazine sedation. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 21, 234-235.
Abstract: Ventral herniorrhaphy in a female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) under xylazine hydrochloride sedation was attempted.  A dose of 0.16 mg/kg body weight was adequate to produce sedation, analgesia, and muscle relaxation for the procedure.  The postoperative management of the surgical wound was difficult and resulted in the failure of the surgery.

Simmons, L.G., Vires, C. Hydraulic squeeze for African bull elephants. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Zoo Vet.  60-65. 1990.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Caffee, H.H., 1989. Reconstruction of the distal trunk of an African elephant. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 83, 1049-1051.
Abstract: A 5-year-old African elephant was treated for an amputation injury of the distal trunk.  It was determined that replantation was impractical and, therefore, an operation was designed and performed with the intention of recreating the prehensile tip.

Gandini, G.C.M., Ebedes, H., Burroughs, R.E.J., 1989. The use of long-acting neuroleptics in impala (Aepyceros melampus). Tydskr. S. Afr. Vet. Ver. 60, 206-207.
Abstract: The long-acting neuroleptics perphenazine enanthate and pipothlazine palmitate were found to be effective for the long-term tranquillisation of newly-captured and captive Impala (Aepyceros melampus). Per phenazine enanthate (1.5 to 5.7mg kg=1) produced a favourable state of tranquillisation with a maximum effect lasting up to 7 d. Pipothlazine palmitate (4.5 mg kg=1) produced tranquillisation lasting 16 d. The animals accepted humans inside their pens at a distance of 0.5 to 4 m without showing any excitement. No untoward side effects were observed.

Turczynski, C.J., Jensen, J., Clarke, S., Kraemer, D.C. Immobilization, electroejaculation and semen characteristics of a male Asiatic elephant. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 10.  51-56. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Welsch, B., Jacobson, E.R., Kollias, G.V., Kramer, L., Gardner, H., Page, C.D., 1989. Tusk extraction in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 20, 446-453.
Abstract: Unilateral dentoalveolar abscesses and/or tusk fractures were identified and tusk extractions performed in seven 3.5-21-yr-old African elephants (Loxodonta africana) of both sexes weighing 650-3,000 kg.  Following immobilization with etorphine hydrochloride or carfentanil citrate, six of seven elephants were intubated and maintained on a 1-1.5% halothane in oxygen mixture; one elephant was maintained in lateral recumbency by multiple i.v. injections of etorphine.  All elephants were positioned with the affected tusk up.  For one elephant, two surgical procedures were required to remove the tusk.  In six of seven elephants, the tusks were sectioned transversely and the tusk wall thinned by enlarging the pulp cavity with carbide burs.  In those tusks with remaining pulp, the pulp was removed with stainless steel rods and hooks.  Next, the tusk was sectioned longitudinally into three or four segments using a wood saw within the pulp chamber.  bone gouges, osteotomes, and a mallet were used to free the outer epithelial and alveolar attachments from the tusk.  Starting with the smallest segment, the sections were removed using long screwdriver-shaped stainless steel rods.  The alveolar chamber was then periodically flushed postsurgically with a dilute organic iodine solution.  For six of seven elephants, complete granulation of the alveolar chamber was evident by 4 mo postsurgery; the seventh elephant showed partial healing with granulation tissue at 2 mo following surgery.

Dunlop, C.I., Hodgson, D.S., Cambre, R.C., Kenney, D. Prolonged isoflurane anesthesia of an adult elephant on two occasions. Veterinary Surgery 17[3], 167-168. 1988.
Ref Type: Abstract

