|
.
... |
Return to
Database Index
Click
here if you need help searching
Anesthesia and Restraint
(The following additional keywords have been used
to categorize articles within this section and may assist your search.)
anesthesia, anesthesia monitoring, boma, capture
techniques, elephant restraint device, restraint
Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org
References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent
first.
Aroch, I.,
King, R., Baneth, G., 2007. Hematology and serum biochemistry values of
trapped, healthy, free-ranging rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) and
their association with age, sex, and gestational status. Vet. Clin.
Pathol. 36, 40-48.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: The rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) is an herbivore
prevalent from South Africa to Turkey, and a most common zoo animal.
Although many studies of hyrax diseases and physiology are available,
clinicopathologic data are limited. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this
study was to establish comprehensive hematologic and biochemical
reference intervals for trapped, apparently healthy, free-ranging rock
hyraxes using modern laboratory methods and to assess differences
related to sex, gestation, and age. METHODS: Blood samples were obtained
from 27 healthy, free-ranging hyraxes under anesthesia. Gender, body
weight, and gestational status were recorded. Hematologic (n = 25) and
serum biochemical (n = 22) analyses were performed using standard
automated methodology. Data for male vs female, adult vs juvenile, and
pregnant vs nonpregnant female hyraxes were compared using the
Mann-Whitney U-test. Associations between variables were assessed using
Pearson's or Spearman rank correlation tests. RESULTS: Significant age-
and sex-related, but not gestation-related differences were observed in
several variables. Serum alkaline phosphatase activity and phosphorus
concentration were significantly higher in juveniles compared with
adults. A unique type of monocyte comprised 1-3% of leukocytes in 4
hyraxes. Markedly high serum creatine kinase (CK) activity was observed
in most hyraxes. CONCLUSIONS: The large number of animals and the
availability of sex, age, and gestational data in this study will be
useful to zoo and wildlife veterinarians working with rock hyraxes. High
serum concentrations of betahydroxybutyric acid in the rock hyrax,
compared with dogs, cats, and ruminants, may be related to its unique
digestive system. High CK activity may have been the result of a capture
myopathy-like syndrome. The unique monocytes in hyraxes resemble those
of elephants and are a novel finding in this species
Neiffer, D.L.,
Miller, M.A., Weber, M., Stetter, M., Fontenot, D.K., Robbins, P.K., Pye,
G.W., 2005. Standing sedation in African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
using detomidine-butorphanol combinations. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36,
250-256.
Abstract: Standing sedation was provided for 14 clinical procedures in
three African elephants (Loxodonta africana) managed by combined
protected and modified-protected contact and trained through operant
conditioning. An initial hand-injection of detomidine hydrochloride and
butorphanol tartrate at a ratio of 1:1 on a microg:microg basis was
administered intramuscularly, with a dosage range of 50-70 mg (12.9-19.7
microg/kg) for each drug. The initial injection resulted in adequate
sedation for initiation and completion of eight procedures, whereas
supplemental doses were required for the remaining procedures. The
dosage range for the supplemental injections of each drug was 4.0-7.3
microg/kg. Initial effect was noted within 3.0-25 min (mean = 11.6 min,
SD +/- 5.9 min), with maximal effect occurring at 25-30 min for those
procedures not requiring supplementation. In all but one procedure, this
effect was maintained until the end of the procedure, which ranged from
47 to 98 min (mean = 74.7 min, SD +/- 18.8 min). No cardiac or
respiratory depression was appreciated. Recovery after administration of
reversal agents was rapid and complete, ranging from 2 to 20 min (mean =
9.0 min, SD +/- 7.0 min). On the basis of the authors' experience,
recommended dosage ranges for reversal agents would be intravenous
yohimbine (73.4-98.5 microg/kg), intravenous naltrexone (48.9-98.5
microg/kg), and intramuscular naltrexone (73.4-98.5 microg/kg).
Approximately one-third to one-half of the total naltrexone dose should
be administered intravenously. Mild adverse side effects limited to the
gastrointestinal tract were observed in association with five procedures
including abdominal distention with or without transient anorexia.
Administration of reversal agents, encouraging exercise and water
consumption, and administration of flunixin meglumine were helpful in
the resolution of signs. In addition to gastrointestinal signs, slight
ataxia was observed before initiation of surgical stimulation during one
procedure in which 19.7 microg/kg of each drug was administered. On the
basis of the procedures that did not require supplementation to initiate
treatment and taking into consideration the potential for ataxia at
higher doses, a starting dosage range of 14.7-16.2 microg/kg of both
detomidine and butorphanol in a ratio of 1:1 on a microg:microg basis
administered i.m. simultaneously is recommended
Plumb, D.C.,
2005. Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook. Blackwell Pub Professional.
Rasmussen,
H.B., Wittemyer, G., Douglas-Hamilton, I., 2005. Estimating age of
immobilized elephants from teeth impressions using dental silicon.
African Journal of Ecology 43, 215-219.
Abstract: High precision condensation dental silicon, ZetalaborTM,
was used to create moulds of the lower jaw molars from 22
immobilized African elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenback)
during radio collaring operations. These moulds were used to determine
the elephant's age using Laws and Jachmann's molar aging criteria. The
technique proved easy and fast and produced useful imprints in 90% of
the cases. We found our age estimates, based on physical appearance,
made prior to immobilizations were relatively accurate, with 75% within
±3 years and 95% within ±5 years from the age indicated from molar
evaluation. When re-collaring the same individuals in 2-3 years, new
moulds will be made to compare a known time period with the degree of
tooth wear. This will provide verification of Laws age estimates from
free-ranging elephants.
Suedmeyer,
W.K., Oosterhuis, J., Kollias, G., Fagan, D., Hornoff, B., Dodam, J.,
Shafford, H. Elephant restraint device assisted anesthesia in an African
elephant (Loxodonta africana). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA
Nutrition Advisory Group. 189-191. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Modern elephant management programs often include the use of
protected contact. This allows improved safety for the elephant staff
but may limit access to medical conditions occurring in elephants.
A 27-yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) weighing
an estimated 3,700 kg was anesthetized for evaluation of a chronic,
progressive, fistulous tract of the left ventral mandible. The mandible
was routinely cultured, flushed with diluted peroxide, chlorhexidine,
betadine solution, or alternating antibiotics, based on microbial
sensitivities. To properly assess the left mandible, the elephant had to
be placed in right lateral recumbency, which was accomplished with the
use of a commercially available rotational elephant restraint device (ERD).
Because of the protected contact management program, right lateral
recumbency could not be guaranteed at the time of immobilization.
Malpositioning, tusk fracture and/or related injury could occur upon
recumbency without the additional control afforded by the ERD. The ERD
is a hydraulically operated unit that comfortably restrains an elephant,
minimizing safety risks to the animal and staff. The ERD consists of one
solid wall, three side panels, and hinged floor. The ends of the
restraint are closed with moveable shift doors. The three side panels
can be moved independently depending upon the size of the animal and are
further subdivided with moveable "subpanels" to allow direct access to
various areas of the animal. In addition, support straps help gently
stabilize limbs when performing medical procedures. The unit is
positioned within the elephant holding facility at the Kansas City Zoo.
The unit was installed in 1994 during renovation of the elephant
exhibit, whereupon the elephant management program was changed from
free-contact to protected contact. The ERD is utilized for reproductive
assessments, semen collection, transabdominal ultrasound, evaluation of
integumentary wounds, ophthalmic and aural examination, and
administration of injectable medications. However, no elephant had been
anesthetized and rotated in the restraint. The affected animal could not
be guaranteed to re-enter the ERD once rotated, but would enter and
station in the ERD on a daily basis. Because of this, a conspecific was
conditioned to allow rotation without the use of sedatives or
tranquilizers, to prepare for the actual immobilization. Adjustments in
strap placement, cushioning, critical evaluation of mechanical
stability, and placement of hydraulic panels allowed staff to prepare
for the actual immobilization, minimizing complications. The elephant
was conditioned to enter and station in the ERD. After strapping the
distal limbs, thorax and caudal abdomen for support, the elephant was
immobilized with a combination of 3,000 IU of hyaluronidase (O'Brien
Pharmacy, Kansas City, MO USA), 10 mg acepromazine maleate, and 7 mg
etorphine hydrochloride (Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins, CO
USA) via pole syringe. Close monitoring of induction was performed and
when stage III anesthetic plane was achieved, the elephant was rotated
into right lateral recumbency, elevating the elephant 6 feet above the
floor. No voluntary movement of the animal was noted while the restraint
was in motion. Direct arterial blood pressure, indirect oscillometric
blood pressure, blood gases, respiratory rate, excursion
characteristics, cardiac rate and rhythm, and pulse oximetry was
routinely monitored during the procedure. Anesthesia was maintained with
intermittent boluses of etorphine hydrochloride. Intravenous physiologic
fluids (lactated Ringers solution) were maintained via an i.v. aural
catheter, and insufflation with oxygen was provided on a continual
basis. Oral examination and palpation demonstrated an incomplete
transverse fissure of the left mandibular molar, intact gingival, and
proper dental occlusion with the upper arcade. Digital radiographs of
the left mandible were performed based on exposures obtained with a set
of skeletonized jaws. Advantages of this diagnostic modality are the
immediate imaging results, portability, and digital imaging and storage,
and does not require a developer or fixative. Adjustments in
radiographic angle and technique were made to obtain the best diagnostic
image. Radiographic imaging demonstrated a sequestrum consisting of a
fractured enamel plate 2of the mandibular molar with a
fistulous tract that coursed ventrally to communicate through the skin.
The elephant was elevated 6 feet above the ground, which presented
unique challenges. Because of the relatively small operating space,
intubation was not possible, but insufflation was readily achieved and
successful based on pulse oximetry trends. A commercial lift was
utilized to elevate two large-animal circle anesthetic units to the
level of the elephant's head. During immobilization the legs were
cushioned and restraint straps removed to lessen the potential for
occlusive damage to the tissues. The ERD allows an elephant to be
positioned in either right or left lateral recumbency.
Upon completion of diagnostic procedures, the narcotic agent was
reversed with 1,400 mg naltrexone hydrochloride (Zoopharm, Laramie, WY
USA) administered 25% intravenously and 75% subcutaneously. The elephant
awoke within 90 sec and was rotated to a standing position within the
restraint. Thereafter, the elephant was confined in the restraint for
approximately 45 min, until no untoward effects were likely to occur.
The elephant was released from the restraint and resumed normal eating
and drinking within 8 hr, and voluntarily entered the restraint within 2
wk following the procedure. The elephant was stable throughout the
procedure; however, a predetermined objective for mean arterial blood
pressures (<200 MAP) was not achieved. Hyaluronidase was utilized to
promote rapid absorption of the narcotic and neuroleptic agents.3
Acetylpromazine was used to maintain peripheral perfusion by
reducing the hypertensive effects of etorphine,1 which has
been documented in previous immobilizations of African elephants.3-5
Etorphine hydrochloride, a powerful narcotic agent, has been
successfully used as an immobilizing agent in both wild and captive
African elephants.3-5 Use of an ERD allowed full control of
the immobilization, increasing safety for personnel, preventing injury
to the elephant, and positioning the left mandible on the dorsal plane.
Disadvantages are the elevated height of the elephant, relatively small
operating space, and disrupted line of sight communication. A second
procedure will be performed in the near future to address the fracture
and subsequent sequestrum diagnosed during the first immobilization. The
elephant is currently being conditioned to allow restraint in a holding
stall that will allow greater access to the oral cavity and surgical
manipulation of the affected mandible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the staff of the Kansas City Zoological Park for their care,
concern, and expertise in helping make this procedure a success.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Booth, N.H. Psychotropic agents. In: Booth, N.H., and R.E.
McDonald (eds.). Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. W.B.
Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA. P. 329.
2 Fagan, V.D.A., J.E. Oosterhuis, and A. Roocraft. 2001. Captivity
disorders in elephants: impacted molars and broken tusks. Der
Zoologische Garten 71:281-303.
3 Honeymoon, V.L., G.R. Pettifer, and D.H. Dyson. 1992. Arterial blood
pressure and blood gas values in normal standing and laterally recumbent
African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus)
elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 23:205-210.
4. Kock, R.A., P. Morkel, and M.D. Kock. 1993. Current immobilization
procedures used in elephants. In: Fowler,
M.E. (ed.). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3. W.B.
Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA. Pp. 436-441.
5 Raath, J.P. 1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler,
M.E., and R.E. Miller (eds.). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current
Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA. Pp. 525-533.
Abou-Madi,
N., Kollias, G.V., Hackett, R.P., Ducharme, N.G., Gleed, R.D., Moakler,
J.P., 2004. Umbilical herniorrhaphy in a juvenile Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus)
696. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 35, 221-225.
Abstract: An umbilical hernia was diagnosed in a 2-wk-old Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus) by physical and ultrasonographic examinations.
