Elephant
Bibliographic
Database

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Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org

References Updated October 2007

     1.    Aroch I., King R. and Baneth G. 2007. Hematology and serum biochemistry values of trapped, healthy, free-ranging rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) and their association with age, sex, and gestational status.Vet Clin Pathol 36: 40-48.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: The rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) is an herbivore prevalent from South Africa to Turkey, and a most common zoo animal. Although many studies of hyrax diseases and physiology are available, clinicopathologic data are limited. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to establish comprehensive hematologic and biochemical reference intervals for trapped, apparently healthy, free-ranging rock hyraxes using modern laboratory methods and to assess differences related to sex, gestation, and age. METHODS: Blood samples were obtained from 27 healthy, free-ranging hyraxes under anesthesia. Gender, body weight, and gestational status were recorded. Hematologic (n = 25) and serum biochemical (n = 22) analyses were performed using standard automated methodology. Data for male vs female, adult vs juvenile, and pregnant vs nonpregnant female hyraxes were compared using the Mann-Whitney U-test. Associations between variables were assessed using Pearson's or Spearman rank correlation tests. RESULTS: Significant age- and sex-related, but not gestation-related differences were observed in several variables. Serum alkaline phosphatase activity and phosphorus concentration were significantly higher in juveniles compared with adults. A unique type of monocyte comprised 1-3% of leukocytes in 4 hyraxes. Markedly high serum creatine kinase (CK) activity was observed in most hyraxes. CONCLUSIONS: The large number of animals and the availability of sex, age, and gestational data in this study will be useful to zoo and wildlife veterinarians working with rock hyraxes. High serum concentrations of betahydroxybutyric acid in the rock hyrax, compared with dogs, cats, and ruminants, may be related to its unique digestive system. High CK activity may have been the result of a capture myopathy-like syndrome. The unique monocytes in hyraxes resemble those of elephants and are a novel finding in this species.

     2.    Portas T., Bryant B., Goritz F. et al. 2007. Semen collection in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) under combined physical and chemical restraint.Aust Vet J 85: 425-427.

     3.    Neiffer D.L., Miller M.A., Weber M. et al. 2005. Standing sedation in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) using detomidine-butoprhanol combinations.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 36: 250-256.

     4.    Plumb D.C. 2005. Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook. Blackwell Pub Professional, pp.1-929.

     5.    Rasmussen H.B., Wittemyer G. and Douglas-Hamilton I. 2005. Estimating age of immobilized elephants from teeth impressions using dental silicon.African Journal of Ecology 43: 215-219.
Abstract: High precision condensation dental silicon, Zetalabor^TM, was used to create moulds of the lower jaw molars from 22 immobilized African elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenback) during radio collaring operations. These moulds were used to determine the elephant's age using Laws and Jachmann's molar aging criteria. The technique proved easy and fast and produced useful imprints in 90% of the cases. We found our age estimates, based on physical appearance, made prior to immobilizations were relatively accurate, with 75% within ±3 years and 95% within ±5 years from the age indicated from molar evaluation. When re-collaring the same individuals in 2-3 years, new moulds will be made to compare a known time period with the degree of tooth wear. This will provide verification of Laws age estimates from free-ranging elephants.

     6.    Suedmeyer W.K., Oosterhuis J., Kollias G.  et al. 2005. Elephant restraint device assisted anesthesia in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).  2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group, pp. 189-191.
Abstract: Modern elephant management programs often include the use of protected contact. This allows improved safety for the elephant staff but may limit access to medical conditions occurring in elephants.
A 27-yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) weighing an estimated 3,700 kg was anesthetized for evaluation of a chronic, progressive, fistulous tract of the left ventral mandible. The mandible was routinely cultured, flushed with diluted peroxide, chlorhexidine, betadine solution, or alternating antibiotics, based on microbial sensitivities. To properly assess the left mandible, the elephant had to be placed in right lateral recumbency, which was accomplished with the use of a commercially available rotational elephant restraint device (ERD). Because of the protected contact management program, right lateral recumbency could not be guaranteed at the time of immobilization. Malpositioning, tusk fracture and/or related injury could occur upon recumbency without the additional control afforded by the ERD. The ERD is a hydraulically operated unit that comfortably restrains an elephant, minimizing safety risks to the animal and staff. The ERD consists of one solid wall, three side panels, and hinged floor. The ends of the restraint are closed with moveable shift doors. The three side panels can be moved independently depending upon the size of the animal and are further subdivided with moveable "subpanels" to allow direct access to various areas of the animal. In addition, support straps help gently stabilize limbs when performing medical procedures. The unit is positioned within the elephant holding facility at the Kansas City Zoo. The unit was installed in 1994 during renovation of the elephant exhibit, whereupon the elephant management program was changed from free-contact to protected contact. The ERD is utilized for reproductive assessments, semen collection, transabdominal ultrasound, evaluation of integumentary wounds, ophthalmic and aural examination, and administration of injectable medications. However, no elephant had been anesthetized and rotated in the restraint. The affected animal could not be guaranteed to re-enter the ERD once rotated, but would enter and station in the ERD on a daily basis. Because of this, a conspecific was conditioned to allow rotation without the use of sedatives or tranquilizers, to prepare for the actual immobilization. Adjustments in strap placement, cushioning, critical evaluation of mechanical stability, and placement of hydraulic panels allowed staff to prepare for the actual immobilization, minimizing complications. The elephant was conditioned to enter and station in the ERD. After strapping the distal limbs, thorax and caudal abdomen for support, the elephant was immobilized with a combination of 3,000 IU of hyaluronidase (O'Brien Pharmacy, Kansas City, MO USA), 10 mg acepromazine maleate, and 7 mg etorphine hydrochloride (Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins, CO USA) via pole syringe. Close monitoring of induction was performed and when stage III anesthetic plane was achieved, the elephant was rotated into right lateral recumbency, elevating the elephant 6 feet above the floor. No voluntary movement of the animal was noted while the restraint was in motion. Direct arterial blood pressure, indirect oscillometric blood pressure, blood gases, respiratory rate, excursion characteristics, cardiac rate and rhythm, and pulse oximetry was routinely monitored during the procedure. Anesthesia was maintained with intermittent boluses of etorphine hydrochloride. Intravenous physiologic fluids (lactated Ringers solution) were maintained via an i.v. aural catheter, and insufflation with oxygen was provided on a continual basis. Oral examination and palpation demonstrated an incomplete transverse fissure of the left mandibular molar, intact gingival, and proper dental occlusion with the upper arcade.  Digital radiographs of the left mandible were performed based on exposures obtained with a set of skeletonized jaws. Advantages of this diagnostic modality are the immediate imaging results, portability, and digital imaging and storage, and does not require a developer or fixative. Adjustments in radiographic angle and technique were made to obtain the best diagnostic image. Radiographic imaging demonstrated a sequestrum consisting of a fractured enamel plate  ²of the mandibular molar with a fistulous tract that coursed ventrally to communicate through the skin. The elephant was elevated 6 feet above the ground, which presented unique challenges. Because of the relatively small operating space, intubation was not possible, but insufflation was readily achieved and successful based on pulse oximetry trends. A commercial lift was utilized to elevate two large-animal circle anesthetic units to the level of the elephant's head. During immobilization the legs were cushioned and restraint straps removed to lessen the potential for occlusive damage to the tissues. The ERD allows an elephant to be positioned in either right or left lateral recumbency.
Upon completion of diagnostic procedures, the narcotic agent was reversed with 1,400 mg naltrexone hydrochloride (Zoopharm, Laramie, WY USA) administered 25% intravenously and 75% subcutaneously. The elephant awoke within 90 sec and was rotated to a standing position within the restraint. Thereafter, the elephant was confined in the restraint for approximately 45 min, until no untoward effects were likely to occur. The elephant was released from the restraint and resumed normal eating and drinking within 8 hr, and voluntarily entered the restraint within 2 wk following the procedure. The elephant was stable throughout the procedure; however, a predetermined objective for mean arterial blood pressures (<200 MAP) was not achieved. Hyaluronidase was utilized to promote rapid absorption of the narcotic and neuroleptic agents.³ Acetylpromazine was used to maintain peripheral perfusion by reducing the hypertensive effects of etorphine,¹ which has been documented in previous immobilizations of African elephants.^3-5 Etorphine hydrochloride, a powerful narcotic agent, has been successfully used as an immobilizing agent in both wild and captive African elephants.^3-5 Use of an ERD allowed full control of the immobilization, increasing safety for personnel, preventing injury to the elephant, and positioning the left mandible on the dorsal plane. Disadvantages are the elevated height of the elephant, relatively small operating space, and disrupted line of sight communication. A second procedure will be performed in the near future to address the fracture and subsequent sequestrum diagnosed during the first immobilization. The elephant is currently being conditioned to allow restraint in a holding stall that will allow greater access to the oral cavity and surgical manipulation of the affected mandible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the staff of the Kansas City Zoological Park for their care, concern, and expertise in helping make this procedure a success.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Booth, N.H. Psychotropic agents. In: Booth, N.H., and R.E. McDonald (eds.). Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics.  W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA. P. 329.
2 Fagan, V.D.A., J.E. Oosterhuis, and A. Roocraft. 2001. Captivity disorders in elephants: impacted molars and broken tusks. Der Zoologische Garten 71:281-303.
3 Honeymoon, V.L., G.R. Pettifer, and D.H. Dyson. 1992. Arterial blood pressure and blood gas values in normal standing and laterally recumbent African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus)    elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 23:205-210.
4. Kock, R.A., P. Morkel, and M.D. Kock. 1993. Current immobilization procedures used in elephants. In: Fowler,
M.E. (ed.).  Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA.  Pp. 436-441.
5 Raath, J.P. 1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., and R.E. Miller (eds.). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA.  Pp. 525-533.