Heard, D.J., Kollias, G.V., Webb, A.I., Jacobson, E.R., Brock, K.A., 1988. Use of halothane to maintain anesthesia induced with etorphine in juvenile African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 193, 254-256.
Abstract: Excerpts: Sixteen 3- to 5-year-old African elephants were anesthetized one or more times for a total of 27 diagnostic and surgical procedures.  Xylazine (0.1 ± 0.04 mg/kg of body weight, mean ± SD) and ketamine (0.6 ± 0.13 mg/kg) administered IM induced good chemical restraint in standing juvenile elephants during a 45-minute transport period before administration of general anesthesia.  After IM or IV administration of etorphine (1.9 ± 0.56 micrograms/kg), the mean time to lateral recumbency was 20 ± 6.6 and 3 ± 0.0 minutes, respectively.  The mean heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and respiration rate during all procedures was 50 ± 12 beats/min, 106 ± 19 mm of Hg, and 10 ± 3 breaths/min, respectively. Cardiac arrhythmias were detected during 2 procedures.  In one elephant paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia was detected and the procedure terminated when the arrhythmia failed to stabilize after multiple doses of lidocaine (1 mg/kg, IV).  In another elephant, second degree atrioventricular block returned to normal sinus rhythm after IV administration of atropine (0.04 mg/kg). In one elephant, low mean blood pressure (54 mm of Hg) responded to reduction in halothane (vaporizer setting 1 to 0.75%) and slow infusion of dobutamine HCl ((250 mg/1,000 ml) given to effect. The systolic blood pressure increased to 90 mm of Hg and remained high with a continuous infusion of dobutamine (5 µg/kg/min). Immediately after induction in another elephant, profound respiratory depression (< 1 breath / minute) and palpably weak arterial pulse were identified.  Intravenous administration of diprenorphine at half the recommended reversal dose resulted in improvement of respiration and palpable arterial pulse, without the elephant developing signs of complete anesthetic reversal. Alterations in systolic blood pressure, ear flapping, and trunk muscle tone were useful for monitoring depth of anesthesia.  Results indicated that halothane in oxygen was effective for maintenance of surgical anesthesia in juvenile African elephants after induction with etorphine.  Note: A correction appeared in a later volume 193(6): p.721.

Jacobson, E.R. Chemical restraint and anesthesia of elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 9.  112-119. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Mihm, F.G., Machado, C., Snyder, R., 1988. Pulse oximetry and end-tidal CO₂ monitoring of an adult Asian elephant. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 19, 106-109.
Abstract: The adequacy of ventilation during etorphine anesthesia of a 20-yr-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was monitored with a pulse oximeter to measure arterial hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SaO₂) and a CO₂ analyzer to measure end-tidal CO₂ concentrations (PetCO₂).  Immediately after the first anesthetic induction, SaO₂ values of 45% were noted while the animal was breathing room air at a rate of 6/min.  The SaO₂ readings increased to 93% 15 min after administration of 5 liters/min of oxygen via the trunk.  Seven arterial blood gas samples obtained during two anesthetics, and once while unanesthetized, provided PaO₂ and PaCO₂ values which compared favorably with SaO₂ and PetCO₂.  In the anesthetized animal, PaO₂ ranged between 31 and 70 mmHg while SaO₂ values were 70-95%.  At the same time, measurements of PaCO₂ ranged from 42 to 57 mmHg while values of PetCO₂ ranged from 35 to 57 mmHg.  Pulse oximetry and end-tidal CO₂ monitoring are easy to apply and should increase the safety of anesthesia for these animals.

Nielsen, L., 1988. Translocation of Wild Animals. Wisconsin Humane Society Inc., Ames, IA.

Jacobson, E.R., Heard, D.J., Caligiuri, R., Kollias, G.V. Physiologic effects of etorphine and carfentanil in African elephants. Proc.1st.Intl.Conf.Zool.Avian Med.  525-527. 1987.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Full text: The effects of etorphine hydrochloride and carfentanil citrate on blood pressure, heart rate, respiration and body temperature were determined in a group of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana).  Fourteen African elephants, weighing 450 kg to 4000 kg, divided into 2 groups of 6 and 8 elephants each, received either etorphine hydrochloride (2.9 ± 0.7 µg/kg of body weight; mean ± SD) or carfentanil citrate (2.0 ± 0.2 µg/kg of body weight) respectively. The mean time for lateral recumbency in elephants which received etorphine was 31 ± 9.1 minutes while the mean time for lateral recumbency in elephants which received carfentanil was 10.3 ± 4.1 minutes.  Following immobilization, a 18 gauge catheter was inserted into an auricular artery, the catheter connected to a pressure transducer system and systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressures were monitored by use of a multichannel oscilloscope.  Systolic, diastolic, mean arterial pressures, heart rate, respiration, and temperature were recorded every 5 minutes over a 45 to 60 minute period.  Elephants were maintained in lateral recumbency over the period of monitoring by intravenous injections of either etorphine or carfentanil. 