Umbilical herniorrhaphy was elected because the defect was large
(approximately 7 cm long and 10 cm deep) and could potentially lead to
incarceration of an intestinal loop. General anesthesia was induced with
a combination of ketamine, xylazine, and diazepam and maintained with
isoflurane in oxygen. The hernial sac was explored and contained fibrous
tissue, fat, and an intestinal loop but no adhesions. The hernial sac
was resected and the body wall closed using the technique of simple
apposition. Following a superficial wound infection, the surgical site
healed with no further complications.
Janssen, D.L.,
Oosterhuis, J.E., Fuller, J., Williams, K. Field technique: A method for
obtaining trunk wash mycobacterial cultures in anesthetized free-ranging
African elephants (Loxodonta africana). 2004 PROCEEDINGS
AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE. 582-583. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants
2003 (Guidelines) of the National tuberculosis Working Group
for Zoo and Wildlife Species were written to protect the health and
safety of captive elephants together with their handlers and the viewing
public.1 The Guidelines specifically address the display and
transport of captive elephants but do not address the unique situation
of free-living elephants being imported and subsequently displayed to
the public.
Although the Guidelines describe a technique for collecting and
handling a trunk wash in a trained, standing, non-anesthetized elephant,
it does not describe a similar technique for anesthetized elephants in
lateral recumbency. In an attempt to detect active mycobacterial
infection in a group of 3 male and 8 female free-ranging African
elephants scheduled for import into the United States, a technique was
developed for collecting trunk washes in recumbent, anesthetized
elephants for mycobacterial culture.
A South African game-capture crew, experienced in translocating
elephants, anesthetized elephants in groups via remote drug delivery and
from a helicopter. The ground crew accomplished multiple simultaneous
procedures including anesthesia maintenance and monitoring, physical and
reproductive examinations, collection of general diagnostic and
investigative samples, and trunk washes for mycobacterial cultures. This
was accomplished while the capture crew was preparing animals for
loading into specially designed trailers for transport to a holding boma.
Little time was available for any one of procedure with multiple
animals being attended to at one time.
Once an elephant was stable in lateral recumbency, a 3-m foal stomach
tube, prepackaged and sterilized, was inserted into the dependent side
of the trunk tip. It was then gently fed up the trunk approximately 2.5
m. A 50-ml sample suction trap was attached to the end of the foal
tube.The suction trap was then attached to a battery powered, portable
aspirator pump designed for emergency medical care. The aspiration pump
was activated to collect secretions from the most proximal portion of
the trunk. If little or no secretions were collected by this means, the
system was disconnected between the sample trap and the foal tube. Then,
100 ml of sterile saline was placed into raised end of the foal tube
allowing it to drain toward the tip through gravity. The suction trap
and aspiration pump were reattached to collect a sample in the sample
trap. Then, the sample trap was replaced with a new trap, and the foal
tube was inserted into the oral pharynx for collection of a separate
oropharyngeal sample. This same procedure was repeated
with each elephant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
So African veterinarians, Mike Bester, Larry Killmar, Janet Payeur,
ARC/OVI, Thomas Hildebrant, Eric Zeehandelar, Kevin Reily, Denise
SoFranko.
LITERATURE CITED
1. National tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species.
2003. Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants 2003.
USDA-APHIS: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf
Loomis, M.R.,
Loomis, J.M. Equipment for use in monitoring anesthetized animals in
remote geographic locations. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT
CONFERENCE. 499-501. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Monitoring anesthetized animals in remote geographic locations
with no electrical power source can be accomplished with the use of
commercially available equipment or with modifications of available
equipment. The use of portable solar panels to recharge batteries can
supply adequate power to operate most equipment. Equipment for
monitoring oxygenation, ventilation, cardiac rhythm and rate, blood
pressure and core temperature have been successfully used in areas
without an electrical grid or electrical generators.
Criteria for Choice of Equipment for Field Use
Size, weight, power requirements, durability and the ability to
operate in harsh environmental conditions should be considered when
choosing monitoring equipment for field use. Of concern are the power
requirement and the source of the power, particularly in areas where
there is no power grid or generator available.
Power Source
There are a number of types of rechargeable batteries on the
market.1 Nickel metal halide batteries (NiMH) were chosen for use in
monitoring equipment in this study (MAHA Powerx 2100mAh, Thomas
Distributing, 128 East Wood, Paris, IL 61944). NiMH batteries have
several features that make them attractive for remote use.1 They can be
recharged 500 to 1000 times, have no memory, have a fairly steady
discharge curve and have the least negative environmental impact when
disposed of than other available batteries.1 One disadvantage of NiMH
batteries is that they have a self discharge rate of 2-3% per day when
not in use. AA NiMH batteries produce 1.2 volts.
Battery energy output is measured in milliamp hours (mAh)2. A battery
rated at 1700 mAh will produce 1700 mA for 1 hr. Different manufacturers
produce batteries with different power outputs. AA NiMH batteries are
rated at up to 2400 mAh. The higher the mAh, the greater the output of
the battery.
Batteries are charged using fast, smart chargers attached to portable
solar panels (iPowerUS fast smart charger, iPower corporation, CA, USA).
A fast charger delivers the amount of current necessary to recharge the
battery in 1 hr or less. In general, a slower charge rate will extend
the overall life of the battery.3 To overcome the deleterious effects of
rapidly charging a battery, a smart charger has a current-limiter built
into it that reduce the current as the battery is charged, thereby
preventing most of the deterioration.3 The fast smart charger is
attached to a portable solar panel (Sun Catcher Expedition solar
charger, PowerQwest, Inc.3400 Corporate Way, Suite C Duluth, GA 30096
USA) via a 12 volt "cigarette lighter" type plug. The panel produces 25
watts of power, which is more than enough power to charge 8 AA NiMH
batteries at a time. Equipment that uses AA or AAA batteries is
preferred so that a large number of different sized rechargeable
batteries are not required in the field.
Monitoring Equipment
Oxygenation is measured with a pulse oximeter or by arterial blood
gas determination using a portable clinical analyzer. Several brands of
pulse oximeters have been successfully used and recharged in the field.
An Invacare model 3402NV (Sims BCI, Inc., Waukesha, WI 53186) is
relatively small, light weight and operates on 6 AA batteries. This
oximeter is durable and operates well on rechargeable AA NiMH batteries.
An I-Stat portable clinical analyzer (Heska Corp. 1613 Prospect Parkway,
Fort Collins, CO 80525 USA) has been successfully used in the field
using rechargeable 9-volt NiMH batteries. A challenge of using the
I-Stat in the field is the analyzer's normal operating temperature of
16-30°C (61-86°F). The I-Stat has been kept in the proper operating
temperature range by placing it in a 12-volt thermoelectric cooler
(Coleman, Spirit Lake, IA 51360, USA). The thermoelectric cooler runs
directly off of the solar panel.
Ventilation is measured using capnography or arterial blood gas
determination. The criteria for choice of a capnograph include a
waveform display, mainstream and sidestream capabilities and powered by
rechargeable AA batteries. The Novametrix Tidal Wave model 615 (Novametrix
Medical Systems, INC., Wallingford, and CT USA 06492) meets these
criteria. The Tidal Wave comes standard with a rechargeable
computer-type battery, but can be ordered with a battery tray, which
holds 7 AA batteries. This instrument is durable and operates well on
rechargeable NiMH batteries. The sidestream capability allows a large
gauge needle to be placed in the lumen of a large endotracheal tube for
sampling.
Cardiac rate and rhythm are monitored by use of an electrocardiograph (ECG).
A compact ECG unit (Heska Vet/ECG 2000, Heska Corp., 1613 Prospect
Parkway, Fort Collins, CO 80525 USA) that operates on 3 AAA rechargeable
NiMH batteries is durable and dependable in the field. Blood pressure is
measured by a direct arterial line or by indirect methods. Of the
indirect methods, automated oscillometry has been successfully used in
the field. No automated oscillometric blood pressure machine that runs
on replaceable batteries could be found. A compact, durable instrument,
Oscillomate 9300 (CAS Medical Systems, Inc., 44 East Industrial Blvd.,
Branford, CT 06405), was modified for field use. A transformer was
manufactured which is inserted between the internal battery of the blood
pressure monitor and the solar panel. This allows the internal battery
of the blood pressure monitor to be recharged directly from the solar
panel.
All monitoring equipment, battery chargers and rechargeable NiMH
batteries are transported into the field in a backpack that is designed
for photographic equipment (Lowepro Supertrecker AW II, Lowepro USA,
P.O. Box 6189, Santa Rosa, CA 95406). All of the above equipment has
been dependably used to monitor immobilized elephants in a variety of
remote habitats in Cameroon, including dry, hot habitat,2 hot humid
habitat.
LITERATURE CITED
1. New technology batteries guide: available battery types.
http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/batype. htm, March, 2004.
2. New technology batteries guide: performance, economics and
tradeoffs.http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/ba-type.htm,
March, 2004.
3. New technology batteries guide: battery chargers and adapters.http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/ba-char.htm,
March, 2004.
4. Horne, W.A., M.N. Tchamba, and M.R. Loomis. 2001. A simple method of
providing intermittent positivepressureventilation to etorphine-immobilized
elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field. J. Zoo Wildl.Med.
32: 519-522.
Sarma, K.K.,
Sarma, M., Sarma, D.K., 2004. Safety of repeated xylazine hydrochloride
administrations in elephants. Indian Veterinary Journal 81,
886-889.
2003.
Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project
Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.
Ollivet-Courtois, F., Lecu, A., Yates, R.A., Spelman, L.H., 2003.
Treatment of a sole abscess in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) using
regional digital intravenous perfusion. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 34, 292-295.
Abstract: Regional digital i.v. perfusion was used to treat a severe
sole abscess associated with a wire foreign body in a 19-yr-old female
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) housed at the Paris Zoo. The cow
presented with acute right forelimb lameness and swelling that persisted
despite 4 days of anti-inflammatory therapy. Under anesthesia, a 10- x
0.5- x 0.5-cm wire was extracted from the sole of the right foot. There
was a 2-cm-deep, 7-cm-diameter abscess pocket that was subsequently
debrided. Regional digital i.v. perfusion was performed and repeated 15
days later, using cefoxitin and gentamicin on both occasions. Between
treatments, the cow received trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and
phenylbutazone orally. Within 2 days of administering anesthesia and the
first perfusion treatment, the lameness improved dramatically. When
phenylbutazone was discontinued 1 wk after the first treatment, the
lameness had completely resolved. At the second treatment, there was no
evidence of further soft tissue infection, and the abscess pocket had
resolved.
Pathak, S.C.,
2003. Restraint and chemical immobilization of elephants. In: Das, D.
(Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project
Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 23-27.
Pitts, N.I.,
Mitchell, G., 2003. In vitro succinylcholine hydrolysis in plasma of the
African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and impala (Aepyceros melampus).
Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 134, 123-129.
Abstract: In elephants the time lapsed from i.m. injection of an
overdose of the muscle relaxant succinylcholine (SuCh) until death, is
significantly longer than in impala. To determine a difference in the
rate of SuCh hydrolysis, once the drug enters the circulation,
contributes to this phenomenon we have measured the rate of hydrolysis
of SuCh in elephant and impala plasma, and by elephant erythrocytes.
Rate of hydrolysis was determined by incubating SuCh in plasma or
erythrocyte lysate at 37 degrees C and quantifying the choline produced.
Plasma SuCh hydrolytic activity in elephant plasma (12.1+/-1.7 Ul(-1)
mean+/-S.D.; n=9) was significantly higher than it was in impala plasma
(6.6+/-0.6 Ul(-1); n=5), but were approximately 12 and 21 times lower,
respectively, than in human plasma. Elephant erythrocyte lysate had no
SuCh hydrolytic activity. Applying this data to previous studies, we can
show that the ratio of SuCh absorption to SuCh hydrolysis is expected to
be 1.25:1 and 1.41:1 for elephants and impala respectively. It will thus
take at least 1.7 times longer for elephant to achieve a plasma SuCh
concentration similar to that in impala. We conclude that a more rapid
hydrolysis of SuCh in elephant plasma is one factor that contributes to
the longer time to death compared to impala.
Schmitt, D.L.,
2003. Proboscidea (Elephants). In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.),
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Elsevier Science USA, pp. 541-550.
Steiner, M.,
Gould, A.R., Clark, T.J., Burns, R., 2003. Induced elephant (Loxodonta
africana) tusk removal. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 34,
93-95.
Abstract: Elephant tusk removal usually requires costly surgical
procedures that are time-consuming and present a significant risk to the
animal when performed using general anesthesia. Such techniques require
gauges, chisels, and forceps to remove the tusk. This article reports
the simple removal of the tusk of an 18-yr-old African elephant
(Loxodonta africana) without the use of surgical instruments and
anesthesia. Rubber elastics were placed around a tusk, causing loss of
alveolar bone with subsequent exfoliation of the tusk within 3 wk. The
healing process was uneventful. Department of Surgical and Hospital
Dentistry, School of Dentistry, University of Louisville, Louisville,
Kentucky 40292, USA.
Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Elephant - an overview. Journal of Indian
Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 8-11.
Cheeran, J.,
2002. Adverse drug experiences in elephants. Journal of Indian
Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 61.
Cheeran, J.V.,
Panicker, K.C., Kaimal, R.K., Giridas, P.B., 2002. Tranquillization and
translocation of captive bulls. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants
on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the
Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO
Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp.
219-222.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional
Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,
Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org
Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 2002.
Tranquilization and translocation of elephants. Journal of Indian
Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 42-46.
Kreeger,
T.J., Arnemo, J.M., Raath, J.P., 2002. Handbook of wildlife chemical
immobilization. Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A.
Milroy, A.J.W.,
2002. A.J.W. Milroy's Management of Elephants in Captivity. Natraj
Publishers, Dehra Dun, New Delhi, India.
Nayar, K.N.M.,
Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 2002. Management of surgical
affections in captive elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary
Association Kerala 7, 55-59.
Pitts, N.I.,
Mitchell, G., 2002. Pharmacokinetics and effects of succinylcholine in
African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and impala (Aepyceros melampus).
Eur J Pharm Sci 15, 251-260.
Abstract: The phenomenon of slow onset of succinylcholine (Sch) effect
in elephants was investigated by analyzing blood concentrations of Sch
and its metabolite choline in elephant and impala. To assess whether the
slow onset phenomenon is related to the pharmacokinetics of Sch
following i.m. administration, we analyzed the time course of plasma
concentrations of intact drug and its metabolite and determined its
pharmacological effects. Blood samples were obtained from anaesthetized
elephant (n=6) and impala (n=7) following i.m. administration of a
lethal dose of Sch. Time from Sch injection to onset of apnoea and to
death was significantly longer for elephant than impala (mean+/-S.D.
apnoea 4.4+/-1.5 and 2.3+/-0.9 min, respectively; death 32.6+/-7.3 and
6.2+/-3.4 min, respectively). The C(max) was not different between
elephants and impala (20.3+/-7.9 vs. 14.4+/-6.8 nmol ml(-1),
respectively) but the t(max) was significantly longer for elephants
(23.0+/-7.6 vs. 3.7+/-2.2 min). Analysis of the plasma Sch and choline
concentrations over time revealed that the relative amount of Sch
entering the circulation within the first 30 s after i.m. injection is
greater for impala than elephant. No greater rate in the plasma
hydrolysis of Sch in elephant compared to impala was apparent.
Rajkamal, P.J.,
Rajeev, T.S., 2002. Training the Mahouts. Journal of Indian Veterinary
Association Kerala 7, 24, 30-30.
Sarma, B., Pathak, S.C., Sarma, K.K., 2002.
Medetomidine
a novel immobilizing agent for the elephant (Elephas maximus). Research
in Veterinary Science 73, 315-317.
Abstract: Medetomidine was injected by the intramuscular route at the
rates of 3 and 5 microg/kg body weight into two groups of Indian
elephants (Elephas maximus). Sedation was induced at 6.20 (0.81) and
5.90 (0.60) min respectively after injection. The duration of
anaesthesia was 66.20 (10.4) and 134.20 (24.12) min, respectively and
recovery occurred at 125.80 (25.23) and 205.89 (29.3) min. The notable
signs of sedation exhibited by the elephants were protrusion of penis,
complete relaxation of trunk, flaccidity of tail and drooping of the
ears with a head down position. During sedation, physiological
parameters recorded were bradycardia, decreased respiration and
hypothermia.
Tongwongsa,
S., Diskul, M.L.P., Kanchanapangka, S., Mahasawangkul, S., Lungka, G.,
Angkswanich, T., 2002. The use of an etorphine-acepromazine cocktail for
immobilization and diprenorphine as it's antagonist in an elephant
(Elephas maximus indicus). Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 32,
45-51.
Abstract: Etorphine hydrochloride (2.45 mg/ml) in combination with
acepromazine maleate (10 mg/ml) is a very potent neuroleptanalgesic. The
drug principally affects psychomotor activities. With a bundle of
roughage still in his mouth, Plai Kum-Sand, a 3400 kgs, bull elephant,
35 years of age lay down 6 minutes after an intramuscularly injection.
In lateral recumbency and snoring, the heart rate was 44 beats/minute
with respiration at 4 breaths/minute. This heavy level of sedation was
reversed quickly and successfully using 9.78 mg of the antidote,
diprenorphine hydrochloride intravenously, 18 minutes after anaesthetic
challenge. The bull opened his eyes 2 minutes afterward. He moved, stood
upright, and started nibbling food 6 minutes 30 seconds after
diprenorphine administration.
du Toit, J.G.,
2001. Veterinary Care of African Elephants. Novartis and south African
Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria, Republic of Southhttp://bigfive.jl.co.za./elephant_book.htm
Africa.
Abstract: This manual is a project of the South African Veterinary
Foundation and Novartis South Africa (Pty) Ltd. It is distributed by
Wildlife Decision Support
PO BOX 74610, Lynnwood Ridge, Pretoria, RSA, 0040; Tel: +27 12991-3083;
Fax: +27 12991-3851 Online:http://bigfive.jl.co.za./elephant_book.htm
Horne, W.A.,
Tchamba, M.N., Loomis, M.R., 2001. A simple method of providing
intermittent positive-pressure ventilation to etorphine-immobilized
elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 32, 519-522.
Abstract: Five African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were immobilized
with etorphine in Waza National Park, Cameroon, for the purpose of
deploying radio/satellite tracking collars. A portable ventilator
constructed from two high-flow demand valves and the Y-piece of a large
animal anesthesia circuit was used to provide intermittent
positive-pressure ventilation with 100% oxygen. Oxygenation status
improved dramatically in all five elephants. In one hypoxemic elephant,
arterial PaO2 increased from 40 to 366 mm Hg. The results of this study
demonstrate that both oxygenation and ventilation can be readily
controlled etorphine-immobilized elephants even under remote field
conditions.
Rietschel,
W., Hildebrandt, T., Goritz, F., Ratanakorn, P. Sedation of Thai Working
Elephants with Xylazine and Atipamezole as a Reversal. A Research Update
on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and
Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 121-123. 2001.
Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Sarma, K.K.,
Pathak, S.C., 2001. Cardio vascular response to xylazine and Hellabrunn
mixture with Yohimbine as reversal agent in Asian elephants. Indian
Veterinary Journal 78, 400-492.
Abstract: Xylazine (0.1 mg/kg body weight) produced highly significant
bradycardia and hypotension in recumbent Asian elephants, with a peak
depression observed at the 30th minute for heart rate and 30th minute in
the mean arterial pressure (MAP). Ketamine (1.25 : 1 ratio with xylazine)
mildly marginalised the bradycardia, but remarkably improved the MAP.
Yohimbine, used to reverse the sedation produced by xylazine did not
appear to influence these parameters to any appreciable levels.
Sarma, K.K.,
2001. Musth in Asian Elephant. Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi, India.
Sarma, K.K.,
2001. Medetomidine as an immobilizing agent in free ranging Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus). Intas Polivet 2, 209-211.
Heard, D.J.
Captive elephant anesthesia. Proc.North Am.Vet. Conf. 1043-1044. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Horne, W.A.,
Tchamba, M.N., Loomis, M.R. A simple method of providing intermittent
positive-pressure ventilation to etorphine-immobilized elephants
(Loxodonta africana) in the field. Proceedings AAZV and IAAAM Joint
Conference. 27-30. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Osofsky,
S.A., Hirsch, K.J., 2000. Chemical restraint of endangered mammals for
conservation purposes: a practical primer. Oryx 34, 27-33.
Ramsay, E.
Standing sedation and tranquilization in captive African elephants (Loxodonta
africana). Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. 111-114. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Fowler, M.E.,
Miller, R.E., 1999. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 4. W.B.
Saunders, Philadelphia.
Fowler, M.E.,
Steffey, E.P., Galuppo, L., Pascoe, J.R. Standing immobilization and
anesthesia in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Proc. Am.
Assoc. Zoo Vet. 107-110. 1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Gage, L.J.,
Blasko, D.R., Galuppo, L.D. Diagnostics and treatment of severe swelling
of the pharyngeal tissues of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).
Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 105-108.
1999. 10-9-1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Hoare, R.,
1999. Reducing Drug Inductions Time in the Field Immobilization of
Elephants. Pachyderm 27, 49-54.
Abstract: Individual elephants have been routinely immobilized by remote
injection (darting) methods for research, translocation or the treatment
of injuries. Any operation to immobilize an elephant is both expensive
and a considerable logistical exercise in which much can go wrong.
Logistical problems, veterinary complications, danger to people and
wastage of money can be largely avoided by limiting the animal's
post-darting travel. Although operator technique plays a large part,
safe recumbency can be greatly facilitated through the rapid knock-down
effect of high doses of the immobilizing drug propelled in a type of
dart which overcomes two common problems: poor placement and malfunction
of the internal detonation mechanism.
Mohan, A.B.,
Lakshmi, B.B., 1999. The successful capture and training of two strayed
wild elephants "Jay - Vijay" in Sri Venkateswara Wildlife Sanctuary,
Andhra Pradesh. Zoos' Print Journal 14, 1-6.
Nielsen, L.,
1999. Chemical Immobilization of Wild and Exotic Animals. Iowa State
University Press, Ames, IA.
Raath, J.P.,
1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E.
(Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders,
Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 525-533.
Sarma, K.K.,
1999. Bizarre behaviour of an elephant during xylazine anaesthesia.
Indian Veterinary Journal 76, 1018-1019.
Stegmann, G.F.,
1999. Etorphine-halothane anaesthesia in two five-year-old African
elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of the South African Veterinary
Medical Association 70, 164-166.
Abstract: Anaesthesia of 2 five-year-old female African elephants
(Loxodonta africana) was required for dental surgery. The animals were
each premedicated with 120 mg of azaperone 60 min before transportation
to the hospital. Before offloading, 1 mg etorphine was administered
intramuscularly (i.m.) to each elephant to facilitate walking them to
the equine induction/recovery room. For induction, 2 mg etorphine was
administered i.m. to each animal. Induction was complete within 6 min.
Surgical anaesthesia was induced with halothane-in-oxygen after
intubation of the trunk. During surgery the mean heart rate was 61 and
45 beats/min respectively. Systolic blood pressures increased to 27.5
and 25.6 kPa respectively, and were treated with intravenous azaperone.
Blood pressure decreased thereafter to a mean systolic pressure of 18.1
and 19.8 kPa, respectively. Rectal temperature was 35.6 and 33.9 degrees
C at the onset of surgery, and decreased to 35.3 and 33.5 degrees C,
respectively, at the end of anaesthesia. Etorphine anaesthesia was
reversed with 5 mg diprenorphine at the completion of 90 min of surgery.
Elkan, P.W.,
Planton, H.P., Powell, J.A., Haigh, J.A., Karesh, W.B., 1998. Chemical
immobilization of African elephant in lowland forest,southwestern
Cameroon. Pachyderm 25, 32-37.
Hattingh, J.,
deVos, V., Ganhao, M.F., Pitts, N.I., 1998. Physiological responses of
the buffalo Syncerus caffer culled with succinyldicholine and
hexamethonium. Koedoe 31, 91.
Abstract: Changes in the blood composition of elephants and buffaloes
herded by helicopter and killed with succinyldicholine (Scoline)
indicate stress. Death is probably due to decreased PO2 levels. The
collective percentage change of eight blood constituents used to measure
physiological stress was reduced from 30% in buffaloes killed with
succinyldicholine alone to 22% in those killed with succinyldicholine
plus hexamethonium, as opposed to 17% with herding alone and 10% with
succinyldicholine alone without herding.
Honeyman, V.L.,
Cooper, R.M., Black, S.R. A protected contact approach to anesthesia and
medical management of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
Proceedings AAZV and AAWV Joint Conference. 338-341. 1998.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Bosi, E.J.,
Kilbourn, A.M., Andau, M., Tambing, E. Translocation of wild Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) in Sabah, Malaysia. Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 302. 1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The East Malaysian State of Sabah is believed to be home to
about 1000 wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Some forest habitat
has been lost through agricultural development. In some cases,
elephants are stranded in small pockets of forest which are unable to
sustain them. The Wildlife Department of Sabah has adopted a policy of
capturing and translocating these animals to wildlife forest reserves.
The capture of these wild animals is made possible using chemicals such
as Immobilon (etorphine HCl and acepromazine maleate) and Xylazil-100 (xylazine
HCl). The reversal agents are Revivon (Diprenorphine) and Reverzine (Yohimbine),
respectively. A recent capture and translocation exercise carried out
involving eight wild elephants employed xylazine hydrochloride. The
dose of xylazine used was calculated based on the diameter of the front
footprint which provides information on body dimensions when actual
weights are not available. Xylazine doses used ranged from 100-550 mg
with a mean of 0.209 mg/kg body weight. Sedation was observed within 26
min after the darting. The animals were then shackled and tethered.