     7.    Abou-Madi N., Kollias G.V., Hackett R.P. et al. 2004. Umbilical herniorrhaphy in a juvenile Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35: 221-225.
Abstract: An umbilical hernia was diagnosed in a 2-wk-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) by physical and ultrasonographic examinations. Umbilical herniorrhaphy was elected because the defect was large (approximately 7 cm long and 10 cm deep) and could potentially lead to incarceration of an intestinal loop. General anesthesia was induced with a combination of ketamine, xylazine, and diazepam and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. The hernial sac was explored and contained fibrous tissue, fat, and an intestinal loop but no adhesions. The hernial sac was resected and the body wall closed using the technique of simple apposition. Following a superficial wound infection, the surgical site healed with no further complications.

     8.    Buchanan K.L. and Goldsmith A.R. 2004. Noninvasive endocrine data for behavioural studies: The importance of validation.Animal Behaviour 67: 183-185.
Abstract: There has been a substantial growth recently in the use of noninvasive methods to quantify hormone production, through the measurement of excreted hormones or hormone levels from saliva, sweat or hair (e.g.Wasser et al. 2000; Cook 2002; Pfeffer et al. 2002). These measures can quantify either current (e.g. Berg & Wynne-Edwards 2002; Maso et al. 2002) or past (e.g. Wasser et al. 2000; Ostner et al. 2002) levels of hormone production and the data can be used to determine the relations between a range of hormone levels and animal behaviour across taxa (Wasser et al. 2000). Such techniques have been used extensively to examine social stress (Goymann et al. 2001), the effects of environmental stress (Creel et al. 2002), reproductive cycles (Curtis et al. 2000) and social dominance (von Engelhardt et al. 2000; Langmore et al. 2002). They may have important applications in conservation science (Ishii 1999). There are several reasons why noninvasive methods of sampling are highly desirable. Importantly, animal suffering can potentially be reduced. In practical terms there are also several advantages: noninvasive methods allow samples to be obtained retrospectively, which represent average hormone production over a certain time frame, and the time spent handling the animal does not affect the levels obtained, which is advantageous for highly pulsatile hormones such as corticosteroids. In addition, the licensing constraints for noninvasive methods of sampling are less restrictive. However, such techniques also have disadvantages. In particular, faecal, hair or feather samples can indicate only average hormone levels over a considerable, and possibly unknown, period. Compared with plasma levels, noninvasive measures may result in a loss of sensitivity in any further analyses examining the relations between hormone levels and other variables (Shirtcliff et al. 2002). Furthermore, faecal samples in particular may not be available from known individuals a known amount of time after excretion, preventing reliable determination of individual hormone levels. It is also worth considering that while noninvasive sampling will not cause large increases in pulsatile 'stress' hormones as caused by capture and restraint, some increase may occur merely as a result of the presence of the sampler. In addition, there are a number of validation issues concerning the quantification of steroids from noninvasive samples which we outline below. Koren et al. (2002) documented a protocol for the extraction of testosterone and cortisol from hair obtained from the rock hyrax, Procavia capensis. They used this technique to quantify the levels of hormones contained in plucked hair samples, allowing hormone levels during the period of hair production to be determined, noninvasively. They found that the levels of testosterone extracted correlated positively with the dominance rank of male hyraxes. Although such methods are highly desirable, it is important to emphasize that all new methods of measuring levels of hormone production using hormone extracted from organic substrates should be appropriately validated, such that the limitations of the technique can be defined. This requires: (1) that the assay is validated for each new species and substrate and (2) that the extraction efficiency is determined for the target hormone in the species and substrate of interest. Although ready-made endocrine kits are provided with some data on the assay validation, the validation is relevant only for the species and substrate tested by the commercial supplier, generally in a limited range of biological media. It is essential to extend these validations for the species and substrate to which the kit is being applied. For example, a methanol extract of hair may contain substances that interfere with the assay procedure and thus would give misleading results.

     9.    Dangolia A., Silva I. and Kuruwita V.Y. 2004. Neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus maximus).Vet Anaesth Analg. 31: 276-279.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the suitability of etorphine with acepromazine for producing prolonged neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants. ANIMALS: Ten adult wild elephants (four males, six females), free-roaming in the jungles of the north-western province of Sri Lanka. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ten wild elephants were tranquilized for attachment of radio transmitter collars from September to November 1997, using Large-Animal Immobilon (C-Vet Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK), which is a combination of etorphine (2.45 mg mL(-1)) and acepromazine (10 mg mL(-1)). This was injected using projectile syringes fired from a Cap-Chur gun (Palmer Chemical Co. Inc., Atlanta, USA). A volume of 3.3 (2.5-4.5) mL Immobilon (6.12-11.02 mg of etorphine and 25-45 mg acepromazine) was injected intramuscularly after body mass estimation of individual elephants. RESULTS: The body condition of all darted elephants was good, and the mean (minimum-maximum) shoulder height was 225 (180-310) cm. The average approximate distance to elephants at firing was 26 (15-50) m. The average time to recumbency after injection was 18 (15-45) minutes. Nine out of 10 elephants remained in lateral recumbency (and did not require additional dosing) for a period of 42 (28-61) minutes. The respiratory and heart rates during anaesthesia were 7 (4-10) breaths and 52 (40-60) beats minute(-1), respectively. An equal volume (8.15-14.67 mg) of diprenorphine hydrochloride (Revivon, 3.26 mg mL(-1) diprenorphine; C-Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK) was given intravenously when the procedure was completed. Recovery (return to standing position) occurred in 6 (2-12) minutes after diprenorphine injection. Immediately afterwards, all elephants slowly retreated into the jungle without complications. Continuous radio tracking of the animals involved in this study indicated no post-operative mortality for several months after restraint. CONCLUSIONS/CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Etorphine-acepromazine combinations can be used safely in healthy wild Asian elephants for periods of restraint lasting up to 1 hour.

   10.    Dangolla A., Silva I. and Kuruwita V.Y. 2004. Neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus maximus).Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 31: 276-279.
Abstract: Objective: To evaluate the suitability of etorphine with acepromazine for producing prolonged neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants. Animals : Ten adult wild elephants (four males, six females), free-roaming in the jungles of the northwestern province of Sri Lanka. Materials and methods: Ten wild elephants were tranquilized for attachment of radio transmitter collars from September to November 1997, using Large-Animal Immobilon (C-Vet Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK), which is a combination of etorphine (2.45 mg mL)1) and acepromazine (10 mg mL)1). This was injected using projectile syringes fired from a Cap-Chur gun (Palmer Chemical Co. Inc., Atlanta, USA).Avolume of 3.3 (2.5-4.5) mL Immobilon (6.12-11.02 mg of etorphine and 25- 45 mg acepromazine) was injected intramuscularly after body mass estimation of individual elephants. Results: The body condition of all darted elephants was good, and the mean (minimum maximum) shoulder height was 225 (180-310) cm. The average approximate distance to elephants at firing was 26 (15-50) m. The average time to recumbency after injection was 18 (15-45) minutes. Nine out of 10 elephants remained in lateral recumbency (and did not require additional dosing) for a period of 42 (28- 61) minutes. The respiratory and heart rates during anaesthesia were 7 (4-10) breaths and 52 (40- 60) beats minute)1, respectively. An equal volume (8.15-14.67 mg) of diprenorphine hydrochloride (Revivon, 3.26 mg mL)1 diprenorphine; C-Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK) was given intravenously when the procedure was completed. Recovery (return to standing position) occurred in 6 (2- 12) minutes after diprenorphine injection. Immediately afterwards, all elephants slowly retreated into the jungle without complications. Continuous radio tracking of the animals involved in this study indicated no post-operative mortality for several months after restraint. Conclusions/clinical relevance: Etorphine-acepromazine combinations can be used safely in healthy wild Asian elephants for periods of restraint lasting up to 1 hour.

   11.    Janssen D.L., Oosterhuis J.E., Fuller J. and Williams K. 2004. Field technique: A method for obtaining trunk wash mycobacterial cultures in anesthetized free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana).  2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE, pp. 582-583.
Abstract: The Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants 2003 (Guidelines) of the National tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species were written to protect the health and safety of captive elephants together with their handlers and the viewing public.1 The Guidelines specifically address the display and transport of captive elephants but do not address the unique situation of free-living elephants being imported and subsequently displayed to the public.