Following immobilization with etorphine, mean physiological values for elephants were: systolic pressure, 229 ± 33 mm Hg; diastolic pressure, 141 ± 30 mm Hg; mean arterial pressure, 177 ± 30 mm Hg; heart rate 64 ± 10 beats/minute; respiratory rate 10 ± 4 breaths/minute; body temperature, 97 ± 2°F.  Mean physiological values at the final time period of monitoring prior to antagonism were: systolic pressure, 217 ± 40 mm Hg; diastolic pressure, 147 ± 36 mm Hg; mean arterial pressure, 176 ± 38mm Hg; heart rate 77 ± 13 beats/minute; respiratory rate 12 ± 1 breaths/minute; body temperature, 98 ± 2°F.  Immediately following the last recording, all 8 elephants received the experimental opioid antagonist, nalmefene hydrochloride, administered at 38 ± 11 µg/kg of body weight given both subcutaneously and intravenously.  The mean standing time following administration of nalmefene was 1.4 ± 0.7 minutes.

Immediately following immobilization with carfentanil, mean physiological values for elephants were: systolic pressure, 232 ± 28 mm Hg; diastolic pressure, 148 ± 14 mm Hg; mean arterial pressure, 183 ± 24 mm Hg; heart rate 57 ± 11 beats/minute; respiratory rate 11 ± 3 breaths/minute; body temperature, 99 ± 1°F.  Mean physiological values at the final time period of monitoring prior to antagonism were: systolic pressure, 224 ± 29 mm Hg; diastolic pressure, 146 ± 13 mm Hg; mean arterial pressure, 179 ± 18mm Hg; heart rate 65 ± 11 beats/minute; respiratory rate 12 ± 1 breaths/minute; body temperature, 99 ± 1°F. Immediately following the last recording, all 6 elephants received the opioid antagonist, nalmefene hydrochloride administered at 62 ± 17 µg/kg of body weight given both subcutaneously and intravenously.  The mean standing time following administration of nalmefene was 2.6 ± 1.6  minutes. The results of this study indicated that both etorphine and carfentanil resulted in high blood pressure over the duration of the period of monitoring.  Based upon these findings, both etorphine hydrochloride and carfentanil citrate are not recommended as the primary agent in performing major invasive surgical procedures in African elephants.

Allen, J.L., 1986. Use of tolazoline as an antagonist to xylazine-ketamine-induced immobilization in African elephants. American Journal of Veterinary Research 47, 781-783.
Abstract:  A group of 15 African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were immobilized with a combination of xylazine (0.2 mg/kg of body weight, IM) and ketamine (1 to 1.5 mg/kg of body weight, IM). Ten of the African elephants were allowed to remain recumbent for 30 minutes and the remaining 5 elephants, for 45 minutes before they were given tolazoline (0.5 mg/kg of body weight, IV). For the group of 15, the mean induction time (the time required from injection of the xylazine-ketamine combination until onset of recumbency) was 14.2 ± 4.35 minutes (mean ± SD), and standing time (the time required from the tolazoline injection until the elephant stood without stimulation or assistance) was 2.8 ± 0.68 minutes. All of the elephants were physically stimulated (by pushing, slapping, shouting) before they were given tolazoline, and none could be aroused. After tolazoline was given and the elephant was aroused, relapses to recumbency did not occur. Recovery was characterized by mild somnolence in an otherwise alert and responsive animal. Failure (no arousal) rates were 0% (95% confidence interval, 0 to 0.3085) for elephants given tolazoline after 30 minutes of recumbency and 100% for elephants that were not given tolazoline. There was no significant (P less than 0.05) difference in standing time 30 or 45 minutes after tolazoline injection.

Fowler, M.E., 1986. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.

Heard, D.J., Jacobson, E.R., Brock, K.A., 1986. Effects of oxygen supplementation on blood gas values in chemically restrained juvenile African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 189, 1071-1074.
Abstract: Arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions were determined in sedated immature African elephants and in elephants immobilized with etorphine hydrochloride or with an etorphine-ketamine combination.  For manipulative and surgical procedures, the Hudson demand value was used for oxygen supplementation during 6 procedures, and insufflation was used during 2 procedures.  The Hudson demand value was more effective than insufflation in sustaining adequate arterial oxygenation.