The time for the capture operations ranged from 27-110 mins, with a mean
of 72 min. Xylazine is used again during the loading of the animals
onto the lorries. It is an effective sedative for wild elephants which
can be adjusted or reversed. The choice and used of this drug depends
entire on the ability to track the animal after darting and the ability
to maneuver the captive elephants into suitable locations for tethering
prior to loading. Heavy machinery is required to load the animals,
unlike most other wild Asian elephant translocations were trained
elephants are used to facilitate loading.
Karesh, W.B.,
Smith, K.H., Smith, F., Atalia, M., Morkel, P., Torres, A., House, C.,
Braselton, W.E., Dierenfeld, E.S. Elephants, buffalo, kob, and
rhinoceros: immobilization, telemetry, and health evaluations.
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 296-230. 1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Osofsky,
S.A., 1997. A practical anesthesia monitoring protocol for free-ranging
adult African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Wildlife
Diseases 33, 72-77.
Abstract: Twenty free-ranging adult African elephants in northern
Botswana were immobilized with a mean (± SD) of 9.5 ± 0.5 mg etorphine
hydrochloride and 2000 IU hyaluronidase by i.m. dart. The mean time to
recumbency was 8.7 ± 2.4 min. All animals were maintained in lateral
recumbency. The anaesthesia monitoring protocol included cardiothoracic
auscultation; palpation of auricular pulse for quality and regularity;
checking of rectal temperature, and monitoring of respiratory and heart
rates. Results of basic physiological measurements were similar to those
of previous field studies of African elephants immobilized with
etorphine or etorphine-hyaluronidase. In addition, continuous real-time
pulse rate and percent oxygen saturation of haemoglobin (SpO2)
readings were obtained on 16 elephants with a portable pulse oxygen
meter. Duration of pulse oximetry monitoring ranged from 3 to 24 min
(mean ±SD = 8.2 ± 4.8 min). Differences between minimum and maximum SpO2
values for any given elephant ranged from 1 to 6 percentage points,
evidence for relatively stable trends. The SpO2 readings
ranged from 70% to 96% among the 16 elephants, with a mean of 87.3 ±
2.8%. 15 of 16 elephants monitored with a pulse oximeter had mean SpO2
values = 81 ± 2.4%, with 11 having mean SpO2 values = 85 ±
1.5%. All 20 animals recovered uneventfully following reversal:
diprenorphine at 23.3 ± 1.5 mg (IV) with 11.7 ± 0.5 mg IM, or 24 mg
diprenorphine given all IV.
Sarma, K.K.,
Pathak, S.C., 1997. A review of the anaesthetic management of elephants.
Journal of Assam Vet. Council, 7-8, 16-17.
Sharma S.P.,
1997. Surgical treatment of gunshot wounds under xylazine and ketamine
anaesthesia in an elephant: clinical case report. Indian Veterinary
Journal 74, 973-974.
Bengis, R.G.
Chemical capture of the free ranging African elephant. Proc.North.
Am.Vet.Conf. 892-894. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Bush, M.,
Raath, J.P., de Vos, V., Stoskopf, M., 1996. Serum oxytetracycline
levels in free-ranging male African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
injected with a long-acting formulation. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 27, 382-385.
Abstract: Thirteen adult free-living male African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) were anesthetized and given 20-100 g of a long-acting
tetracycline (OTC) preparation either i.m. or i.v. Five dosages were
established based on body measurements (the sum of the body length and
the girth in centimeters) Serum concentrations of OTC were measured 48
hr after injection. Serum concentrations >/= 0.5 mg/ml
were measured in 11 of 12 elephants receiving OTC dosages of 52-133
mg/cm either i.v. or i.m. The i.m. administration route produced serum
concentrations from 0.75-1.6 mg/ml
in four of four elephants. A dosage of 60-80 mg/cm i.m. or i.v. should
provide a therapeutic serum concentration of OTC for at least 48 hr.
The use of an i.v. catheter avoids multiple i.m. injections of large
drug volumes.
Coetsee, C.,
1996. Elephant Translocations. Pachyderm 22, 81.
Abstract: Notes: Following immobilization for translocation of 670
elephants in family units in 1993, haloperidol (40 to 120 mg depending
on body size) was used as a tranquilizer during transport. In addition,
azaperone, (50-200 mg) was often administered to avoid aggression.
Trilafon (perphenazine (100-300 mg) was administered to keep animals
calm after their release into bomas.
Manna, S.,
1996. Chemical immobilization and treatment of a wild elephant. Indian
Veterinary Journal 73, 1260-1261.
Njumbi, S.T.,
Waithaka, J., Gachago, S., Sakwa, J., Mwathe, K., Mungai, P., Mulama,
M., Mutinda, H., Omondi, P., Litoroh, M., 1996. Translocation of
elephants: the Kenyan experience. Pachyderm 22, 61-65.
Sarma, K.K.,
Kalita, D., Dutta, B., Barua, S.K., 1996. Determination of mean arterial
pressure (MAP) in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Indian Veterinary
Journal 73, 777-778.
Schaftenaar,
W. Vaginal vestibulotomy in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 434-439. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Due to its dimensions, dystocia in elephants presents a
difficult problem. This paper describes the delivery of a dead calf by
surgical intervention. A vestibulotomy was performed under local
anesthesia. Complications in wound healing resulted in a permanent
fistula of the vestibulum. The difficulties in decision making and the
interpretation of clinical signs are discussed.
Schmitt, D.,
Bradford, J., Hardy, D.A. Azaperone for standing sedation in Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus). Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 48-51. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Azaperone was used for standing sedation in four Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) in 93 trials at Dickerson Park Zoo (DPZ).
Procedures including surgical artificial insemination, semen collection,
and routine foot trimming were completed while utilizing azaperone as a
sedative. All procedures were performed within an elephant restraint
device. Azaperone has proven to be a safe and reliable drug for
facilitation of routine health and reproductive-related procedures in
captive Asian elephants when administered at 0.30 mg/kg. the
procurement of azaperone in the United States has been difficult due to
changing manufacturing and distribution procedures. The utilization of
an Investigational New Animal Drug permit from the Food and Drug
Administration is described, to facilitate procurement of azaperone from
Canada for use in the United States.
Schmitt, D.L.,
Bradford, J.P., Hardy, D.A. Foot care in Asian elephants using rotating
elephant restraint device. Proceedings American Association of Zoo
Veterinarians. 52-53. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Foot care for elephants is an area that many veterinarians
often become involved with only when individuals are not responsive to
normal foot care provided by keepers or when intractable elephants
require veterinary attention for sedation to enable access to the animal
for treatment. The use of a rotating elephant restraint is described
and the methods for foot treatment that are useful in the normal care of
elephants with or without the use of a rotating elephant restraint.
Singh, L.A.K.,
Nayak, B.N., Acharjya, S.K., 1996. Chemical capture of a
problem-elephant in Bolangir, Orissa. Indian Forester, Special issue:
wildlife management. 122, 955-960.
Abstract: A detailed account is given of the method used to capture an
elephant which had been regularly (over 18 yr) entering villages in the
Bolangir and Padampur areas of NW Orissa, and causing damage to
buildings, eating stored grains and injuring humans. Some 45 people took
part in the capture operation which involved the use of darts containing
Immobilon (etorphine hydrochloride and acepromazine maleate) to the
animal, and of (diprenorphine hydrochloride) for revival. The human
antidote for (Nar can) was kept on hand. The communication system, the
operational strategies used, and then care and revival processes adopted
for the animal are described. It is thought that the animal (with a
female) had originally been in the care of a mahout who was taken into
custody for some crime so that the animals were abandoned. The female
appeared to have been accepted back into the wild, while the male
continued to follow the routes used by the mahout. The purpose of
capture was to control or translocate the animal.
Still, J.,
Raath, J.P., Matzner, L., 1996. Respiratory and circulatory parameters
of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) anaesthetised with etorphine
and azaperone. J S Afr Vet Assoc 67, 123-127.
Abstract: Department of Companion Animal Medicine and Surgery, Medical
University of Southern Africa, Medunsa, South Africa.
Respiratory rate, heart rate, blood-gas tensions (PO2 and PCO2) and pH
of arterial (a) and peripheral venous (v) blood, concentration of
haemoglobin in arterial blood (Hb), saturation of arterial haemoglobin
with oxygen and the end-expiratory concentration of oxygen were measured
in 22 juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta africana) anaesthetised with
etorphine and azaperone during a period of 35-65 minutes after they had
assumed lateral recumbency. Based on these parameters the
alveolar-arterial and arterial-peripheral venous differences of PO2
[P(A-a)O2 and P(a-v)O2 respectively] and oxygen content of arterial
blood (CaO2) were calculated. Elephants with body mass of < or = 600 kg
showed statistically significant changes in the following parameters,
compared with elephants with a body mass of more than 600 kg (x +/- SD):
PaO2 (64 +/- 11 versus 82 +/- 8 mmHg), P(a-v)O2 (9 +/- 5 versus 22 +/- 9
mmHg), P(A-a)O2(37 +/- 16 versus 15 +/- 8 mmHg) and Hb (148 +/- 20
versus 130 +/- 10 g/l) (p < 0.05). These findings suggested a tendency
towards impaired oxygen exchange in the lungs, reduced peripheral
extraction of oxygen and elevated oxygen-carrying capacity of arterial
blood in smaller elephants. These changes were theoretically attributed
to the respiratory-depressant and sympathomimetic effects of higher
dosages of etorphine used in the smaller elephants to maintain a
clinically acceptable anaesthetic plane. Individual elephants spent
35-150 minutes under anaesthesia and all recovered uneventfully after
reversal of etorphine with diprenorphine.
Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 1995.
Principles
and Practice of Fixing Dose of Drugs for Elephants. In: Daniel, J.C.
(Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar
on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University
Press, Bombay, India, pp. 430-438.
Abstract: The traditional thumb rule of determining dose in domestic
animals has been Cat - 1/2, Dog - 1, Sheep and Goat - 3, Horse - 16,
Cattle - 24. However this was valid only for galenicals like Tinctures
and Pulvis and also to some extent for pure chemicals used as drugs like
potassium iodide, ammonium chloride etc. Development of modern
techniques like determination of half life and minimum effective
concentration changed the course and pattern of determining the dose of
drugs in animals as well as in man. Some drugs which are of low
therapeutic margin is, even recommended considering the surface area of
the body (e.g. antineoplastic drugs). Wild animals provide not enough
number, for experimental purposes to arrive at a proper recommendation.
In such circumstances pharmacologists often extrapolate the dose from
their "evolutionary cousins" some of which are domestic animals. But
unfortunately in elephants such "close cousins" do not exist neither in
the wild nor in the domestic category. This makes fixing of dosage all
the more difficult. Hence often the dose has been arbitrarily fixed from
clinical experiences. The article details the above principles as well
as lists of dose of various pharmacological and chemotherapeutic agents
used in clinical practice in elephants (Table 1).
Ebedes, H.
The use of long term neuroleptics in the confinement and transport of
wild animals. Joint Conf AAZV/WDA/AAWV. 173-176. 1995. 1995.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Fowler, M.E.,
1995. Elephants. Restraint and handling of wild and domestic animals.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 265-269.
Fowler, M.E.,
1995. Restraint and handling of wild and domestic animals. Iowa State
University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA.
Kramer, B.,
Hattingh, J., 1995. The neuromuscular junction in the African elephant
Loxodonta africana and African buffalo Syncerus caffer.
South African Journal of Wildlife Research 25, p14, 3p, 2bw.
Abstract: Differences in the physiological response to the drug
succinyldicholine occur between the African elephant Loxodonta
africana and African buffalo Syncerus caffer, irrespective of
the route of administration of the drug. The response in elephants has
suggested the presence of unique acetylcholine receptors in their
respiratory muscles. In this paper the first observations of the
neuromuscular junction in the African elephant and African buffalo are
reported. While the basic structure of the junction was found to be
typically mammalian in both species, differences were found in the
morphology of the postjunctional area where these receptors reside.
Elucidation of the structure and function of this junction in these
animals is important in the selection of drugs that act as neuromuscular
blockers.
Osofsky, S.A.
Pulse oximetry monitoring of free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) immobilized with an etorphine/hyaluronidase combination
antagonized with diprenorphine. Joint Conference AAZV/WDA/AAWV.
237-277. 1995.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Schumacher,
J., Heard, D.J., Caligiuri, R., Norton, T., Jacobson, E.R., 1995.
Comparative effects of etorphine and carfentanil on cardiopulmonary
parameters in juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta africana).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 26, 503-507.