Although the Guidelines describe a technique for collecting and handling a trunk wash in a trained, standing, non-anesthetized elephant, it does not describe a similar technique for anesthetized elephants in lateral recumbency. In an attempt to detect active mycobacterial infection in a group of 3 male and 8 female free-ranging African elephants scheduled for import into the United States, a technique was developed for collecting trunk washes in recumbent,  anesthetized elephants for mycobacterial culture.

A South African game-capture crew, experienced in translocating elephants, anesthetized elephants in groups via remote drug delivery and from a helicopter. The ground crew accomplished multiple simultaneous procedures including anesthesia maintenance and monitoring, physical and reproductive examinations, collection of general diagnostic and investigative samples, and trunk washes for mycobacterial cultures. This was accomplished while the capture crew was preparing animals for loading into specially designed trailers for transport to a holding boma. Little time was available for any one of procedure with multiple
animals being attended to at one time.

Once an elephant was stable in lateral recumbency, a 3-m foal stomach tube, prepackaged and sterilized, was inserted into the dependent side of the trunk tip. It was then gently fed up the trunk approximately 2.5 m. A 50-ml sample suction trap was attached to the end of the foal tube.The suction trap was then attached to a battery powered, portable aspirator pump designed for emergency medical care. The aspiration pump was activated to collect secretions from the most proximal portion of the trunk. If little or no secretions were collected by this means, the system was disconnected between the sample trap and the foal tube. Then, 100 ml of sterile saline was placed into raised end of the foal tube allowing it to drain toward the tip through gravity. The suction trap and aspiration pump were reattached to collect a sample in the sample trap. Then, the sample trap was replaced with a new trap, and the foal tube was inserted into the oral pharynx for collection of a separate oropharyngeal sample. This same procedure was repeated
with each elephant.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
So African veterinarians, Mike Bester, Larry Killmar, Janet Payeur, ARC/OVI, Thomas Hildebrant, Eric Zeehandelar, Kevin Reily, Denise SoFranko.

LITERATURE CITED
1. National tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species. 2003. Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants 2003. USDA-APHIS: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf

   12.    Loomis M.R. and Loomis J.M. 2004. Equipment for use in monitoring anesthetized animals in remote geographic locations.  2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE, pp. 499-501.
Abstract: Monitoring anesthetized animals in remote geographic locations with no electrical power source can be accomplished with the use of commercially available equipment or with modifications of available equipment. The use of portable solar panels to recharge batteries can supply adequate power to operate most equipment. Equipment for monitoring oxygenation, ventilation, cardiac rhythm and rate, blood pressure and core temperature have been successfully used in areas without an electrical grid or electrical generators.

Criteria for Choice of Equipment for Field Use
Size, weight, power requirements, durability and the ability to operate in harsh environmental conditions should be considered when choosing monitoring equipment for field use. Of concern are the power requirement and the source of the power, particularly in areas where there is no power grid or generator available.

Power Source
There are a number of types of rechargeable batteries on the market.1 Nickel metal halide batteries (NiMH) were chosen for use in monitoring equipment in this study (MAHA Powerx
2100mAh, Thomas Distributing, 128 East Wood, Paris, IL 61944). NiMH batteries have several features that make them attractive for remote use.1 They can be recharged 500 to 1000 times, have no memory, have a fairly steady discharge curve and have the least negative environmental impact when disposed of than other available batteries.1 One disadvantage of NiMH batteries is that they have a self discharge rate of 2-3% per day when not in use. AA NiMH batteries produce 1.2 volts.

Battery energy output is measured in milliamp hours (mAh)2. A battery rated at 1700 mAh will produce 1700 mA for 1 hr. Different manufacturers produce batteries with different power
outputs. AA NiMH batteries are rated at up to 2400 mAh. The higher the mAh, the greater the output of the battery.

Batteries are charged using fast, smart chargers attached to portable solar panels (iPowerUS fast smart charger, iPower corporation, CA, USA). A fast charger delivers the amount of current necessary to recharge the battery in 1 hr or less. In general, a slower charge rate will extend the overall life of the battery.3 To overcome the deleterious effects of rapidly charging a battery, a smart charger has a current-limiter built into it that reduce the current as the battery is charged, thereby preventing most of the deterioration.3 The fast smart charger is attached to a portable solar panel (Sun Catcher Expedition solar charger, PowerQwest, Inc.3400 Corporate Way, Suite C Duluth, GA 30096 USA) via a 12 volt "cigarette lighter" type plug.

The panel produces 25 watts of power, which is more than enough power to charge 8 AA NiMH batteries at a time.

Equipment that uses AA or AAA batteries is preferred so that a large number of different sized rechargeable batteries are not required in the field.

Monitoring Equipment
Oxygenation is measured with a pulse oximeter or by arterial blood gas determination using a portable clinical analyzer. Several brands of pulse oximeters have been successfully used and recharged in the field. An Invacare model 3402NV (Sims BCI, Inc., Waukesha, WI 53186) is relatively small, light weight and operates on 6 AA batteries. This oximeter is durable and operates well on rechargeable AA NiMH batteries.

An I-Stat portable clinical analyzer (Heska Corp. 1613 Prospect Parkway, Fort Collins, CO 80525 USA) has been successfully used in the field using rechargeable 9-volt NiMH batteries. A challenge of using the I-Stat in the field is the analyzer's normal operating temperature of 16-30°C (61-86°F). The I-Stat has been kept in the proper operating temperature range by placing it in a 12-volt thermoelectric cooler (Coleman, Spirit Lake, IA 51360, USA). The thermoelectric cooler runs directly off of the solar panel.

Ventilation is measured using capnography or arterial blood gas determination. The criteria for choice of a capnograph include a waveform display, mainstream and sidestream capabilities and powered by rechargeable AA batteries. The Novametrix Tidal Wave model 615 (Novametrix Medical Systems, INC., Wallingford, and CT USA 06492) meets these criteria. The Tidal Wave comes standard with a rechargeable computer-type battery, but can be ordered with a battery tray, which holds 7 AA batteries. This instrument is durable and operates well on rechargeable NiMH batteries. The sidestream capability allows a large gauge needle to be placed in the lumen of a large endotracheal tube for sampling.

Cardiac rate and rhythm are monitored by use of an electrocardiograph (ECG). A compact ECG unit (Heska Vet/ECG 2000, Heska Corp., 1613 Prospect Parkway, Fort Collins, CO 80525 USA) that operates on 3 AAA rechargeable NiMH batteries is durable and dependable in the field. Blood pressure is measured by a direct arterial line or by indirect methods. Of the indirect methods, automated oscillometry has been successfully used in the field. No automated oscillometric blood pressure machine that runs on replaceable batteries could be found. A compact, durable instrument, Oscillomate 9300 (CAS Medical Systems, Inc., 44 East Industrial Blvd., Branford, CT 06405), was modified for field use. A transformer was manufactured which is inserted between the internal battery of the blood pressure monitor and the solar panel. This allows the internal battery of the blood pressure monitor to be recharged directly from the solar panel.

All monitoring equipment, battery chargers and rechargeable NiMH batteries are transported into the field in a backpack that is designed for photographic equipment (Lowepro Supertrecker AW II, Lowepro USA, P.O. Box 6189, Santa Rosa, CA 95406). All of the above equipment has been dependably used to monitor immobilized elephants in a variety of remote habitats in Cameroon, including dry, hot habitat,2 hot humid habitat.

LITERATURE CITED
1. New technology batteries guide: available battery types. http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/batype. htm, March, 2004.
2. New technology batteries guide: performance, economics and tradeoffs.http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/ba-type.htm, March, 2004.
3. New technology batteries guide: battery chargers and adapters.http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/ba-char.htm, March, 2004.
4. Horne, W.A., M.N. Tchamba, and M.R. Loomis. 2001. A simple method of providing intermittent positivepressureventilation to etorphine-immobilized elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field. J. Zoo Wildl.Med. 32: 519-522.

   13.    Sarma K.K., Sarma M. and Sarma D.K. 2004. Safety of repeated xylazine hydrochloride administrations in elephants.Indian Veterinary Journal 81: 886-889.

   14.     2003. Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp.1-199.