Jacobson, E.R., Chen, C.L., Gronwall, R., Tiller, A., 1986. Serum concentrations of etorphine in juvenile African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 189, 1079-1081.
Abstract: Eleven juvenile African elephants were given etorphine hydrochloride (2.19 + 0.11 micrograms/kg body weight, mean +SD) as a single IM injection; 3 elephants were given additional etorphine (0.42+0.09) IV.  After immobilization, each elephant was maintained in lateral recumbency by administration of a 0.5% halothane/oxygen mixture or by administration of multiple IV injections of etorphine.  At postinjection hours 0.25 and 0.5 and at 30-minute intervals thereafter, blood samples were collected via an auricular artery, and serum concentrations of etorphine were determined by use of radioimmunoassay.  The highest mean serum concentration of etorphine in 6 elephants given a single IM injection and subsequently maintained on halothane and oxygen was 1.62+0.97 ng/ml at postinjection hours 0.5; thereafter, the mean serum concentration decreased steadily.  In 4 elephants maintained in lateral recumbency with multiple IV administrations of etorphine, a correlation was not found between the time to develop initial signs of arousal and serum concentrations of etorphine before arousal.  After administration of the initial immobilizing dose of etorphine, the interval between successive IV administrations of etorphine decreased.

Lateur, N., Stolk, P. Repeated general anesthesia in a male Indian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  128-131. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Sale, J.B., Rishi, V., Singh, K.N., Verma, V.K., 1986. Drug immobilization of Indian elephant. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 83, 49-56.

Schmidt, M.J., 1986. Proboscidea (Elephants). In: Fowler, M.E. (Ed.), Zoo and wild animal medicine. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia,PA, USA, pp. 884-923.

de Vos, V. Immobilization of the African elephant. Proc.2nd.Int.Congr.Vet.Anesth.  142-143. 1985.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Jacobson, E.R., Allen, J., Martin, H., Kollias, G.V., 1985. Effects of yohimbine on combined xylazine-ketamine-induced sedation and immobilization in juvenile African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 187, 1195-1198.
Abstract: Twenty-two juvenile African elephants were given a combination of xylazine (mean +/- SD = 0.14 +/- 0.03 mg/kg of body weight) and ketamine (1.14 +/- 0.21 mg/kg) as a single IM injection; one elephant was immobilized twice, 77 days apart. After injection, 14 elephants were immobilized, 4 were sedated deeply, 2 were sedated moderately, and 2 were sedated minimally. Immobilized elephants had a mean immobilization time of 11.6 +/- 6.9 minutes. At the conclusion of a variety of clinical procedures, 12 of the 14 elephants immobilized with a single dose combination of xylazine and ketamine were given yohimbine (0.13 +/- 0.03 mg/kg) IV, and the remaining 2 elephants were allowed to recover spontaneously; the elephants given yohimbine had a mean standing time of 2.4 +/- 1.1 minutes. Of the 8 sedated elephants, 5 were given an additional dose of combined xylazine (0.08 +/- 0.03 mg/kg), and ketamine (0.61 +/- 0.19 mg/kg) IM, and 1 elephant was given ketamine (0.47 mg/kg) IV. After injection, 4 of the 8 elephants were recumbent laterally within 17 minutes and 2 remained standing, under deep sedation. Seven of the 8 elephants were given yohimbine (0.13 +/- 0.03 mg/kg) IV; all were ambulatory in 2 minutes. Results indicated that yohimbine may be useful in controlling duration of xylazine-ketamine sedation and immobilization in juvenile African elephants.

Hattingh, J., Wright, P.G., de Vos, V., McNairn, I.S., Ganhao, M.F., Silove, M., Wolverson, G., Cornelius, S.T., 1984. Blood composition in culled elephants and buffaloes. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 55, 157-164.
Abstract: Blood composition of succinyldicholine culled elephants and buffaloes was compared with that of undisturbed animals shot in the brain. The results show statistically significant differences in a number of variables including plasma ACTH and cortisol concentrations. The observed changes are attributed to stress induced by a combination of herding and darting with succinyldicholine and asphyxia. Extrapolation from blood oxygen tensions suggests that this stress may be perceived for an undetermined period which is probably longer in elephants than buffaloes.

Hattingh, J., 1984. Effects of etorphine and succinyldicholine on blood composition in elephant and buffalo. South African Journal of Zoology 19, 286-290.