Abstract: Fourteen African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were
immobilized with either etorphine hydrochloride (3.2 ± 0.5 µg/kg i.m.)
or carfentanil citrate (2.4 µg/kg i.m.). Induction time with etorphine
was significantly longer (30 ± 21 min) than with carfentanil (8 ± 2
min). Immediately following immobilization all elephants were placed in
lateral recumbency and respiratory rate, heart rate, and rectal body
temperature were monitored every 5 min throughout the immobilization
period. Arterial blood samples, collected from an auricular artery,
were taken 10 min after immobilization and every 15 min thereafter for
up to 1 hr. At the first sampling, mean values for arterial blood gas
variables for etorphine immobilized elephants were pHa, 7.29 ± 0.03;
PaCO2, 53.4 ± 5.2 mmHg; PaO2, 71.8 ± 13.8 mmHg;
standard base excess (SBE), -1.6 ± 2.9 mEq/L; and HCO3, 25.7 ± 2.7 mEq/L.
After 1 hr of immobilization, mean arterial blood gas values were pHa,
7.32 ± 0.06; PaCO2 , 57.2 ± 9.6 mm Hg; and PaO2 ,
53.8 ± 10.5 mm Hg; SBE, 2.7 ± 1.4 mEq/L; and HCO3-, 30.6 ±
1.6 mEq/L. For carfentanil immobilized elephants, blood gas values at
the first time of collection were pHa, 7.28 ± 0.04; PaCO2,
52.1 ± 2.8 mmHg; PaO2, 78.3 ± 14.7 mmHg; SBE, -2.3 ± 24 mEq/L;
and HCO3-, 24.3 ± 2.1 mEq/L. Sixty minutes after the first
sampling, blood gas values of one elephant were pHa, 7.38; PaCO2,
48.7 mmHg; PaO2, 52 mmHg; SBE, 3.4 mEq/L, and HCO3-,
28.8 mEq/L. Over time there was a progressive decline in arterial PO2
in all elephants. It is concluded that elephants immobilized with
either etorphine HCl or carfentanil developed hypoxemia (PaO2
< 60 mmHg) after 30 min of immobilization. It is recommended that the
administration of one of these opioid drugs be accompanied by
supplemental oxygen, or followed by an inhalant anesthetic in 100%
oxygen for prolonged procedures. Diprenorphine or nalmefene reversal
was rapid and uneventful in both the etorphine and carfentanil group.
No cases of renarcotization were noted. Additional excerpt: All
elephants in the etorphine group (n=8) received diprenorphine at a mean
dosage of 8.3 ± 1.1 µg/kg IV. Two elephants in the carfentanil group
(n=6) were administered diprenorphine at a dosage of 8.9 µg/kg IV and
IM. Three elephants in this group received nalmefene hydrochloride.
One of the three elephants was given nalmefene 166.7 µg/kg both IV and
SC. Two of the three elephants were given nalmefene IV and IM. The
dosage was 88.9 µg/kg IV and IM in one elephant and 53.3 µg/kg IV and IM
in the other. One elephant in the carfentanil group was administered
nalmefene (88.9 µg/kg IV) followed by diprenorphine (8.9 µg/kg IM).
deSilva,
D.D.N., Kuruwita, V.Y. Sedation of wild elephants (Elephas maximus
Ceylonicus) using Detomidine HCL ("Domosedan") in Sri Lanka. Fifth
International Congress of Veterinary Anesthesia. 1994.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Full text: Eight wild elephants weighing 3818-4500 kg were
sedated using detomidine HCl 1% (Farmos) after being captured using
Large Animal Immobilon (C-Vet) and revived with Revivon (C-Vet) in the
process of wild elephant capture and translocation program carried out
in Sri Lanka. The total volume of detomidine used on each animal ranged
from 2.0 to 2.5 ml using a Cap-Chur pistol. Exsheathment of the penis
in males was evident within 5 to 10 minutes of administration of
detomidine. From 5 minutes post-administration, gradual flaccidity of
the trunk was observed and complete "limping" of the trunk was seen in
12 to 15 minutes. Dribbling of urine, slaiva, ptosis, gradual cessation
of ear flapping were the other changes indicating sedation. Seven out
of 8 animals remained standing and were nonresponsive to low threshold
physical or auditory stimuli, but moved steadily when traction was
applied on the ropes tying the legs. With this dosage of the drug,
animals could be loaded onto a truck within 30-45 minutes of medication
and were ready for transportation. Antisedan (Farmos) had to be given
to one animal which adopted lateral recumbency after detomidine. After
sedating and loading into trucks, the elephants were transported to a
distance of 40 to 100 km (average transport time was 8 hours) during
which there was no need for further "topping-up". Animals started
eating and moving the trunk about 6 hours after detomidine
administration but never adopted a recumbent position while being
transported. It is concluded that wild elephants are very sensitive to
detomidine and the dosage needed is much lower (approximately 5.5 µg/kg)
than that needed for some other species of animals (equine and bovine).
Dunlop, C.I.,
Hodgson, D.S., Cambre, R.C., Kenny, D.E., Martin, H.D., 1994.
Cardiopulmonary effects of three prolonged periods of isoflurane
anesthesia in an adult elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 205, 1439-1444.
Abstract: Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary
Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort
Collins 80523.
An adult 3500-kg female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was
anaesthetized 3 times for treatment of subcutaneous fistulas over the
lateral aspect of each cubitus (anaesthesia 1 and 2) and for repair of a
fractured tusk (anaesthesia 3). Lateral recumbency and anaesthesia were
achieved with etorphine (anaesthesia 1 and 2) or etorphine and azaperone
(anaesthesia 3). The trachea was intubated and anaesthesia was
maintained by isoflurane and oxygen delivered through 2 standard large
animal anaesthesia machines joined in parallel. The range of total
recumbency time was 2.4 to 3.3 h. Breathing and heart rates, systemic
arterial pressure, rectal temperature, PaO2, pH and end-tidal gases were
monitored. After administration of etorphine, measurements were made
while the elephant was recumbent and breathing air, then every 5 min
(cardiovascular) or 15 min (blood gases) after the start of
administration of isoflurane and oxygen. Tachycardia and hypertension
were detected after administration of etorphine, but heart rate and
systemic arterial pressure decreased to within normal ranges after
administration of isoflurane and oxygen. The elephant remained well
oxygenated while anaesthetized and breathing a high oxygen mixture. The
elephant had an uneventful recovery from each anaesthesia.
Gross, M.E.,
Clifford, C.A., Hardy, D.A., 1994. Excitement in an elephant after
intravenous administration of atropine. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 205, 1437-1438.
Abstract: A 28-year-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was
anaesthetized for cesarean section to remove a dead calf. The elephant
was sedated with azaperone, and atropine was administered i.v. 90
minutes later in preparation for induction of anaesthesia with etorphine
HCl. Within a minute of the injection of atropine the elephant began
swaying kicking and moving in an agitated manner around the stall. It
was concluded that there is considerable variation among species in the
toxicity of atropine, although development of toxicosis usually is
associated with overdosage.
Hattingh, J.,
Knox, C.M., 1994. Arterial blood pressure in anesthetized African
elephants. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 24.
Abstract: A number of elephants previously captured in the Krueger
National Park developed a pink frothy discharge from the external nares.
Some of these elephants subsequently died and histopathological
examinations indicated severe lung oedema. In view of the current
hypothesis that high blood pressure could be a causative factor,
arterial blood pressure was measured in elephants immobilized with
etorphine alone (n=71) and with etorphine/azaperone (n=109) and with
carfentanil/azaperone (n=26) mixtures. Arterial pressure was found to be
significantly lower in the groups immobilized with azaperone mixtures
than in the group immobilized with etorphine alone (p < 0.05). In
addition, no cases of lung oedema were observed in animals immobilized
with etorphine/azaperone and carfentanil/azaperone mixtures. It is
strongly recommended, therefore, that azaperone be added to
immobilization mixtures when elephants are subjected to herding prior to
darting. Additional excerpt: all elephants in this study were juveniles
200 to 1300 kg. Group 1 (n=71) was immobilized with 4-8 mg etorphine;
group 2 (n=109) was immobilized with 4-8 mg etorphine and 50-90 mg
azaperone; and group 3 (n=26) was immobilized with 4-8 mg carfentanil
and 50-90 mg azaperone.
Hattingh, J.,
Knox, C.M., Raath, J.P., 1994. Arterial blood pressure of the African
elephant (Loxodonta africana) under etorphine anaesthesia and after
remobilisation with diprenorphine. Veterinary Record 135,
458-459.
Abstract: Six adult, male elephants (bodyweight approximately 5000 kg)
were immobilized, with 8 mg etorphine (M99) for semen collection by
electroejaculation. Before electrostimulation (about 10 minutes after
the elephants initially became recumbent) their mean arterial pressure
was 186 ± 25 mm Hg. During the electrostimulation procedure to which
each elephant was subjected intermittently over a period of about 20
minutes using a rectal probe, the mean was 263 ± 30 mm Hg. After 10 to
15 minutes stabilization, 26 mg diprenorphine (M50/50) was administered
i.v. The elephants adopted a rocking motion in an attempt to stand up.
This motion was accompanied by wide fluctuations in arterial pressure
which peaked at 245 ± 19 mm Hg immediately before they rose. Arterial
pressure subsequently decreased to a mean of 200 ± 28 mgHg once they
were standing. Since these values were higher than that previously
observed in standing, conscious elephants (145 ± 3 mmHg) it appears the
standing, remobilized elephants in this study were hypertensive.
Possible reasons for this are discussed. It is suggested that in view of
the observed and possible detrimental increase in arterial pressure
during electrostimulation simultaneous blood pressure monitoring should
be carried out when this procedure is employed.
Sarma, K.K.
Evaluation of Xylazine-Ketamine as general anesthetic in Asian elephant
(Elephas Maximus). 1-2. 1994. College of Veterinary Science,
Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati-781022).
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation
Bechert, U.,
1993. Anesthesia. Animal Keepers' Forum 20, 351-353.
Bengis, R.,
1993. Care of the African elephant Loxodonta africana in captivity. The
capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and
transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision
Support Services : South African Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria, pp.
506-511.
du Toit, J.G.,
Bengis, R., 1993. Accomodation of the African elephant. The capture and
care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild
African animals pp. 498-505.
Ebedes, H.,
1993. The use of long-acting tranquilizers in captive wild animals. The
capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and
transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision
Support Services : South African Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria.
Fowler, M.E.,
1993. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders,
Philadelphia.
Johnsingh,
A.J.T., Joshua, J., Ravi, C., Ashraf, N.V.K., Krishnamurthy, V., Khati,
D.V.S., Chellam, R., 1993. Etorphine and acepromazine combination for
immobilising wild Indian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society 90, 45-49.
Kock, M.D.,
Martin, R.B., Kock, N., 1993. Chemical immobilization of free-ranging
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Zimbabwe, using etorphine
(M99) mixed with hyaluronidase, and evaluation of biological data
collected soon after immobilization. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 24, 1-10.
Abstract: Sixteen adult female free-ranging elephants were immobilized
in July 1990, using a mean (±SE) dose per animal of 11.6 ± 0.3 mg of
etorphine (M99) mixed with a standard dose of hyaluronidase (4500 IU),
at the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe, to attach telemetry and
infrasound detection collars. The 16 elephants were reimmobilized in
December 1990, using higher doses of etorphine (standardized at 15 mg
total dose) with hyaluronidase (4500 IU), to remove the collars. The
higher doses of etorphine produced more rapid inductions. Biological
data were collected on both occasions. Significant differences in
selected measures indicative of stress, including lactic dehydrogenase
and aspartate transaminase, were seen between immobilizations.
Comparisons were made of selected health measures between samples
collected in the early winter and late winter/early spring season.
Significant differences were seen with total protein, albumin, urea
nitrogen, creatinine, calcium, magnesium, inorganic phosphorus,
chloride, and alanine transaminase.
Kock, R.A., Morkel, P., Kock, M.D., 1993.
Current
immobilization procedures used in elephants. In: Fowler, M.E. (Ed.), Zoo
and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders Company,
Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 436-441.
Kollias, G.V.
The use of heavy moving equipment to facilitate immobilization and
loading procedures for elephants. Proc.Amer.Assoc.ZooVet. 112. 1993.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Lloyd, M.,
Goddard, M., Zeinowicz, R., Harper, J.S., III, 1993. One approach to the
removal of an aural rhabdomyoma in a 7 year old african elephant.
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 115-119.
McKenzie, A.A.,
1993. The Capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and
transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision
Support Services : South African Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria.
Petrini, K.,
Keyler, D.E., Ling, L., Borys, D. Immobilizing agents - developing an
urgent response protocol for humans. Proceedings American Association of
Zoo Veterinarians. 133-140. 1993.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Raath, J.P.,
1993. Chemical capture of the African elephant. The capture and care
manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African
animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision Support Services : South African
Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria, pp. 484-511.
Still, J.,
1993. Etorphine-azaperone anaesthesia in an African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). Journal of Veterinary Anaesthesia 20, 54-55.
Swan, G.E.,
1993. Drugs used for the immobilization, capture, and translocation of
wildlife. The Capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and
transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision
Support Services : South African Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria.
Aik, S.S.,
1992. Preliminary observations on the training of Burmese elephants
using xylazine. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 40, 81-84.