   15.    Mikota S.K., Hammatt H. and Finnegan M. 2003. Occurrence and prevention of capture wounds in Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus).  Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet, pp. 291-293.
Abstract: The capturing of elephants in Indonesia began in 1986 as an attempted solution to human-elephant conflict.  The intent was to train "problem" elephants for use in agriculture, logging and tourism.  The initial captures were conducted under the guidance of Thai mahouts and Thai koonkie elephants (trained elephants used for capture).  A number of the Indonesians that were originally trained in capture techniques still work for the government forestry department (KSDA).  The younger pawangs (elephant handlers) that participate in captures have learned from their peers.  There is no formal training program. The actual mortality rate associated with elephant captures in Sumatra is unknown as official reports are lacking.  The age structure of the existing ~ 400 captive elephants is young (most under 25) which suggests that smaller, younger elephants are preferentially captured and / or that adult elephants do not survive the capture and training processes.  Our personal experiences (Mikota and Hammatt) in Sumatra show that mortality in newly captured elephants is high.In 2001, with endorsement from the World Wide Fund for Nature-Indonesia (WWF), the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Fauna and Flora International (FFI), and the International Elephant Foundation (IEF), we requested a two-year Moratorium on elephant captures during which time capture techniques would be improved and alternative conflict mediation techniques evaluated.
A Moratorium against placing additional elephants into the Elephant Training Centers has been issued by the central government, however capture for translocation is still sanctioned.  Unfortunately, the provincial governments have increasingly acted in their own interests since the government of Indonesia began a de-centralization process a few years ago. Riau Province is thought to have the largest remaining populations of wild Sumatran elephants.Fifty-seven, human-elephant conflicts occurred in Riau between 1997-2000.  Although Riau is a hotbed of conflict, problems are occurring throughout Sumatra and we are aware of conflicts and captures in Bengkulu and North Sumatra. In October 2002, we were invited by KSDA (the provincial forestry department) to accompany their team into the field as they attempted to capture a large bull that had been raiding a palm oil plantation.  This opportunity was invaluable as we were able to observe first hand the techniques being used and where improvements were needed.  As a result of this and other experiences with newly captured elephants we observed: ·Equipment (Palmer) is old, poorly maintained, and used improperly. ·Essential supplies are lacking or homemade substitutes are used.
·The dose of xylazine is very high compared to wild elephant capture doses used in India and Malaysia.  The same dose is often used regardless of the size of the elephant. ·The needles are too short to reach muscle; open-ended needles are used which can become plugged with tissue, thus preventing injection. ·Neither the correct charge nor the correct load is selected.  We observed that many darts bounced making it difficult to ascertain the amount of drug injected or its depth of penetration.  Selection of an inappropriate charge results in unnecessary trauma. ·The preparation and use of darts, needles, and syringes lacks basic hygiene. ·Dart wounds are not treated and antibiotics are not administered.  ·There is no understanding of stress or capture myopathy. ·The capture team was not aware that sternal recumbency severely compromises respiration in elephants and that they can quickly die in this position. ·It is believed that elephant restraints must inflict pain to prevent wild elephants from escaping once captured.  ·There is no veterinarian on the capture team. The current capture techniques result in leg wounds from unprotected chains, neck wounds from "kahs" (neck yokes made of wood and wire), and abscesses from inappropriately administered darts.  Leg and neck wounds often become maggot infested.  Infections from dart wounds are, however, the primary cause of capture-related mortality.  These abscesses can drain for several months, even with treatment, and often progress to a necrotizing fasciitis, acute sepsis, and death. The Riau Province KSDA Team has been receptive to suggested changes to minimize wounds. Provision of heavier chains has alleviated the fear that elephants will escape.  Covering the chains with fire hose or heavy plastic minimizes injuries to legs and use of the kah has been discontinued.  A basic dart wound treatment protocol has been established. In June 2003, a comprehensive Elephant Immobilization and Translocation Workshop for Sumatra is planned to retrain all of Sumatra's field teams and to upgrade equipment. Sumatra's wild elephant population probably numbers fewer than 3000 and is under continued threat.  With so few elephants left, the preservation of as many viable herds as possible takes on increased urgency.  The Moratorium achieved in 2001 has set the groundwork for KSDA to choose translocation of wild elephants rather than capture and placement into already over-crowded and under-resourced Elephant Training Centers.  We cannot guarantee that Sumatra will capture elephants only for translocation, and it is inevitable that many more elephants will end up in captivity.  Regardless, all of the elephants that must suffer the interruption of their lives at the hand of man deserve, at the very least, humane treatment.  Translocations are neither simple nor a complete panacea.  Identifying suitable translocation areas and insuring that elephants remain there are significant challenges.  WWF-Indonesia is continuing its efforts to secure the lowland forest of Tesso Nilo in Riau Province as a "safe haven" for at least some of Sumatra's wild elephants (see WWF AREAS Program – Riau, Sumatra: http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/attachments/riau_profile.pdf).  The identification of interim release sites, together with improved capture techniques, offers the hope that fewer elephants will be removed from the wild.   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Our work in Sumatra has been supported by the Guggenheim Foundation, a CEF grant from the American Zoo and Aquarium Association, the International Elephant Foundation, Oregon Zoo, Columbus Zoo, Disney, Peace River Refuge, the Elephant Managers Association, the Riddles Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Tulsa Zoo, Toronto Zoo, Niabi Zoo, San Antonio Zoo, Denver Zoo (AAZK Chapter), Milwaukee Zoo (AAZK Chapter), the Audubon Nature Institute (Youth Volunteers), Buttonwood Park Zoo, Melbourne Zoo, and private donors.  Special thanks to Harry Peachey, John Lehnhardt, Holly Reed, Kay Backues, Mike Keele, Steve Osofsky, and Heidi and Scott Riddle.

   16.    Ollivet-Courtois F., Lecu A., Yates R.A. and Spelman L.H. 2003. Treatment of a sole abscess in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) using regional digital intravenous perfusion.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 34: 292-295.
Abstract: Regional digital i.v. perfusion was used to treat a severe sole abscess associated with a wire foreign body in a 19-yr-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) housed at the Paris Zoo. The cow presented with acute right forelimb lameness and swelling that persisted despite 4 days of anti-inflammatory therapy. Under anesthesia, a 10- x 0.5- x 0.5-cm wire was extracted from the sole of the right foot. There was a 2-cm-deep, 7-cm-diameter abscess pocket that was subsequently debrided. Regional digital i.v. perfusion was performed and repeated 15 days later, using cefoxitin and gentamicin on both occasions. Between treatments, the cow received trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and phenylbutazone orally. Within 2 days of administering anesthesia and the first perfusion treatment, the lameness improved dramatically. When phenylbutazone was discontinued 1 wk after the first treatment, the lameness had completely resolved. At the second treatment, there was no evidence of further soft tissue infection, and the abscess pocket had resolved.

   17.    Pathak S.C. 2003. Restraint and chemical immobilization of elephants. In: Das D (ed), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants pp. 23-27. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.

   18.    Pitts N.I. and Mitchell G. 2003. In vitro succinylcholine hydrolysis in plasma of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and impala (Aepyceros melampus).Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 134: 123-129.
Abstract: In elephants the time lapsed from i.m. injection of an overdose of the muscle relaxant succinylcholine (SuCh) until death, is significantly longer than in impala. To determine a difference in the rate of SuCh hydrolysis, once the drug enters the circulation, contributes to this phenomenon we have measured the rate of hydrolysis of SuCh in elephant and impala plasma, and by elephant erythrocytes. Rate of hydrolysis was determined by incubating SuCh in plasma or erythrocyte lysate at 37 degrees C and quantifying the choline produced. Plasma SuCh hydrolytic activity in elephant plasma (12.1+/-1.7 Ul(-1) mean+/-S.D.; n=9) was significantly higher than it was in impala plasma (6.6+/-0.6 Ul(-1); n=5), but were approximately 12 and 21 times lower, respectively, than in human plasma. Elephant erythrocyte lysate had no SuCh hydrolytic activity. Applying this data to previous studies, we can show that the ratio of SuCh absorption to SuCh hydrolysis is expected to be 1.25:1 and 1.41:1 for elephants and impala respectively. It will thus take at least 1.7 times longer for elephant to achieve a plasma SuCh concentration similar to that in impala. We conclude that a more rapid hydrolysis of SuCh in elephant plasma is one factor that contributes to the longer time to death compared to impala.

   19.    Schmitt D.L. 2003. Proboscidea (Elephants). In: Fowler ME and Miller RE (eds), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine pp. 541-550. Elsevier Science USA.

   20.    Steiner M., Gould A.R., Clark T.J. and Burns R. 2003. Induced elephant (Loxodonta africana) tusk removal.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 34: 93-95.
Abstract: Elephant tusk removal usually requires costly surgical procedures that are time-consuming and present a significant risk to the animal when performed using general anesthesia. Such techniques require gauges, chisels, and forceps to remove the tusk. This article reports the simple removal of the tusk of an 18-yr-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana) without the use of surgical instruments and anesthesia. Rubber elastics were placed around a tusk, causing loss of alveolar bone with subsequent exfoliation of the tusk within 3 wk. The healing process was uneventful. Department of Surgical and Hospital Dentistry, School of Dentistry, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, USA.

   21.    Vodicka R. and Kral J. 2003. Purulent trunk dermatitis in a male Ceylon elephant (Elephas maximus).Verh.ber.Erkrg.Zootiere 41: 151-153.
Abstract: A report in given on the therapy of purulent trunk dermatitis in an aggressive male Ceylon elephant. Despite the non-standard steps we took (repeated anaesthesias during a short time, non-compliance with the recommendations as to the application of some drugs, etc.) and the difficult handling (an aggressive; incontrollable elephant, no restraint chute), it is possible even to treat a case like this.

   22.    Alex P.C. 2002. The Musth, the vicious and the rogue elephants - a review.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 26-27.