Howard, J., Bush, M., de Vos, V., Wildt, D.E., 1984. Electroejaculation, semen characteristics and serum testosterone concentrations of free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 72, 187-195.
Abstract: A regimented electroejaculation protocol (120 electrical stimulations; 10-30 V) was used to collect semen and characterize ejaculate quality from 9 adult, free-ranging African elephants under anesthesia.  Eight of the 9 ejaculates contained high concentrations of progressively motile spermatozoa.  The overall mean ejaculate volume, sperm concentration/ml ejaculate, sperm motility, sperm status and ejaculate pH were 93.3 ml, 2408.6 x 10(6) spermatozoa/ml, 70%, 3.9 and 7.4, respectively.  A high percentage (mean 77.5%) of spermatozoa whin each ejaculate was morphologically normal.  Of the aberrant spermatozoa, 72% had a cytoplasmic defect.  When sperm viability was tested in vitro at 37 C, sperm motility rating declined by at least half of the initial assessment within 3.5 h of semem collection.  Generally, spermatozoa maintained motility in vitro for < 6 h.  Serum testosterone ranged from 1.4 to 8.2 ng/ml in 4 males evaluated in the morning (07:30 - 08:00 h).  In 4 of the 5 bulls assessed in the afternoon (15:00 - 18:00 h), testosterone levels were < 0.9 ng/ml.  The remaining bull, evaluated at 16:00 h, had exceptionally high testosterone concentrations (peak 25.6 ng/ml) and a preputial discharge potentially indicative of "musth." The present study demonstrates that high quality semen call be collected consistently from the African elephant and that striking differences exist in serum testosterone amongst free-ranging males which may be due, in part, to a diurnal rhythm.

Jacobson, E.R., Heard, D.J., Brock, K.A. Effects of oxygen supplementation on blood gas values in African elephants. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Zoo Vet.  60. 1984.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Kock, N., Kock, M., Arif, A., Wahid, M.N.S.A. Immobilization techniques and complications associated with a bull Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) during musth. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  68-74. 1984.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Baker, C.M.A., Manwell, C., 1983. Man and elephant.  The "dare theory" of domestication and the origin of breeds. Zeit. Tierzucht. Zuchtungscbiol. 100, 55-75.

Jacob, V., Cheeran, K., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K. Immobilization of elephant in musth using xylazine hydrochloride. 7th Annual Symposium of the Indian Society of Veterinary Surgeons.  62. 1983. Kerala, India.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Schmidt, M.J., 1983. Antagonism of xylazine sedation by yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine in an adult Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 14, 94-97.
Abstract: Heavy xylazine sedation was successfully antagonized by intravenous injection of yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) in an adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) prior to euthanasia.  A total xylazine dose of 1,200 mg intramuscularly plus 600 mg intravenously (approximately 0.33 mg/kg body weight) was given resulting in heavy sedation.  After 50 minutes of deep recumbent sedation, 425 mg yohimbine and 1,000 mg of 4-AP were administered intravenously.  Xylazine sedation was antagonized and the elephant was up and walking around within 5 minutes of antagonist administration.  The elephant remained standing for other 3 hours; at which point euthanasia was performed. Comment: Report concerns animal with arthritis and chronic foot problems.

Tamas, P.M., Geiser, D.R., 1983. Etorphine analgesia supplemented by halothane anesthesia in an adult African elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 183, 1312-1314.

Wallach, J.D., Boever, W.J., 1983. Perissodactyla (equids, tapirs, rhinos), Proboscidae (elephants), and Hippopotamidae (hippopotamus). In: Wallach, J.D., Boever, W.J. (Eds.), Diseases of exotic animals. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, pp. 761-829.

Altmann, D., Krebs, W., 1981. Combined Vetalar-Combelen anesthesia of elephant for surgical removal of foreign body from eye. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 261-265.

Fowler, M.E., 1981. Problems with immobilizing and anesthetizing elephants. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 87-91.

Hofmeyr, J.M., 1981. The use of Haloperidol as a long-acting neuroleptic in game capture operations. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association December.
Abstract: Haloperidol (R1625, Serenace) a potent, long-acting butyrophenone neuroleptic, was shown to be very effective in game capture operations for the neuroleptization of several species of African wild herbivores, especially the medium and small antelopes. With a rapid onset of action following intravenous injection and a duration of action of 10-12 h in the majority of cases, haloperidol produced profound psychomotor effects and remarkable tractability in red hartebeest, blesbok, springbok, duiker, steenbok and dik dik. Haloperidol suppressed the alarm reaction and facilitated the large-scale handling and translocation of captured animals. It also produced favourable sedation in Hartmann's zebra, Burchell's zebra, tsessebe and Black-faced impala. Extrapyramidal effects were observed in some species.