Abstract: A traditional elephant training method was chosen to be
modified by the use of xylazine as a sedative and muscle relaxant. Three
elephant calves with different degrees of tameness were trained using
xylazine. The drug was helpful in the training process. Xylazine made
restraint of the elephants much easier and safer. During training,
repeated doses of xylazine were used to prevent beatings, the wounds
worsening and to pacify the elephants. The tamest elephant calf was
punished less and took less time to be trained than the others. It is
concluded that it is important to play with elephant calves to win their
acceptance of man.
Appayya, M.K.,
Khadri, S.S.M.S., 1992. Chemical capture of wild elephants and their
translocation carried out in Karnataka state. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K.,
Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases,
Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on
the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur,
India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India,
pp. 107-112.
Cheeran, J.V.,
Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 1992. Transportation of
elephants by rail. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The
Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management
(Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the
Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 120-122.
Cheeran, J.V.,
Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 1992. Tranquilization and
translocation of elephants. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G.
(Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and
Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant
held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January
1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 176.
Abstract: Full text: A total of 140 captive rogue tuskers were
successfully tranquilized and translocated during the period for April
1979 to December 1988. Most of the animals were those used in festivals
or in lumbering operations. The requests handled by the tranquilization
team were of urgent nature and no kunkies were available to assist the
operation. Hence the animals were tranquilized retaining certain amount
of ambulatory property and not allowing the animals to assume
recumbency. After ascertaining complete sedation which took nearly 45
minutes after darting the limbs were noosed were polypropylene ropes and
pulled by volunteers numbering from 15 to 20 on each rope on the
forelimb. The animals were also given oral and percussion commands and
coaxed to move. Animals could be moved on an average of 100 meters to
be tied in a safe tethering area. The chemical used at first was
nicotine and was subsequently replaced by xylazine alone or its
combinations for better margin of safety. The combination of xylazine
with acepromazine and ketamine was discarded due to photosensitization
of elephants and subsequent skin lesions on the back of the elephants.
The dose of xylazine varied from 100 to 120 mg/ton body weight. The
data show that 85% of the cases were attended while the bulls were in
premusth or post-musth period indicating lack of sufficient precaution
taken by the mahouts.
Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 1992.
A case of
ochlophobia in a tusker. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G.
(Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and
Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant
held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January
1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 176.
Abstract: Full text: An adult captive tusker to be used for ceremonial
purpose could not tolerate crowd (ochlophobia - fear of the crowd). The
animal was put on 2000 mg of chlorpromazine twice daily orally and
behaved normally during the entire festival season of 6 months. The
animal again showed symptoms of fear of the crowd when the owner
withdrew the drug. So the animal was put on 100 mg haloperidol twice
daily orally. Thid relieved the symptoms very well but without sedation
compared to chlorpromazine hydrochloride.
Kock, M.D.,
1992. Use of hyaluronidase and increased etorphine (M99) doses to
improve induction times and reduce capture-related stress in the
chemical immobilization of the free-ranging black rhinoceros (Diceros
bicornis) in Zimbabwe. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 23,
181-188.
Lahiri-Choudhury, D.K., 1992. Translocation of wild elephants. In:
Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant:
Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of
the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 91-106.
Nayar, K.N.M.,
Radhakrishnan, K., Chandrasekharan, K., Cheeran, J.V., Ravindran, S.,
George, P.O., 1992. Anaesthesia for surgical manipulations in the
elephant. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian
Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management
(Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the
Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 156-158.
Abstract: Anaesthesia using chloral hydrate, thiopentone sodium,
xylazine and ketamine was induced in ten elephants. The effects,
duration of induction and anaesthesia were recorded. Post anaesthesia
complications were not encountered in any of the animals. Surgical
manipulations could be carried out under anaesthesia induced with these
drugs.
Rao, K.T.,
Rama, Y., 1992. Capture of a wild elephant calf. In: Silas, E.G., Nair,
M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology,
Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National
Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural
University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural
University, Trichur, India, pp. 118-119.
Ashraf, N.V.K.,
Johnsingh, A.J.T., Panwar, H.S., Sale, J.B., Joshua, J., Ravi, C.,
Krishnamurth, V. Chemical immobilization of wild Asian elephants:
pharmacological, biological and ecological considerations. International
Seminar on Veterinary Medicine in Wild and Captive Animals, Nov. 8-10,
Bangalore, India. 21. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: An analysis of pharmacological, biological and ecological
parameters while immobilizing wild Asian elephants with Etorphine
hydrochloride was done to establish their interrelationships and
considerations during immobilizations. A significantly lower dose of
Etorphine/1000 kg body weight (BW) has been used in India than in other
Asian countries (P<091) There was no significant association between
dosage and induction time (IT) in cases where immobilization was
complete. While total dose of Etorphine used increased with increasing
BW (r=0.618, P<0.0001), the dosage unit BW increased (r=0.705, P<0.001).
Adding Acepromazine did not affect either the amount of Etorphine used
or the IT. Sternal recumbency was reported in 4 out of 37 cases. Out of
26 cases, where search time (ST) and IT were differentiated, visual
contact with the darted animal was lost on 13 occasions out of 46
dartings, mortality was 13% but none due to high dosage
Pharmacological considerations include choosing an appropriate dose,
taking into account the biology of elephant and the drug's undesirable
effects. Inability to access the health of the animal and predict its
psot-darting reaction is an important consideration and constraint. As
dosage and IT did not have any significant association with ST, the
timely location of an immobilized animal depends on a combination of
many ecological factors and operational difficulties. As most of these
considerations are interrelated and difficult to put into practice,
immobilization in the wild involves some amount of risk.
Atapattu, N.
Antagonism of xylazine induced sedation and immobilization in wild
elephant (Elephas maximus maximus). International Seminar on Veterinary
Medicine in Wild and Captive Animals, Nov. 8-10, Bangalore, India. 20.
1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Xylazine HCL has been the drug of choice for sedation of
elephants. Sedated animals recover on its own after few hours. But
there had been number of deaths in immobilized elephants after Xylazine
induced sedation. Yohimbine HCL was tried on 10 wild elephants to
antagonize Xylazine induced sedation. An initial dose of 50 mg of
Yohimbine HCL was administered intravenously followed by a singular dose
intramuscularly, similar doses were repeated in half an hour intervals.
All the elephants recovered from Xylazine induced sedation after the
treatment of Yohimbine HCL. The dose of Yohimbine HCL varied from 50 mg
to 250 mg to complete recovery. The recommended dose of 0.13mg/kg had
no significance on the body weight. The physical state of the animals,
the dose of Xylazine HCL administered and other stress factors were more
significant in deciding the dose of YohimbineHCL. All these animals
were monitored for a period of one month and found their behaviour is
normal.
Blumer, E.S.
A review of the use of selected neuroleptic drugs in the management of
nondomestic hoofstock. Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. 333-339. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Hall, L.W.,
Clarke, K.W., 1991. Anesthesia of the sheep, goat and other herbivores.
Veterinary Anesthesia. Bailliere Tindall Ltd., London, pp. 260-274.
Hattingh, J.,
Pitts, N.I., De-Vos, N.I., Moyes, D.G., Ganhao, M.F., 1991. The response
of animals to suxamethonium (succinyldicholine) and succinylmonocholine.
Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 62 , 126-129.
Abstract: The time which elapses before cessation of breathing, and
blood pressure and blood gas changes after the i.m. administration of
suxamethonium, or a mixture of suxamethonium and hexamethonium, was
compared in immobilized African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and
buffaloes (Synceros caffer). In addition, the respiratory responses of
elephants and other animals to i.v. administration of suxamethonium and
succinylmonocholine are reported, as are the effects of darting animals
with succinylmonocholine. Respiration was affected in a similar fashion
in all species investigated. However, the characteristic gradual
decrease in respiratory rate seen in elephants during culling, using
suxamethonium, resembles the effects observed when succinylmonocholine
is administered. It is suggested that elephants are killed by this first
breakdown product of suxamethonium during culling and/or that unique
acetylcholine receptors may be involved.
Lance, W.R.,
1991. New pharmaceutical tools for the 1990's. Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians 354-359.
Morton, D.J.,
Kock, M.D., 1991. Stability of hyaluronidase in solution with etorphine
and xylazine. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 22, 345-347.
Abstract: During capture of free-living wildlife, stress is potentially
the greatest problem encountered. For this reason, reduction in
induction time during immobilization is of paramount importance.
Hyaluronidase reduces induction times, although no reports have assessed
stability of the enzyme in drug mixtures used for chemical capture. This
report presents information on the stability of hyaluronidase in
combination with etorphine and xylazine,one of the most common drug
mixtures used in chemical immobilization of wildlife. Hyaluronidase
activity remains high for at least 48 hr, provided storage temperatures
can be maintained at less than or equal to 30º C. Storage at greater
than or equal to 40ºC is associated with rapid loss of enzyme activity
in the mixture.
Nanjappa, K.A.,
1991. Anaesthesia and treatment of a wounded wild Makana elephant (Elephas
maximus). Indian Veterinary Journal 68, 360.
Pathak, S.C.
Xylazine-ketamine anesthesia in Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus)
- trial on 53 clinical cases. International Seminar on Veterinary
Medicine in Wild and Captive Animals, Nov. 8-10, Bangalore, India. 21.
1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Veterinarians are often required to attend and undertake
surgery on elephants. Unless the animal is deeply sedated or
anesthetized certain works become impractical. Xylazine has proved to
be a good sedative and analgesic in elephants. This drug is not freely
available in India and is costly. The drug is usually used by
intramuscular route but to reduce the dose it has been used
intravenously. Intravenous use may be risky for its bradycardia effect
and fall in cardiac output. Ketamine, on the other hand, has no
depressant effect on the cardiovascular and respiratory system but
produces muscular tremor and stiffness of the skeletal muscle.
Combination of Xylazine and Ketamine minimizes the undesirable aspects
of both the drugs. A mixture containing 100-150 mg xylazine and 50-100
mg ketamine injected intravascularly to the laterally recumbent elephant
produced quick, safe and dependable analgesia, anesthesia, and muscular
relaxation. Surgical operations like tusk extraction, bullet
extraction, umbilical and pleural herniorraphy, trunk injury, extensive
wound repair, etc. were performed in 53 elephants. Recovery followed
without excitement and untoward effect based on the observations of this
trial on clinical cases, combination of Xylazine and Ketamine is
recommended in elephant.
Schmidt, M.J.,
Henneous, R.L., Haight, J.D., Rutkowski, C., Sanford, J., 1991. The
elephant restraint chute owner's manual. Washington Park Zoo, Portland,
Oregon.
Sedgwick, C.J.
Allometrically scaling the data base for vital sign assessment used in
general anesthesia of zoological species. Proceedings of American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 360-369. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The object of this parper is to demonstrate allometric scaling
techniques useful for calculating a data base of physiological indices
(vital signs) needed to monitor potential depression of a zoo animal
during inhalation anesthesia. Allometric scaling utilizes predictive
mathematical formulas for linear regressions projected on log-log
graphs. The formulas relate lean body size (kilograms) to a variety of
discrete indices that include masses of various organs, physiological
variables and biological cycles. Many times in zoological practice,
allometrically scaled variables needed for vital sign assessment would
be the only such data available, lacking a source of empirical
observations. Determining critical levels of physiological depression
due to general anesthesia is a demanding and important professional
obligation that cannot be overlooked for lack of published empirical
data. For illustration, the allometrically scaled data base for a 4,000
kg anesthetized elephant is presented in this paper, together with the
basis of clinical judgment used to discontinue an elective surgical
procedure and wake up the animal when its clinical vital signs did not
correlate with minimum allometric signs.
Ghosh, S.,
1990. Drug immobilization -- operation Lalbahadur. Indian For. 115,
842-846.
Hattingh, J.,
Pitts, N.I., Ganhao, M.F., Moyes, D.G., de Vos, V., 1990. Blood
constituent responses of animals culled with succinyldicholine and
hexamethonium. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical
Association 61, 117-118.
Abstract: Blood constituent responses of elephants and buffaloes culled
in the Kruger National Park, using a mixture of succinyldicholine and
hexamethonium, were compared to those of animals culled with
succinyldicholine only. The results show a decreased physiological
response in the animals culled with the mixture, characterized by lower
total catecholamine, cortisol and glucose concentrations. Neither a
delay of up to 30 min in obtaining blood samples from culled animals,
nor a delay of up to 30 min in processing samples obtained immediately
after cessation of respiration, gave any significant difference in the
blood constituents which were measured.
Pathak, S.C.,
Saikia, J., Lahon, D.K., Deka, K.N., Barua, S.K., Dewan, J.N., Vety,
A.H., 1990. Attempted ventral herniorrhaphy in an Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) using xylazine sedation. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 21, 234-235.
Abstract: Ventral herniorrhaphy in a female Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) under xylazine hydrochloride sedation was attempted. A
dose of 0.16 mg/kg body weight was adequate to produce sedation,
analgesia, and muscle relaxation for the procedure. The postoperative
management of the surgical wound was difficult and resulted in the
failure of the surgery.