   23.    Chandrasekharan K. 2002. Elephant - an overview.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 8-11.

   24.    Cheeran J. 2002. Adverse drug experiences in elephants.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 61.

   25.    Cheeran J.V., Panicker K.C., Kaimal R.K. and Giridas P.B. 2002. Tranquillization and translocation of captive bulls. In: Baker I and Kashio M (eds), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. pp. 219-222. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org

   26.    Cheeran J.V., Radhakrishnan K. and Chandrasekharan K. 2002. Musth.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 28-30.

   27.    Cheeran J.V., Chandrasekharan K. and Radhakrishnan K. 2002. Tranquilization and translocation of elephants.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 42-46.

   28.    Kreeger T.J., Arnemo J.M. and Raath J.P. 2002. Handbook of wildlife chemical immobilization. Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S.A., pp.1-412.

   29.    Milroy A.J.W. 2002. A.J.W. Milroy's Management of Elephants in Captivity. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun, New Delhi, India, pp.1-160.

   30.    Nayar K.N.M., Chandrasekharan K. and Radhakrishnan K. 2002. Management of surgical affections in captive elephants.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 55-59.

   31.    Pitts N.I. and Mitchell G. 2002. Pharmacokinetics and effects of succinylcholine in African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and impala (Aepyceros melampus).Eur J Pharm Sci 15: 251-260.
Abstract: The phenomenon of slow onset of succinylcholine (Sch) effect in elephants was investigated by analyzing blood concentrations of Sch and its metabolite choline in elephant and impala. To assess whether the slow onset phenomenon is related to the pharmacokinetics of Sch following i.m. administration, we analyzed the time course of plasma concentrations of intact drug and its metabolite and determined its pharmacological effects. Blood samples were obtained from anaesthetized elephant (n=6) and impala (n=7) following i.m. administration of a lethal dose of Sch. Time from Sch injection to onset of apnoea and to death was significantly longer for elephant than impala (mean+/-S.D. apnoea 4.4+/-1.5 and 2.3+/-0.9 min, respectively; death 32.6+/-7.3 and 6.2+/-3.4 min, respectively). The C(max) was not different between elephants and impala (20.3+/-7.9 vs. 14.4+/-6.8 nmol ml(-1), respectively) but the t(max) was significantly longer for elephants (23.0+/-7.6 vs. 3.7+/-2.2 min). Analysis of the plasma Sch and choline concentrations over time revealed that the relative amount of Sch entering the circulation within the first 30 s after i.m. injection is greater for impala than elephant. No greater rate in the plasma hydrolysis of Sch in elephant compared to impala was apparent.

   32.    Rajkamal P.J. and Rajeev T.S. 2002. Training the Mahouts.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 24, 30-30.

   33.    Sarma B., Pathak S.C. and Sarma K.K. 2002. Medetomidine a novel immobilizing agent for the elephant (Elephas maximus).Research in Veterinary Science 73: 315-317.
Abstract: Medetomidine was injected by the intramuscular route at the rates of 3 and 5 microg/kg body weight into two groups of Indian elephants (Elephas maximus). Sedation was induced at 6.20 (0.81) and 5.90 (0.60) min respectively after injection. The duration of anaesthesia was 66.20 (10.4) and 134.20 (24.12) min, respectively and recovery occurred at 125.80 (25.23) and 205.89 (29.3) min. The notable signs of sedation exhibited by the elephants were protrusion of penis, complete relaxation of trunk, flaccidity of tail and drooping of the ears with a head down position. During sedation, physiological parameters recorded were bradycardia, decreased respiration and hypothermia.

   34.    Tongwongsa S., Diskul M.L.P., Kanchanapangka S. et al. 2002. The use of an etorphine-acepromazine cocktail for immobilization and diprenorphine as it's antagonist in an elephant (Elephas maximus indicus).Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 32: 45-51.
Abstract: Etorphine hydrochloride (2.45 mg/ml) in combination with acepromazine maleate (10 mg/ml) is a very potent neuroleptanalgesic. The drug principally affects psychomotor activities. With a bundle of roughage still in his mouth, Plai Kum-Sand, a 3400 kgs, bull elephant, 35 years of age lay down 6 minutes after an intramuscularly injection. In lateral recumbency and snoring, the heart rate was 44 beats/minute with respiration at 4 breaths/minute. This heavy level of sedation was reversed quickly and successfully using 9.78 mg of the antidote, diprenorphine hydrochloride intravenously, 18 minutes after anaesthetic challenge. The bull opened his eyes 2 minutes afterward. He moved, stood upright, and started nibbling food 6 minutes 30 seconds after diprenorphine administration.

   35.    du Toit J.G. 2001. Veterinary Care of African Elephants. Novartis and south African Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria, Republic of Southhttp://bigfive.jl.co.za./elephant_book.htm Africa, pp.1-59.
Abstract: This manual is a project of the South African Veterinary Foundation and Novartis South Africa (Pty) Ltd. It is distributed by Wildlife Decision Support
PO BOX 74610, Lynnwood Ridge, Pretoria, RSA, 0040; Tel: +27 12991-3083; Fax: +27 12991-3851 Online:http://bigfive.jl.co.za./elephant_book.htm

   36.    Horne W.A., Tchamba M.N. and Loomis M.R. 2001. A simple method of providing intermittent positive-pressure ventilation to etorphine-immobilized elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 32: 519-522.
Abstract: Five African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were immobilized with etorphine in Waza National Park, Cameroon, for the purpose of deploying radio/satellite tracking collars.  A portable ventilator constructed from two high-flow demand valves and the Y-piece of a large animal anesthesia circuit was used to provide intermittent positive-pressure ventilation with 100% oxygen.  Oxygenation status improved dramatically in all five elephants.  In one hypoxemic elephant, arterial PaO2 increased from 40 to 366 mm Hg.  The results of this study demonstrate that both oxygenation and ventilation can be readily controlled etorphine-immobilized elephants even under remote field conditions.

   37.    Rietschel W., Hildebrandt T., Goritz F. and Ratanakorn P. 2001. Sedation of Thai Working Elephants with Xylazine and Atipamezole as a Reversal.  A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001, 2001, pp. 121-123. Schuling Verlag, Vienna, Austria.

   38.    Sarma K.K. 2001. Musth in Asian Elephant. Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi, India, pp.1-61.

   39.    Sarma K.K. 2001. Medetomidine as an immobilizing agent in free ranging Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).Intas Polivet 2: 209-211.

   40.    Sarma K.K. and Pathak S.C. 2001. Cardio vascular response to xylazine and Hellabrunn mixture with Yohimbine as reversal agent in Asian elephants.Indian Veterinary Journal 78: 400-492.
Abstract: Xylazine (0.1 mg/kg body weight) produced highly significant bradycardia and hypotension in recumbent Asian elephants, with a peak depression observed at the 30th minute for heart rate and 30th minute in the mean arterial pressure (MAP). Ketamine (1.25 : 1 ratio with xylazine) mildly marginalised the bradycardia, but remarkably improved the MAP. Yohimbine, used to reverse the sedation produced by xylazine did not appear to influence these parameters to any appreciable levels.

   41.    Suedmeyer W.K. 2001. Serum hydrocortisone levels in a manually restrained African elephant (Loxodonta africana)  pre- and post- semen collection. In: Kirk Baer C and Wilmette MW (eds), Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians and the National Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians Joint Conference, September 18, 2001-September 23, 2001, pp. 388-389.  American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.

   42.    Fowler M.E., Steffey E.P., Galuppo L. and Pascoe J.R. 2000. Facilitation of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) standing immobilization and anesthesia with a sling.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 31: 118-123.
Abstract: An Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) required general anesthesia for orthopedic foot surgery. The elephant was unable to lie down, so it was placed in a custom-made sling, administered i.m. etorphine hydrochloride in the standing position, and lowered to lateral recumbency. General anesthesia was maintained with isoflurane administered through an endotracheal tube. After surgery, the isoflurane anesthesia was terminated, with immobilization maintained with additional i.v. etorphine. The elephant was lifted to the vertical position, and the immobilizing effects of etorphine were reversed with naltrexone. The suspension system and hoist for the sling were designed specifically for the elephant house.

   43.    Heard D.J. 2000. Captive elephant anesthesia.   Proc.North Am.Vet. Conf., pp. 1043-1044.

   44.    Horne W.A., Tchamba M.N. and Loomis M.R. 2000. A simple method of providing intermittent positive-pressure ventilation to etorphine-immobilized elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field.  Proceedings AAZV and IAAAM Joint Conference, pp. 27-30.

   45.    Osofsky S.A. and Hirsch K.J. 2000. Chemical restraint of endangered mammals for conservation purposes: a practical primer.Oryx 34: 27-33.

   46.    Ramsay E. 2000. Standing sedation and tranquilization in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana).  Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet., pp. 111-114.