Jarofke, D., 1981. Etorphine anesthesia in the elephant. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine.

Jarofke, D., 1981. Use of halothane oxygen anesthesia in elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 12, 93-95.
Abstract: Note: This anesthesia paper also briefly mentions a humeral fracture which was repaired with a medullary pin, and the removal of the pin.

Schmidt, M.J. The hydraulic elephant crush at the Washington Park Zoo. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  100-105. 1981.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Sikarski, J.G., Riebold, T., Stick, J., Washburn, J. Management of esophagotomy in an Asian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  106-108. 1981.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Bongso, T.A., 1980. Use of xylazine for the transport of elephants by air. Vet Rec 107, 492.

Bongso, T.A., 1980. Sedation of the Asian elephant with xylazine. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 177, 783.
Abstract: Full text: Doses of 100 to 300 mg of a 10% solution of xylazine satisfactorily sedated 6 elephants ranging from 150 to 255 cm shoulder height.  At these dosages, all animals were sedated in the standing position.  The time taken to produce the initial signs of sedation ranged from 10+4 to 20+4 minutes, and the effects lasted from 60+8 to 100+15 minutes.  The time taken from injection to complete recovery ranged from 360+31 to 540+21 minutes.  Recovery was uncomplicated.  Repeated administration of as much as 7 injections per animal at intervals of 3 to 4 days had no adverse effects.  Disturbances during induction delayed the onset of action of the drug --T.A. Bongso in Vet Rec, 105, (November 10, 1979): 442.

Bongso, T.A., 1979. Sedation of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) with xylazine. Vet Rec 105, 442-443.
Abstract: Doses of 100 to 300 mg of a 10 per cent solution of xylazine satisfactorily sedated six elephants ranging from 150 to 255 cm shoulder height. At these dosages all animals were sedated in the standing position. The time taken to produce the initial signs of sedation ranged from 10 +/- 4 to 20 +/- 4 minutes and the effects lasted from 60 +/- 8 to 100 +/- 15 minutes. The time taken from injection to complete recovery ranged from 360 +/- 31 to 540 +/- 21 minutes. Recovery was uncomplicated. Repeated administration of as much as seven injections per animal at intervals of three to four days had no adverse effects. Disturbances during induction delayed the onset of action of the drug.

Krishnamoorthy, V. Elephants - Their capture, care and management. State Level Workshop on Elephants.  3-11. 1979. India, College of Veterinary and Animal Sicences, Kerala Agricultural University.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Muraleedharan, K.N., Chandrasekharan, K., Jacob, V., 1979. General anesthesia in an elephant (Elephas maximus) -- a clinical case report. Kerala Journal of Veterinary Science 10, 197-200.

Bongso, T.A., Perera, B.M.A.O., 1978. Observations on the use of etorphine alone and in combination with acepromazine maleate for immobilization of aggressive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 102, 339-340.

de Vos, V., 1978. Immobilization of free-ranging wild animals using a new drug. Vet Rec 103, 64-68.
Abstract: Field trials were conducted with the potent morphine-like analgesic, R33799 (Janssen Pharmaceutica; Beerse, Belgium) in South African national parks on 217 free-ranging wild animals, representing 20 different species. The drug was found to be effective and safe for a wide range of ungulates and pachyderms and Burchell's zebra (Equus burchelli) did not react to expected dosage levels. A suggested dosage regime for 19 species is given.  Recommended optimal dosage rates varies from about 1 microgram per kg for pachyderms to about 10 microgram per kg for most of the larger ungulates. Xylazine and azaperone were found valuable adjuncts to R33799 in dosage ratios of 10:1 and 30:1 respectively.

von Richter, W., Drager, N., Patterson, L., Sommerlatte, M., 1978. Observations on the immobilization and marking of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Botswana. Akademie-Verlag 14, 185-191.
Abstract: 58 elephants were successfully immobilized in their natural environment in the Chobe Nation Park and on privately owned farms in Botswana using a drug mixture of etorphine (M99 Reckitt) and acetylpromazine.  The specific antidote cyprenorphine (M285 Reckitt) was used in most cases to resuscitate the animals.  One known mortality occurred.  For the long term monitoring of social organization and long and short term movements collars manufactured from machine belting and fitted with colour codes or symbols proved most satisfactory. Stamping the tusks near the lip provided a permanent marking although not useful for field observation.  Various other marking techniques were tested but were considered unsatisfactory for long term identification.  Various behavioral aspects associated with the immobilizing of elephants are described and discussed.