Simmons, L.G.,
Vires, C. Hydraulic squeeze for African bull elephants. Proc. Amer.
Assoc. Zoo Vet. 60-65. 1990.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Caffee, H.H.,
1989. Reconstruction of the distal trunk of an African elephant. Plastic
and Reconstructive Surgery 83, 1049-1051.
Abstract: A 5-year-old African elephant was treated for an amputation
injury of the distal trunk. It was determined that replantation was
impractical and, therefore, an operation was designed and performed with
the intention of recreating the prehensile tip.
Gandini,
G.C.M., Ebedes, H., Burroughs, R.E.J., 1989. The use of long-acting
neuroleptics in impala (Aepyceros melampus). Tydskr. S. Afr. Vet.
Ver. 60, 206-207.
Abstract: The long-acting neuroleptics perphenazine enanthate and
pipothlazine palmitate were found to be effective for the long-term
tranquillisation of newly-captured and captive Impala (Aepyceros
melampus). Per phenazine enanthate (1.5 to 5.7mg kg=1) produced a
favourable state of tranquillisation with a maximum effect lasting up to
7 d. Pipothlazine palmitate (4.5 mg kg=1) produced tranquillisation
lasting 16 d. The animals accepted humans inside their pens at a
distance of 0.5 to 4 m without showing any excitement. No untoward side
effects were observed.
Turczynski,
C.J., Jensen, J., Clarke, S., Kraemer, D.C. Immobilization,
electroejaculation and semen characteristics of a male Asiatic elephant.
Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 10. 51-56. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Welsch, B.,
Jacobson, E.R., Kollias, G.V., Kramer, L., Gardner, H., Page, C.D.,
1989. Tusk extraction in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 20, 446-453.
Abstract: Unilateral dentoalveolar abscesses and/or tusk fractures were
identified and tusk extractions performed in seven 3.5-21-yr-old African
elephants (Loxodonta africana) of both sexes weighing 650-3,000
kg. Following immobilization with etorphine hydrochloride or
carfentanil citrate, six of seven elephants were intubated and
maintained on a 1-1.5% halothane in oxygen mixture; one elephant was
maintained in lateral recumbency by multiple i.v. injections of
etorphine. All elephants were positioned with the affected tusk up.
For one elephant, two surgical procedures were required to remove the
tusk. In six of seven elephants, the tusks were sectioned transversely
and the tusk wall thinned by enlarging the pulp cavity with carbide
burs. In those tusks with remaining pulp, the pulp was removed with
stainless steel rods and hooks. Next, the tusk was sectioned
longitudinally into three or four segments using a wood saw within the
pulp chamber. bone gouges, osteotomes, and a mallet were used to free
the outer epithelial and alveolar attachments from the tusk. Starting
with the smallest segment, the sections were removed using long
screwdriver-shaped stainless steel rods. The alveolar chamber was then
periodically flushed postsurgically with a dilute organic iodine
solution. For six of seven elephants, complete granulation of the
alveolar chamber was evident by 4 mo postsurgery; the seventh elephant
showed partial healing with granulation tissue at 2 mo following
surgery.
Dunlop, C.I.,
Hodgson, D.S., Cambre, R.C., Kenney, D. Prolonged isoflurane anesthesia
of an adult elephant on two occasions. Veterinary Surgery 17[3],
167-168. 1988.
Ref Type: Abstract
Heard, D.J.,
Kollias, G.V., Webb, A.I., Jacobson, E.R., Brock, K.A., 1988. Use of
halothane to maintain anesthesia induced with etorphine in juvenile
African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical
Association 193, 254-256.
Abstract: Excerpts: Sixteen 3- to 5-year-old African elephants
were anesthetized one or more times for a total of 27 diagnostic and
surgical procedures. Xylazine (0.1 ± 0.04 mg/kg of body weight, mean ±
SD) and ketamine (0.6 ± 0.13 mg/kg) administered IM induced good
chemical restraint in standing juvenile elephants during a 45-minute
transport period before administration of general anesthesia. After IM
or IV administration of etorphine (1.9 ± 0.56 micrograms/kg), the mean
time to lateral recumbency was 20 ± 6.6 and 3 ± 0.0 minutes,
respectively. The mean heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and
respiration rate during all procedures was 50 ± 12 beats/min, 106 ± 19
mm of Hg, and 10 ± 3 breaths/min, respectively. Cardiac arrhythmias were
detected during 2 procedures. In one elephant paroxysmal ventricular
tachycardia was detected and the procedure terminated when the
arrhythmia failed to stabilize after multiple doses of lidocaine (1
mg/kg, IV). In another elephant, second degree atrioventricular block
returned to normal sinus rhythm after IV administration of atropine
(0.04 mg/kg). In one elephant, low mean blood pressure (54 mm of Hg)
responded to reduction in halothane (vaporizer setting 1 to 0.75%) and
slow infusion of dobutamine HCl ((250 mg/1,000 ml) given to effect. The
systolic blood pressure increased to 90 mm of Hg and remained high with
a continuous infusion of dobutamine (5 µg/kg/min). Immediately after
induction in another elephant, profound respiratory depression (< 1
breath / minute) and palpably weak arterial pulse were identified.
Intravenous administration of diprenorphine at half the recommended
reversal dose resulted in improvement of respiration and palpable
arterial pulse, without the elephant developing signs of complete
anesthetic reversal. Alterations in systolic blood pressure, ear
flapping, and trunk muscle tone were useful for monitoring depth of
anesthesia. Results indicated that halothane in oxygen was effective
for maintenance of surgical anesthesia in juvenile African elephants
after induction with etorphine. Note: A correction appeared in a later
volume 193(6): p.721.
Jacobson, E.R.
Chemical restraint and anesthesia of elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant
Workshop 9. 112-119. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Mihm, F.G.,
Machado, C., Snyder, R., 1988. Pulse oximetry and end-tidal CO2
monitoring of an adult Asian elephant. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 19, 106-109.
Abstract: The adequacy of ventilation during etorphine anesthesia of a
20-yr-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was monitored with a
pulse oximeter to measure arterial hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SaO2)
and a CO2 analyzer to measure end-tidal CO2
concentrations (PetCO2). Immediately after the first
anesthetic induction, SaO2 values of 45% were noted while the
animal was breathing room air at a rate of 6/min. The SaO2
readings increased to 93% 15 min after administration of 5 liters/min of
oxygen via the trunk. Seven arterial blood gas samples obtained during
two anesthetics, and once while unanesthetized, provided PaO2
and PaCO2 values which compared favorably with SaO2
and PetCO2. In the anesthetized animal, PaO2
ranged between 31 and 70 mmHg while SaO2 values were 70-95%.
At the same time, measurements of PaCO2 ranged from 42 to 57
mmHg while values of PetCO2 ranged from 35 to 57 mmHg. Pulse
oximetry and end-tidal CO2 monitoring are easy to apply and
should increase the safety of anesthesia for these animals.
Nielsen, L.,
1988. Translocation of Wild Animals. Wisconsin Humane Society Inc.,
Ames, IA.
Jacobson, E.R.,
Heard, D.J., Caligiuri, R., Kollias, G.V. Physiologic effects of
etorphine and carfentanil in African elephants.
Proc.1st.Intl.Conf.Zool.Avian Med. 525-527. 1987.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Full text: The effects of etorphine hydrochloride and
carfentanil citrate on blood pressure, heart rate, respiration and body
temperature were determined in a group of captive African elephants
(Loxodonta africana). Fourteen African elephants, weighing 450 kg to
4000 kg, divided into 2 groups of 6 and 8 elephants each, received
either etorphine hydrochloride (2.9 ± 0.7 µg/kg of body weight; mean ±
SD) or carfentanil citrate (2.0 ± 0.2 µg/kg of body weight)
respectively. The mean time for lateral recumbency in elephants which
received etorphine was 31 ± 9.1 minutes while the mean time for lateral
recumbency in elephants which received carfentanil was 10.3 ± 4.1
minutes. Following immobilization, a 18 gauge catheter was inserted
into an auricular artery, the catheter connected to a pressure
transducer system and systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressures
were monitored by use of a multichannel oscilloscope. Systolic,
diastolic, mean arterial pressures, heart rate, respiration, and
temperature were recorded every 5 minutes over a 45 to 60 minute
period. Elephants were maintained in lateral recumbency over the period
of monitoring by intravenous injections of either etorphine or
carfentanil.
Following immobilization with etorphine, mean physiological values for
elephants were: systolic pressure, 229 ± 33 mm Hg; diastolic pressure,
141 ± 30 mm Hg; mean arterial pressure, 177 ± 30 mm Hg; heart rate 64 ±
10 beats/minute; respiratory rate 10 ± 4 breaths/minute; body
temperature, 97 ± 2°F. Mean physiological values at the final time
period of monitoring prior to antagonism were: systolic pressure, 217 ±
40 mm Hg; diastolic pressure, 147 ± 36 mm Hg; mean arterial pressure,
176 ± 38mm Hg; heart rate 77 ± 13 beats/minute; respiratory rate 12 ± 1
breaths/minute; body temperature, 98 ± 2°F. Immediately following the
last recording, all 8 elephants received the experimental opioid
antagonist, nalmefene hydrochloride, administered at 38 ± 11 µg/kg of
body weight given both subcutaneously and intravenously. The mean
standing time following administration of nalmefene was 1.4 ± 0.7
minutes.
Immediately following immobilization with carfentanil, mean
physiological values for elephants were: systolic pressure, 232 ± 28 mm
Hg; diastolic pressure, 148 ± 14 mm Hg; mean arterial pressure, 183 ± 24
mm Hg; heart rate 57 ± 11 beats/minute; respiratory rate 11 ± 3
breaths/minute; body temperature, 99 ± 1°F. Mean physiological values
at the final time period of monitoring prior to antagonism were:
systolic pressure, 224 ± 29 mm Hg; diastolic pressure, 146 ± 13 mm Hg;
mean arterial pressure, 179 ± 18mm Hg; heart rate 65 ± 11 beats/minute;
respiratory rate 12 ± 1 breaths/minute; body temperature, 99 ± 1°F.
Immediately following the last recording, all 6 elephants received the
opioid antagonist, nalmefene hydrochloride administered at 62 ± 17 µg/kg
of body weight given both subcutaneously and intravenously. The mean
standing time following administration of nalmefene was 2.6 ± 1.6
minutes. The results of this study indicated that both etorphine and
carfentanil resulted in high blood pressure over the duration of the
period of monitoring. Based upon these findings, both etorphine
hydrochloride and carfentanil citrate are not recommended as the primary
agent in performing major invasive surgical procedures in African
elephants.
Allen, J.L.,
1986. Use of tolazoline as an antagonist to xylazine-ketamine-induced
immobilization in African elephants. American Journal of Veterinary
Research 47, 781-783.
Abstract: A group of 15 African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were
immobilized with a combination of xylazine (0.2 mg/kg of body weight,
IM) and ketamine (1 to 1.5 mg/kg of body weight, IM). Ten of the African
elephants were allowed to remain recumbent for 30 minutes and the
remaining 5 elephants, for 45 minutes before they were given tolazoline
(0.5 mg/kg of body weight, IV). For the group of 15, the mean induction
time (the time required from injection of the xylazine-ketamine
combination until onset of recumbency) was 14.2 ± 4.35 minutes (mean ±
SD), and standing time (the time required from the tolazoline injection
until the elephant stood without stimulation or assistance) was 2.8 ±
0.68 minutes. All of the elephants were physically stimulated (by
pushing, slapping, shouting) before they were given tolazoline, and none
could be aroused. After tolazoline was given and the elephant was
aroused, relapses to recumbency did not occur. Recovery was
characterized by mild somnolence in an otherwise alert and responsive
animal. Failure (no arousal) rates were 0% (95% confidence interval, 0
to 0.3085) for elephants given tolazoline after 30 minutes of recumbency
and 100% for elephants that were not given tolazoline. There was no
significant (P less than 0.05) difference in standing time 30 or 45
minutes after tolazoline injection.
Fowler, M.E.,
1986. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Heard, D.J.,
Jacobson, E.R., Brock, K.A., 1986. Effects of oxygen supplementation on
blood gas values in chemically restrained juvenile African elephants.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 189,
1071-1074.
Abstract: Arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions were determined in
sedated immature African elephants and in elephants immobilized with
etorphine hydrochloride or with an etorphine-ketamine combination. For
manipulative and surgical procedures, the Hudson demand value was used
for oxygen supplementation during 6 procedures, and insufflation was
used during 2 procedures. The Hudson demand value was more effective
than insufflation in sustaining adequate arterial oxygenation.
Jacobson, E.R.,
Chen, C.L., Gronwall, R., Tiller, A., 1986. Serum concentrations of
etorphine in juvenile African elephants. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 189, 1079-1081.