   47.    Brockett R.C., Stoinski T.S., Black J., Markowitz T. and Maple T.L. 1999. Nocturnal behavior in a group of unchained female African elephants.Zoo Biology 18: 101-109.
Abstract: A study of 3 unchained female African elephants was undertaken to document their nocturnal behaviour. The subjects were observed between the hours of 1800 and 0800 for 10 weeks in the summer of 1992 (total of 172 h) and 14 weeks in the summer of 1994 (total of 153 h). Scan data were collected every 5 min to gather information on activity budgets, social proximity and space utilization. All-occurrence data were collected on social and non-social behaviours. In each year of the study, the subjects spent equivalent amounts of time eating, lying, standing, and walking. Additionally, subjects spent half of their time within 1 body length of another animal and utilized all 3 available enclosures. Social and non-social behaviours were frequent, and these data plus the activity profiles revealed the elephants generally were most active between the hours of 1800 and 2400 and 0600 and 0700. The findings suggest that the use of no restraints is currently an effective strategy for this elephant group. The high activity levels observed during many of the early evening hours suggest that zoos could permit increased activity and social interactions by extending the hours when the elephants are unchained.

   48.    Fowler M.E., Steffey E.P., Galuppo L. and Pascoe J.R. 1999. Standing immobilization and anesthesia in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).  Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet., pp. 107-110.

   49.    Fowler M.E. and Miller R.E. 1999. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp.1-747.

   50.    Gage L.J., Blasko D.R. and Galuppo L.D. 1999. Diagnostics and treatment of severe swelling of the pharyngeal tissues of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).  Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, October 9, 1999, pp. 105-108.

   51.    Hoare R. 1999. Reducing Drug Inductions Time in the Field Immobilization of Elephants.Pachyderm 27: 49-54.
Abstract: Individual elephants have been routinely immobilized by remote injection (darting) methods for research, translocation or the treatment of injuries. Any operation to immobilize an elephant is both expensive and a considerable logistical exercise in which much can go wrong.  Logistical problems, veterinary complications, danger to people and wastage of money can be largely avoided by limiting the animal's post-darting travel.  Although operator technique plays a large part, safe recumbency can be greatly facilitated through the rapid knock-down effect of high doses of the immobilizing drug propelled in a type of dart which overcomes two common problems: poor placement and malfunction of the internal detonation mechanism.

   52.    Mohan A.B. and Lakshmi B.B. 1999. The successful capture and training of two strayed wild elephants "Jay - Vijay" in Sri Venkateswara Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh.Zoos' Print Journal 14: 1-6.

   53.    Nielsen L. 1999. Chemical Immobilization of Wild and Exotic Animals. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, pp.1-342.

   54.    Raath J.P. 1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler ME and Miller RE (eds), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4 pp. 525-533. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, USA.

   55.    Sarma K.K. 1999. Bizarre behaviour of an elephant during xylazine anaesthesia.Indian Veterinary Journal 76: 1018-1019.

   56.    Stegmann G.F. 1999. Etorphine-halothane anaesthesia in two five-year-old African elephants (Loxodonta africana).Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 70: 164-166.
Abstract: Anaesthesia of 2 five-year-old female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) was required for dental surgery. The animals were each premedicated with 120 mg of azaperone 60 min before transportation to the hospital. Before offloading, 1 mg etorphine was administered intramuscularly (i.m.) to each elephant to facilitate walking them to the equine induction/recovery room. For induction, 2 mg etorphine was administered i.m. to each animal. Induction was complete within 6 min. Surgical anaesthesia was induced with halothane-in-oxygen after intubation of the trunk. During surgery the mean heart rate was 61 and 45 beats/min respectively. Systolic blood pressures increased to 27.5 and 25.6 kPa respectively, and were treated with intravenous azaperone. Blood pressure decreased thereafter to a mean systolic pressure of 18.1 and 19.8 kPa, respectively. Rectal temperature was 35.6 and 33.9 degrees C at the onset of surgery, and decreased to 35.3 and 33.5 degrees C, respectively, at the end of anaesthesia. Etorphine anaesthesia was reversed with 5 mg diprenorphine at the completion of 90 min of surgery.

   57.    Elkan P.W., Planton H.P., Powell J.A., Haigh J.A. and Karesh W.B. 1998. Chemical immobilization of African elephant in lowland forest,southwestern Cameroon.Pachyderm 25: 32-37.

   58.    Hattingh J., deVos V., Ganhao M.F. and Pitts N.I. 1998. Physiological responses of the buffalo Syncerus caffer culled with succinyldicholine and hexamethonium.Koedoe 31: 91.
Abstract: Changes in the blood composition of elephants and buffaloes herded by helicopter and killed with succinyldicholine (Scoline) indicate stress. Death is probably due to decreased PO2 levels. The collective percentage change of eight blood constituents used to measure physiological stress was reduced from 30% in buffaloes killed with succinyldicholine alone to 22% in those killed with succinyldicholine plus hexamethonium, as opposed to 17% with herding alone and 10% with succinyldicholine alone without herding.

   59.    Honeyman V.L., Cooper R.M. and Black S.R. 1998. A protected contact approach to anesthesia and medical management of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).   Proceedings AAZV and AAWV Joint Conference, pp. 338-341.

   60.    Shrestha S.P., Ullrey D.E., Bernard J.B., Wemmer C. and Kraemer D.C. 1998. Plasma vitamin E and other analyte levels in Nepalese camp elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 29: 269-278.
Abstract: Plasma concentrations of a-tocopherol (vitamin E) and other analytes in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) inn Nepal were determined during typical work camp management of the elephants.  Elephants foraged for food for 4-6 hr each day under the control of mahouts and were also provided daily with cut forage and supplements of unhusked rice, cane molasses, and salt.  Blood samples were taken monthly for 1 yr without chemical restraint from 26 female elephants in four camps.  Elephants were 6-60+ yr of age.  Mean (+/-SEM) a-tocopherol concentration was 0.77+/-0.047 mg/ml with a range of 0.23-1.57 mg/ml. Subadults had lower concentrations than did older elephants, and there were significant differences in mean concentrations from different camps and in mean monthly concentrations.  Plasma a-tocopherol concentration appears to vary widely between individuals, and a single value of <0.3 mg/ml is not sufficient to diagnose incipient vitamin E deficiency.  Mean (+/-SEM) plasma retinol (vitamin A) concentration was 0.0063 +/- 0.0003 mg/ml with a range of 0.01-0.12 mg/ml.  Subadults had higher concentrations than did older elephants, and mean retinal values differed significantly among camps. Beta-carotene was not found in plasma.  Twenty-five other analytes determined or derived were generally similar to those reported in other Asian and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants.  Estimates of nutrient intake, based upon diet composition, suggested that dietary concentrations of zinc and sodium may have been marginal, but the absence of signs of any nutrient deficiencies indicates that dietary husbandry in these elephant camps was generally satisfactory.

   61.    Bosi E.J., Kilbourn A.M., Andau M. and Tambing E. 1997. Translocation of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Sabah, Malaysia.  Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, p. 302.
Abstract: The East Malaysian State of Sabah is believed to be home to about 1000 wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).  Some forest habitat has been lost through agricultural development.  In some cases, elephants are stranded in small pockets of forest which are unable to sustain them.  The Wildlife Department of Sabah has adopted a policy of capturing and translocating these animals to wildlife forest reserves.  The capture of these wild animals is made possible using chemicals such as Immobilon (etorphine HCl and acepromazine maleate) and Xylazil-100 (xylazine HCl).  The reversal agents are Revivon (Diprenorphine) and Reverzine (Yohimbine), respectively.  A recent capture and translocation exercise carried out involving eight wild elephants employed xylazine hydrochloride.  The dose of xylazine used was calculated based on the diameter of the front footprint which provides information on body dimensions when actual weights are not available.  Xylazine doses used ranged from 100-550 mg with a mean of 0.209 mg/kg body weight.  Sedation was observed within 26 min after the darting.  The animals were then shackled and tethered.  The time for the capture operations ranged from 27-110 mins, with a mean of 72 min.  Xylazine is used again during the loading of the animals onto the lorries.  It is an effective sedative for wild elephants which can be adjusted or reversed.  The choice and used of this drug depends entire on the ability to track the animal after darting and the ability to maneuver the captive elephants into suitable locations for tethering prior to loading.  Heavy machinery is required to load the animals, unlike most other wild Asian elephant translocations were trained elephants are used to facilitate loading.

   62.    Karesh W.B., Smith K.H., Smith F. et al. 1997. Elephants, buffalo, kob, and rhinoceros:  immobilization, telemetry, and health evaluations.   Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 296-230.