Silberman, M.S., 1977. Tranquilization of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach) with neuroleptic azaperone (R-1929). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 8,  7-8.

Harthoorn, A.M., 1976. The chemical capture of animals. Bailliere and Tindall, London.

Ebedes, H., 1975. The immobilization of adult male and female elephant, Loxodonta africana, with etorphine and observation on the action of diprenorphine. Madogua 9, 19-24.

Schmidt, M.J. The use of xylazine in captive Asian elephants. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  1-11. 1975.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Schmidt, M.J., 1975. A preliminary report on the use of rompun in captive Asian elephants. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 6, 13-21.

Smuts, G.L., 1975. An appraisal of naloxone hydrochloride as a narcotic antagonist in the capture and release of wild herbivores. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 167, 559-561.
Abstract: Naloxone hydrochloride was used as the narcotic antagonist during capture operations conducted on 84 specimens of 11 game species in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. It was found that 10 mg of naloxone was sufficient to antagonize wide dosage ranges of etorphine hydrochloride or fentanyl, used in combination with a variety of tranquilizers. The absence of undesirable side effects and the fact that naloxone can be administered without fear of overdosage make it a unique and valuable drug in the capture and release of wild animals.

Alford, B.T., Burkhart, R.L., Johnson, W.P., 1974. Etorphine and diprenorphine as immobilizing and reversing agents in captive and free-ranging mammals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 164, 702-705.
Abstract: Summary:  Etorphine, an opium alkaloid derivative of thebaine, and its specific antagonist, diprenorphine, were evaluated by research workers and zoo veterinarians in captive and free-ranging animals.    An intramuscular injection of etorphine usually resulted in rapid immobilization, sedation, analgesia, and muscle relaxation in Equidae, Ursidae, Cervidae and Bovidae, when given at a rate of 0.44, 0.5, 0.98 and 1.09 mg/45 kg (100 lb.), respectively. Satisfactory immobilization was usually achieved within 5 to 15 minutes after intravenous administration of diprenorphine at twice the etorphine dosage.    Procedures performed after etorphine administration included dehorning, blood sampling, tail docking, antibacterial injection, radiography, orthopedic surgery, and obstetrical manipulation.    Side effects were commonly noticed in free-ranging mammals. The type and degree of reaction varied according to the species and included tachycardia, bellowing, bradycardia, respiratory depression, opisthotonos, muscular tremors, mydriasis, and hyperpyrexia.  Of 1,600 animals tested, 2.9% died as a result of severe heat prostration, inhalation pneumonia, respiratory depression, severe excitement due to underdosing, cardiac arrest, and inapparent disease.

Gale, U.T., 1974. Burmese timber elephant. Trade Corporation, Rangoon, Burma.

Fowler, M.E., Hart, R., 1973. Castration of an Asian elephant, using etorphine anesthesia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 163, 539-543.
Abstract: A 9-year-old Asian elephant was castrated, using etorphine HCl for anesthesia.  The intraabdominal surgery was completed in 2 stages.  Respiratory and heart rates were normal throughout each surgical procedure.  Normal PaCO₂ and PaO₂ were maintained without the need of intermittent positive pressure ventilation.

Jainudeen, M.R., Bongso, T.A., Perera, B.M.O.A., 1971. Immobilisation of aggressive working elephants (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 89, 686-688.
Abstract: The capture of aggressive working elephants, Elephas maximus, by the drug immobilisation technique is described. Doses of 5 mg to 8 mg etorphine hydrochloride alone, satisfactorily immobilised four adult elephants.  Cyprenorphine hydrochloride reversed the immobilising effects almost immediately and completely.  Recovery was uncomplicated.  The value of this method of capture is discussed in relation to aggressive working elephant.

Dinnes, M.R. The use of M-99 (etorphine) on an elephant and gemsbok. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  49. 1970.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Gray, C.W., Nettasinghe, A.P.W., 1970. A preliminary study of immobilization of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99). Zoologica 55, 51-53.
Abstract: A preliminary study of M-99 for the immobilization of the Ceylonese elephant indicates the effective dosage is approximately twice that used in the African elephant, based on comparative body weights.  A dosage rate of 7 to 8 mgs of M-99 was necessary to immobilize the Ceylonese elephant as compared to 5 or 6 mgs of M-99 for African elephants of almost double the weight.