   63.    Osofsky S.A. 1997. A practical anesthesia monitoring protocol for free-ranging adult African elephants (Loxodonta africana).Journal of Wildlife Diseases 33: 72-77.
Abstract: Twenty free-ranging adult African elephants in northern Botswana were immobilized with a mean (± SD) of 9.5 ± 0.5 mg etorphine hydrochloride and 2000 IU hyaluronidase by i.m. dart. The mean time to recumbency was 8.7 ± 2.4 min. All animals were maintained in lateral recumbency. The anaesthesia monitoring protocol included cardiothoracic auscultation; palpation of auricular pulse for quality and regularity; checking of rectal temperature, and monitoring of respiratory and heart rates. Results of basic physiological measurements were similar to those of previous field studies of African elephants immobilized with etorphine or etorphine-hyaluronidase. In addition, continuous real-time pulse rate and percent oxygen saturation of haemoglobin (SpO₂) readings were obtained on 16 elephants with a portable pulse oxygen meter. Duration of pulse oximetry monitoring ranged from 3 to 24 min (mean ±SD = 8.2 ± 4.8 min). Differences between minimum and maximum SpO₂ values for any given elephant ranged from 1 to 6 percentage points, evidence for relatively stable trends. The SpO₂ readings ranged from 70% to 96% among the 16 elephants, with a mean of 87.3 ± 2.8%. 15 of 16 elephants monitored with a pulse oximeter had mean SpO₂ values = 81 ± 2.4%, with 11 having mean SpO₂ values = 85 ± 1.5%. All 20 animals recovered uneventfully following reversal: diprenorphine at 23.3 ± 1.5 mg (IV) with 11.7 ± 0.5 mg IM, or 24 mg diprenorphine given all IV.

   64.    Sarma K.K. and Pathak S.C. 1997. A review of the anaesthetic management of elephants.Journal of Assam Vet.Council, 7-8: 16-17.

   65.    Sharma S.P. 1997. Surgical treatment of gunshot wounds under xylazine and ketamine anaesthesia in an elephant: clinical case report.Indian Veterinary Journal 74: 973-974.

   66.    Bengis R.G. 1996. Chemical capture of the free ranging African elephant.  Proc.North. Am.Vet.Conf., pp. 892-894.

   67.    Bush M., Raath J.P., de Vos V. and Stoskopf M. 1996. Serum oxytetracycline levels in free-ranging male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) injected with a long-acting formulation.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 27: 382-385.
Abstract: Thirteen adult free-living male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were anesthetized and given 20-100 g of a long-acting tetracycline (OTC) preparation either i.m. or i.v.  Five dosages were established based on body measurements (the sum of the body length and the girth in centimeters)  Serum concentrations of OTC were measured 48 hr after injection.  Serum concentrations >/= 0.5 mg/ml were measured in 11 of 12 elephants receiving OTC dosages of 52-133 mg/cm either i.v. or i.m.  The i.m. administration route produced serum concentrations from 0.75-1.6 mg/ml in four of four elephants.  A dosage of 60-80 mg/cm i.m. or i.v. should provide a therapeutic serum concentration of OTC for at least 48 hr.  The use of an i.v. catheter avoids multiple i.m. injections of large drug volumes.

   68.    Coetsee C. 1996. Elephant Translocations.Pachyderm 22: 81.
Abstract: Notes: Following immobilization for translocation of 670 elephants in family units in 1993, haloperidol (40 to 120 mg depending on body size) was used as a tranquilizer during transport. In addition, azaperone, (50-200 mg) was often administered to avoid aggression. Trilafon (perphenazine (100-300 mg) was administered to keep animals calm after their release into bomas.

   69.    Manna S. 1996. Chemical immobilization and treatment of a wild elephant.Indian Veterinary Journal 73: 1260-1261.

   70.    Njumbi S.T., Waithaka J., Gachago S. et al. 1996. Translocation of elephants: the Kenyan experience.Pachyderm 22: 61-65.

   71.    Sarma K.K., Kalita D., Dutta B. and Barua S.K. 1996. Determination of mean arterial pressure (MAP) in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).Indian Veterinary Journal 73: 777-778.

   72.    Schaftenaar W. 1996. Vaginal vestibulotomy in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).  Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 434-439.
Abstract: Due to its dimensions, dystocia in elephants presents a difficult problem.  This paper describes the delivery of a dead calf by surgical intervention.  A vestibulotomy was performed under local anesthesia.  Complications in wound healing resulted in a permanent fistula of the vestibulum.  The difficulties in decision making and the interpretation of clinical signs are discussed.

   73.    Schmitt D., Bradford J. and Hardy D.A. 1996. Azaperone for standing sedation in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).   Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 48-51.
Abstract: Azaperone was used for standing sedation in four Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in 93 trials at Dickerson Park Zoo (DPZ).  Procedures including surgical artificial insemination, semen collection, and routine foot trimming were completed while utilizing azaperone as a sedative.  All procedures were performed within an elephant restraint device.  Azaperone has proven to be a safe and reliable drug for facilitation of routine health and reproductive-related procedures in captive Asian elephants when administered at 0.30 mg/kg.  the procurement of azaperone in the United States has been difficult due to changing manufacturing and distribution procedures.  The utilization of an Investigational New Animal Drug permit from the Food and Drug Administration is described, to facilitate procurement of azaperone from Canada for use in the United States.

   74.    Schmitt D.L., Bradford J.P. and Hardy D.A. 1996. Foot care in Asian elephants using rotating elephant restraint device.  Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 52-53.
Abstract: Foot care for elephants is an area that many veterinarians often become involved with only when individuals are not responsive to normal foot care provided by keepers or when intractable elephants require veterinary attention for sedation to enable access to the animal for treatment.  The use of a rotating elephant restraint is described and the methods for foot treatment that are useful in the normal care of elephants with or without the use of a rotating elephant restraint.

   75.    Singh L.A.K., Nayak B.N. and Acharjya S.K. 1996. Chemical capture of a problem-elephant in Bolangir, Orissa.Indian Forester, Special issue: wildlife management. 122: 955-960.
Abstract: A detailed account is given of the method used to capture an elephant which had been regularly (over 18 yr) entering villages in the Bolangir and Padampur areas of NW Orissa, and causing damage to buildings, eating stored grains and injuring humans. Some 45 people took part in the capture operation which involved the use of darts containing Immobilon (etorphine hydrochloride and acepromazine maleate) to the animal, and of (diprenorphine hydrochloride) for revival. The human antidote for (Nar can) was kept on hand. The communication system, the operational strategies used, and then care and revival processes adopted for the animal are described. It is thought that the animal (with a female) had originally been in the care of a mahout who was taken into custody for some crime so that the animals were abandoned. The female appeared to have been accepted back into the wild, while the male continued to follow the routes used by the mahout. The purpose of capture was to control or translocate the animal.

   76.    Still J., Raath J.P. and Matzner L. 1996. Respiratory and circulatory parameters of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) anaesthetised with etorphine and azaperone.J S Afr Vet Assoc 67: 123-127.
Abstract: Department of Companion Animal Medicine and Surgery, Medical University of Southern Africa, Medunsa, South Africa.
Respiratory rate, heart rate, blood-gas tensions (PO2 and PCO2) and pH of arterial (a) and peripheral venous (v) blood, concentration of haemoglobin in arterial blood (Hb), saturation of arterial haemoglobin with oxygen and the end-expiratory concentration of oxygen were measured in 22 juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta africana) anaesthetised with etorphine and azaperone during a period of 35-65 minutes after they had assumed lateral recumbency. Based on these parameters the alveolar-arterial and arterial-peripheral venous differences of PO2 [P(A-a)O2 and P(a-v)O2 respectively] and oxygen content of arterial blood (CaO2) were calculated. Elephants with body mass of < or = 600 kg showed statistically significant changes in the following parameters, compared with elephants with a body mass of more than 600 kg (x +/- SD): PaO2 (64 +/- 11 versus 82 +/- 8 mmHg), P(a-v)O2 (9 +/- 5 versus 22 +/- 9 mmHg), P(A-a)O2(37 +/- 16 versus 15 +/- 8 mmHg) and Hb (148 +/- 20 versus 130 +/- 10 g/l) (p < 0.05). These findings suggested a tendency towards impaired oxygen exchange in the lungs, reduced peripheral extraction of oxygen and elevated oxygen-carrying capacity of arterial blood in smaller elephants. These changes were theoretically attributed to the respiratory-depressant and sympathomimetic effects of higher dosages of etorphine used in the smaller elephants to maintain a clinically acceptable anaesthetic plane. Individual elephants spent 35-150 minutes under anaesthesia and all recovered uneventfully after reversal of etorphine with diprenorphine.

   77.    Cheeran J.V., Chandrasekharan K. and Radhakrishnan K. 1995. Principles and Practice of Fixing Dose of Drugs for Elephants. In: Daniel JC (ed), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants pp. 430-438. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India.
Abstract: The traditional thumb rule of determining dose in domestic animals has been Cat - 1/2, Dog - 1, Sheep and Goat - 3, Horse - 16, Cattle - 24. However this was valid only for galenicals like Tinctures and Pulvis and also to some extent for pure chemicals used as drugs like potassium iodide, ammonium chloride etc. Development of modern techniques like determination of half life and minimum effective concentration changed the course and pattern of determining the dose of drugs in animals as well as in man. Some drugs which are of low therapeutic margin is, even recommended considering the surface area of the body (e.g. antineoplastic drugs). Wild animals provide not enough number, for experimental purposes to arrive at a proper recommendation. In such circumstances pharmacologists often extrapolate the dose from their "evolutionary cousins" some of which are domestic animals. But unfortunately in elephants such "close cousins" do not exist neither in the wild nor in the domestic category. This makes fixing of dosage all the more difficult. Hence often the dose has been arbitrarily fixed from clinical experiences. The article details the above principles as well as lists of dose of various pharmacological and chemotherapeutic agents used in clinical practice in elephants (Table 1).

   78.    Daim M.S. 1995. Elephant Translocation: The Malaysian Approach. In: Daniel JC (ed), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants pp. 242-248. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India.

   79.    Ebedes H. 1995. The use of long term neuroleptics in the confinement and transport of wild animals.  Joint Conf AAZV/WDA/AAWV, 1995, pp. 173-176.

   80.    Fowler M.E. 1995. Elephants.  Restraint and handling of wild and domestic animals pp. 265-269. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA.

   81.    Fowler M.E. 1995. Restraint and handling of wild and domestic animals. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, p.viii-383.

   82.    Kramer B. and Hattingh J. 1995. The neuromuscular junction in the African elephant Loxodonta africana and African buffalo Syncerus caffer.South African Journal of Wildlife Research 25: p14, 3p, 2bw.
Abstract: Differences in the physiological response to the drug succinyldicholine occur between the African elephant Loxodonta africana and African buffalo Syncerus caffer, irrespective of the route of administration of the drug. The response in elephants has suggested the presence of unique acetylcholine receptors in their respiratory muscles. In this paper the first observations of the neuromuscular junction in the African elephant and African buffalo are reported. While the basic structure of the junction was found to be typically mammalian in both species, differences were found in the morphology of the postjunctional area where these receptors reside. Elucidation of the structure and function of this junction in these animals is important in the selection of drugs that act as neuromuscular blockers.

   83.    Osofsky S.A. 1995. Pulse oximetry monitoring of free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana) immobilized with an etorphine/hyaluronidase combination antagonized with diprenorphine.  Joint Conference AAZV/WDA/AAWV, pp. 237-277.

   84.    Schumacher J., Heard D.J., Caligiuri R., Norton T. and Jacobson E.R. 1995. Comparative effects of etorphine and carfentanil on cardiopulmonary parameters in juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 26: 503-507.
Abstract: Fourteen African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were immobilized with either etorphine hydrochloride (3.2 ± 0.5 µg/kg i.m.) or carfentanil citrate (2.4 µg/kg i.m.). Induction time with etorphine was significantly longer (30 ± 21 min) than with carfentanil (8 ± 2 min).  Immediately following immobilization all elephants were placed in lateral recumbency and respiratory rate, heart rate, and rectal body temperature were monitored every 5 min throughout the immobilization period.  Arterial blood samples, collected from an auricular artery, were taken 10 min after immobilization and every 15 min thereafter for up to 1 hr.  At the first sampling, mean values for arterial blood gas variables for etorphine immobilized elephants were pHa, 7.29 ± 0.03; PaCO₂, 53.4 ± 5.2 mmHg; PaO₂, 71.8 ± 13.8 mmHg; standard base excess (SBE), -1.6 ± 2.9 mEq/L; and HCO3, 25.7 ± 2.7 mEq/L. After 1 hr of immobilization, mean arterial blood gas values were pHa, 7.32 ± 0.06; PaCO₂ , 57.2 ± 9.6 mm Hg; and PaO₂ , 53.8 ± 10.5 mm Hg; SBE, 2.7 ± 1.4 mEq/L; and HCO_3-, 30.6 ± 1.6 mEq/L. For carfentanil immobilized elephants, blood gas values at the first time of collection were pHa, 7.28 ± 0.04; PaCO₂, 52.1 ± 2.8 mmHg; PaO₂, 78.3 ± 14.7 mmHg; SBE, -2.3 ± 24 mEq/L; and HCO_3-, 24.3 ± 2.1 mEq/L.  Sixty minutes after the first sampling, blood gas values of one elephant were pHa, 7.38; PaCO₂, 48.7 mmHg; PaO₂, 52 mmHg; SBE, 3.4 mEq/L, and HCO_3-, 28.8 mEq/L.  Over time there was a progressive decline in arterial PO2 in all elephants.  It is concluded that elephants immobilized with either etorphine HCl or carfentanil developed hypoxemia (PaO₂ < 60 mmHg) after 30 min of immobilization.  It is recommended that the administration of one of these opioid drugs be accompanied by supplemental oxygen, or followed by an inhalant anesthetic in 100% oxygen for prolonged procedures.  Diprenorphine or nalmefene reversal was rapid and uneventful in both the etorphine and carfentanil group.  No cases of renarcotization were noted. Additional excerpt: All elephants in the etorphine group (n=8) received diprenorphine at a mean dosage of 8.3 ± 1.1 µg/kg IV. Two elephants in the carfentanil group (n=6) were administered diprenorphine at a dosage of 8.9 µg/kg IV and IM.  Three elephants in this group received nalmefene hydrochloride.  One of the three elephants was given nalmefene 166.7 µg/kg both IV and SC. Two of the three elephants were given nalmefene IV and IM. The dosage was 88.9 µg/kg IV and IM in one elephant and 53.3 µg/kg IV and IM in the other. One elephant in the carfentanil group was administered nalmefene (88.9 µg/kg IV) followed by diprenorphine (8.9 µg/kg IM).

   85.    deSilva D.D.N. and Kuruwita V.Y. 1994. Sedation of wild elephants (Elephas maximus Ceylonicus) using Detomidine HCL ("Domosedan") in Sri Lanka.  Fifth International Congress of Veterinary Anesthesia.
Abstract: Full text: Eight wild elephants weighing 3818-4500 kg were sedated using detomidine HCl 1% (Farmos) after being captured using Large Animal Immobilon (C-Vet) and revived with Revivon (C-Vet) in the process of wild elephant capture and translocation program carried out in Sri Lanka.  The total volume of detomidine used on each animal ranged from 2.0 to 2.5 ml using a Cap-Chur pistol.  Exsheathment of the penis in males was evident within 5 to 10 minutes of administration of detomidine.  From 5 minutes post-administration, gradual flaccidity of the trunk was observed and complete "limping" of the trunk was seen in 12 to 15 minutes.  Dribbling of urine, slaiva, ptosis, gradual cessation of ear flapping were the other changes indicating sedation.  Seven out of 8 animals remained standing and were nonresponsive to low threshold physical or auditory stimuli, but moved steadily when traction was applied on the ropes tying the legs.  With this dosage of the drug, animals could be loaded onto a truck within 30-45 minutes of medication and were ready for transportation.  Antisedan (Farmos) had to be given to one animal which adopted lateral recumbency after detomidine.  After sedating and loading into trucks, the elephants were transported to a distance of 40 to 100 km (average transport time was 8 hours) during which there was no need for further "topping-up".  Animals started eating and moving the trunk about 6 hours after detomidine administration but never adopted a recumbent position while being transported.  It is concluded that wild elephants are very sensitive to detomidine and the dosage needed is much lower (approximately 5.5 µg/kg) than that needed for some other species of animals (equine and bovine).

   86.    Dunlop C.I., Hodgson D.S., Cambre R.C., Kenny D.E. and Martin H.D. 1994. Cardiopulmonary effects of three prolonged periods of isoflurane anesthesia in an adult elephant.Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205: 1439-1444.
Abstract: Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins 80523.
An adult 3500-kg female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was anaesthetized 3 times for treatment of subcutaneous fistulas over the lateral aspect of each cubitus (anaesthesia 1 and 2) and for repair of a fractured tusk (anaesthesia 3). Lateral recumbency and anaesthesia were achieved with etorphine (anaesthesia 1 and 2) or etorphine and azaperone (anaesthesia 3). The trachea was intubated and anaesthesia was maintained by isoflurane and oxygen delivered through 2 standard large animal anaesthesia machines joined in parallel. The range of total recumbency time was 2.4 to 3.3 h. Breathing and heart rates, systemic arterial pressure, rectal temperature, PaO2, pH and end-tidal gases were monitored. After administration of etorphine, measurements were made while the elephant was recumbent and breathing air, then every 5 min (cardiovascular) or 15 min (blood gases) after the start of administration of isoflurane and oxygen. Tachycardia and hypertension were detected after administration of etorphine, but heart rate and systemic arterial pressure decreased to within normal ranges after administration of isoflurane and oxygen. The elephant remained well oxygenated while anaesthetized and breathing a high oxygen mixture. The elephant had an uneventful recovery from each anaesthesia.

   87.    Gross M.E., Clifford C.A. and Hardy D.A. 1994. Excitement in an elephant after intravenous administration of atropine.Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205: 1437-1438.
Abstract: A 28-year-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was anaesthetized for cesarean section to remove a dead calf. The elephant was sedated with azaperone, and atropine was administered i.v. 90 minutes later in preparation for induction of anaesthesia with etorphine HCl. Within a minute of the injection of atropine the elephant began swaying kicking and moving in an agitated manner around the stall. It was concluded that there is considerable variation among species in the toxicity of atropine, although development of toxicosis usually is associated with overdosage.