Harthoorn, A.M., 1970. The flying syringe. Geoffrey Bles., London.

Jainudeen, M.R., 1970. The use of etorphine hydrochloride for restraint of a domesticated elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 157, 624-626.
Abstract: A domestic male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in "musth" (aggressive state) was successfully immobilized with 8 mg. of etorphine hydrochloride (M.99).  The clinical signs of immobilization were comparable to those reported in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).  Cyprenorphine hydrochloride (M.285) reversed the immobilizing effects almost immediately and completely.  Recovery was uncomplicated.

Anderson, I.L., 1968. Tutu poisoning in two circus elephants. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 16, 146-147.

Gandal, C.P., 1968. M-99 usage in African elephant, okapi and blesbok. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Newsletter 1.

Gray, C.W., 1968. The use of M-99 in wild Asian elephant. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Newsletter March 25.

Wallach, J.D., Anderson, J.L., 1968. Oripavine (M.99) combinations and solvents for immobilization of the African elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 153, 793-797.
Abstract: The oripavine derivative, M.99, alone or in combination with small amounts of tranquilizer, satisfactorily immobilized 21 adult African elephants.  The addition of scopolamine to M.99 solutions in doses high enough to produce a physiologic effect prolonged the recovery period unnecessarily. There was no reduction of the induction period when dimethyl sulfoxide was used as a solvent for M.99 given subcutaneously or by deep intramuscular injections.  Cyprenorphine (M.285) reversed the immobilizing effects of M.99 alone or in combination with small amounts of tranquilizer.

Harthoorn, A.M., 1966. Restraint of undomesticated animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 149, 875.
Abstract: .

Maung, M., 1966. The elephant catching co-operative society of Burma: A case study on the effect of planned socio-economic change. Asian Survey 6, 327-337.

Pienaar, U.d.V., Van Niekerk, J.W., Young, E., 1966. The use of oripavine hydrochloride (M.99) in the drug immobilization and marking of wild African elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach) in the Kruger national park. Koedoe 9, 108-124.

Harthoorn, A.M., Bligh, J., 1965. The use of a new oripavine derivative with potent morphine-like activity for the restraint of hoofed wild animals. Research in Veterinary Science 6, 290-299.
Abstract: The use of one of a series of oripavine derivatives (No. M.99) for the immobilization and capture of hoofed wild animals is described.  This substance, usually injected in combination with tranquilizer and hyoscine, is suitable for the restraint of all hoofed wild animals on which it has been used. The very low mortality achieved originally with the use of tranquilizer/synthetic morphine/hyoscine mixtures has been maintained, while the speed of reaction has greatly increased. The much smaller bulk of this substance (approximately 0.2 ml compared with 10 ml equivalent of solution formerly needed) has considerably increased the ease of injection through the use of much smaller projectile syringes.  The effect of this oripavine substance may be reversed with nalorphine.

Gopalan, S., 1962. Elephants - Their Capture, Care and Management. The Manager, Publications, Government of India Press, Delhi. 8., Delhi.
Abstract: Note: Dr. S. Chandrasekharam Pillai's notes revised by Dr. S. Gopalan of Madras Forestry Dept.

Harthoorn, A.M., Lock, J.A., Luck, C.P., 1961. Handling and marking of wild African elephants (Loxodonta africana) with the use of the drug immobilizing technique -- a preliminary report. British Veterinary Journal 117, 87-91.

Kodituwakku, G.E., Dissanayake, K., Seneviratne, E., 1961. General anesthesia in an elephant. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 9, 75.

Counsilman, J.W., 1954. Demerol hydrochloride as an anesthetic for an elephant. North American Veterinarian 35, 835-836.

Ferrier, A.J., 1947. The care and management of elephants in Burma. Steel Brothers, London.

Milroy, A.J.W., 1922. A short tretise on the management of elephants. Government Printer, Shillong.

Tennent, J.E., 1867. The wild elephant and the method of capturing and taming it in Ceylon. Longmans, Green and Co., London.

 1839. The Elephant (as he exists in a wild state and as he has been made subservient, in peace and war, to the purposes of man). Harper and Brothers, New York.
Abstract: Note: This work was originally published by the British Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge

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