Abstract: Eleven juvenile African elephants were given etorphine
hydrochloride (2.19 + 0.11 micrograms/kg body weight, mean +SD) as a
single IM injection; 3 elephants were given additional etorphine
(0.42+0.09) IV. After immobilization, each elephant was maintained in
lateral recumbency by administration of a 0.5% halothane/oxygen mixture
or by administration of multiple IV injections of etorphine. At
postinjection hours 0.25 and 0.5 and at 30-minute intervals thereafter,
blood samples were collected via an auricular artery, and serum
concentrations of etorphine were determined by use of radioimmunoassay.
The highest mean serum concentration of etorphine in 6 elephants given a
single IM injection and subsequently maintained on halothane and oxygen
was 1.62+0.97 ng/ml at postinjection hours 0.5; thereafter, the mean
serum concentration decreased steadily. In 4 elephants maintained in
lateral recumbency with multiple IV administrations of etorphine, a
correlation was not found between the time to develop initial signs of
arousal and serum concentrations of etorphine before arousal. After
administration of the initial immobilizing dose of etorphine, the
interval between successive IV administrations of etorphine decreased.
Lateur, N.,
Stolk, P. Repeated general anesthesia in a male Indian elephant.
Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 128-131. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Sale, J.B.,
Rishi, V., Singh, K.N., Verma, V.K., 1986. Drug immobilization of Indian
elephant. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 83,
49-56.
Schmidt, M.J.,
1986. Proboscidea (Elephants). In: Fowler, M.E. (Ed.), Zoo and wild
animal medicine. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia,PA, USA, pp. 884-923.
de Vos, V.
Immobilization of the African elephant. Proc.2nd.Int.Congr.Vet.Anesth.
142-143. 1985.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Jacobson, E.R., Allen, J., Martin, H., Kollias, G.V., 1985.
Effects of
yohimbine on combined xylazine-ketamine-induced sedation and
immobilization in juvenile African elephants. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 187, 1195-1198.
Abstract: Twenty-two juvenile African elephants were given a combination
of xylazine (mean +/- SD = 0.14 +/- 0.03 mg/kg of body weight) and
ketamine (1.14 +/- 0.21 mg/kg) as a single IM injection; one elephant
was immobilized twice, 77 days apart. After injection, 14 elephants were
immobilized, 4 were sedated deeply, 2 were sedated moderately, and 2
were sedated minimally. Immobilized elephants had a mean immobilization
time of 11.6 +/- 6.9 minutes. At the conclusion of a variety of clinical
procedures, 12 of the 14 elephants immobilized with a single dose
combination of xylazine and ketamine were given yohimbine (0.13 +/- 0.03
mg/kg) IV, and the remaining 2 elephants were allowed to recover
spontaneously; the elephants given yohimbine had a mean standing time of
2.4 +/- 1.1 minutes. Of the 8 sedated elephants, 5 were given an
additional dose of combined xylazine (0.08 +/- 0.03 mg/kg), and ketamine
(0.61 +/- 0.19 mg/kg) IM, and 1 elephant was given ketamine (0.47 mg/kg)
IV. After injection, 4 of the 8 elephants were recumbent laterally
within 17 minutes and 2 remained standing, under deep sedation. Seven of
the 8 elephants were given yohimbine (0.13 +/- 0.03 mg/kg) IV; all were
ambulatory in 2 minutes. Results indicated that yohimbine may be useful
in controlling duration of xylazine-ketamine sedation and immobilization
in juvenile African elephants.
Hattingh, J.,
Wright, P.G., de Vos, V., McNairn, I.S., Ganhao, M.F., Silove, M.,
Wolverson, G., Cornelius, S.T., 1984. Blood composition in culled
elephants and buffaloes. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical
Association 55, 157-164.
Abstract: Blood composition of succinyldicholine culled elephants and
buffaloes was compared with that of undisturbed animals shot in the
brain. The results show statistically significant differences in a
number of variables including plasma ACTH and cortisol concentrations.
The observed changes are attributed to stress induced by a combination
of herding and darting with succinyldicholine and asphyxia.
Extrapolation from blood oxygen tensions suggests that this stress may
be perceived for an undetermined period which is probably longer in
elephants than buffaloes.
Hattingh, J.,
1984. Effects of etorphine and succinyldicholine on blood composition in
elephant and buffalo. South African Journal of Zoology 19,
286-290.
Howard, J.,
Bush, M., de Vos, V., Wildt, D.E., 1984. Electroejaculation, semen
characteristics and serum testosterone concentrations of free-ranging
African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Reproduction
and Fertility 72, 187-195.
Abstract: A regimented electroejaculation protocol (120 electrical
stimulations; 10-30 V) was used to collect semen and characterize
ejaculate quality from 9 adult, free-ranging African elephants under
anesthesia. Eight of the 9 ejaculates contained high concentrations of
progressively motile spermatozoa. The overall mean ejaculate volume,
sperm concentration/ml ejaculate, sperm motility, sperm status and
ejaculate pH were 93.3 ml, 2408.6 x 10(6) spermatozoa/ml, 70%, 3.9 and
7.4, respectively. A high percentage (mean 77.5%) of spermatozoa whin
each ejaculate was morphologically normal. Of the aberrant spermatozoa,
72% had a cytoplasmic defect. When sperm viability was tested in
vitro at 37 C, sperm motility rating declined by at least half of
the initial assessment within 3.5 h of semem collection. Generally,
spermatozoa maintained motility in vitro for < 6 h. Serum
testosterone ranged from 1.4 to 8.2 ng/ml in 4 males evaluated in the
morning (07:30 - 08:00 h). In 4 of the 5 bulls assessed in the
afternoon (15:00 - 18:00 h), testosterone levels were < 0.9 ng/ml. The
remaining bull, evaluated at 16:00 h, had exceptionally high
testosterone concentrations (peak 25.6 ng/ml) and a preputial discharge
potentially indicative of "musth." The present study demonstrates that
high quality semen call be collected consistently from the African
elephant and that striking differences exist in serum testosterone
amongst free-ranging males which may be due, in part, to a diurnal
rhythm.
Jacobson, E.R.,
Heard, D.J., Brock, K.A. Effects of oxygen supplementation on blood gas
values in African elephants. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Zoo Vet. 60. 1984.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Kock, N.,
Kock, M., Arif, A., Wahid, M.N.S.A. Immobilization techniques and
complications associated with a bull Indian elephant (Elephas maximus
indicus) during musth. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 68-74. 1984.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Baker, C.M.A.,
Manwell, C., 1983. Man and elephant. The "dare theory" of domestication
and the origin of breeds. Zeit. Tierzucht. Zuchtungscbiol. 100,
55-75.
Jacob, V.,
Cheeran, K., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K. Immobilization of
elephant in musth using xylazine hydrochloride. 7th Annual Symposium of
the Indian Society of Veterinary Surgeons. 62. 1983. Kerala, India.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Schmidt, M.J.,
1983. Antagonism of xylazine sedation by yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine
in an adult Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and
Wildlife Medicine 14, 94-97.
Abstract: Heavy xylazine sedation was successfully antagonized by
intravenous injection of yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) in an
adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) prior to
euthanasia. A total xylazine dose of 1,200 mg intramuscularly plus 600
mg intravenously (approximately 0.33 mg/kg body weight) was given
resulting in heavy sedation. After 50 minutes of deep recumbent
sedation, 425 mg yohimbine and 1,000 mg of 4-AP were administered
intravenously. Xylazine sedation was antagonized and the elephant was
up and walking around within 5 minutes of antagonist administration.
The elephant remained standing for other 3 hours; at which point
euthanasia was performed. Comment: Report concerns animal with arthritis
and chronic foot problems.
Tamas, P.M.,
Geiser, D.R., 1983. Etorphine analgesia supplemented by halothane
anesthesia in an adult African elephant. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 183, 1312-1314.
Wallach,
J.D., Boever, W.J., 1983. Perissodactyla (equids, tapirs, rhinos),
Proboscidae (elephants), and Hippopotamidae (hippopotamus). In: Wallach,
J.D., Boever, W.J. (Eds.), Diseases of exotic animals. W.B. Saunders
Company, Philadelphia, pp. 761-829.
Altmann, D.,
Krebs, W., 1981. Combined Vetalar-Combelen anesthesia of elephant for
surgical removal of foreign body from eye. Erkrankungen der Zootiere
261-265.
Fowler, M.E.,
1981. Problems with immobilizing and anesthetizing elephants.
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 87-91.
Hofmeyr, J.M.,
1981. The use of Haloperidol as a long-acting neuroleptic in game
capture operations. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association
December.
Abstract: Haloperidol (R1625, Serenace) a potent, long-acting
butyrophenone neuroleptic, was shown to be very effective in game
capture operations for the neuroleptization of several species of
African wild herbivores, especially the medium and small antelopes. With
a rapid onset of action following intravenous injection and a duration
of action of 10-12 h in the majority of cases, haloperidol produced
profound psychomotor effects and remarkable tractability in red
hartebeest, blesbok, springbok, duiker, steenbok and dik dik.
Haloperidol suppressed the alarm reaction and facilitated the
large-scale handling and translocation of captured animals. It also
produced favourable sedation in Hartmann's zebra, Burchell's zebra,
tsessebe and Black-faced impala. Extrapyramidal effects were observed in
some species.
Jarofke, D.,
1981. Etorphine anesthesia in the elephant. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine.
Jarofke, D.,
1981. Use of halothane oxygen anesthesia in elephants (Elephas
maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 12, 93-95.
Abstract: Note: This anesthesia paper also briefly mentions a humeral
fracture which was repaired with a medullary pin, and the removal of the
pin.
Schmidt, M.J.
The hydraulic elephant crush at the Washington Park Zoo.
Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 100-105. 1981.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Sikarski, J.G.,
Riebold, T., Stick, J., Washburn, J. Management of esophagotomy in an
Asian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 106-108. 1981.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Bongso, T.A.,
1980. Use of xylazine for the transport of elephants by air. Vet Rec 107,
492.
Bongso, T.A.,
1980. Sedation of the Asian elephant with xylazine. Journal of the
American Veterinary Medical Association 177, 783.
Abstract: Full text: Doses of 100 to 300 mg of a 10% solution of
xylazine satisfactorily sedated 6 elephants ranging from 150 to 255 cm
shoulder height. At these dosages, all animals were sedated in the
standing position. The time taken to produce the initial signs of
sedation ranged from 10+4 to 20+4 minutes, and the effects lasted from
60+8 to 100+15 minutes. The time taken from injection to complete
recovery ranged from 360+31 to 540+21 minutes. Recovery was
uncomplicated. Repeated administration of as much as 7 injections per
animal at intervals of 3 to 4 days had no adverse effects. Disturbances
during induction delayed the onset of action of the drug --T.A.
Bongso in Vet Rec, 105, (November 10, 1979): 442.
Bongso, T.A.,
1979. Sedation of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) with xylazine.
Vet Rec 105, 442-443.
Abstract: Doses of 100 to 300 mg of a 10 per cent solution of xylazine
satisfactorily sedated six elephants ranging from 150 to 255 cm shoulder
height. At these dosages all animals were sedated in the standing
position. The time taken to produce the initial signs of sedation ranged
from 10 +/- 4 to 20 +/- 4 minutes and the effects lasted from 60 +/- 8
to 100 +/- 15 minutes. The time taken from injection to complete
recovery ranged from 360 +/- 31 to 540 +/- 21 minutes. Recovery was
uncomplicated. Repeated administration of as much as seven injections
per animal at intervals of three to four days had no adverse effects.
Disturbances during induction delayed the onset of action of the drug.
Krishnamoorthy, V. Elephants - Their capture, care and management. State
Level Workshop on Elephants. 3-11. 1979. India, College of Veterinary
and Animal Sicences, Kerala Agricultural University.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Muraleedharan,
K.N., Chandrasekharan, K., Jacob, V., 1979. General anesthesia in an
elephant (Elephas maximus) -- a clinical case report. Kerala
Journal of Veterinary Science 10, 197-200.
Bongso, T.A.,
Perera, B.M.A.O., 1978. Observations on the use of etorphine alone and
in combination with acepromazine maleate for immobilization of
aggressive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record
102, 339-340.
de Vos, V.,
1978. Immobilization of free-ranging wild animals using a new drug. Vet
Rec 103, 64-68.
Abstract: Field trials were conducted with the potent morphine-like
analgesic, R33799 (Janssen Pharmaceutica; Beerse, Belgium) in South
African national parks on 217 free-ranging wild animals, representing 20
different species. The drug was found to be effective and safe for a
wide range of ungulates and pachyderms and Burchell's zebra (Equus
burchelli) did not react to expected dosage levels. A suggested dosage
regime for 19 species is given. Recommended optimal dosage rates varies
from about 1 microgram per kg for pachyderms to about 10 microgram per
kg for most of the larger ungulates. Xylazine and azaperone were found
valuable adjuncts to R33799 in dosage ratios of 10:1 and 30:1
respectively.
von Richter,
W., Drager, N., Patterson, L., Sommerlatte, M., 1978. Observations on
the immobilization and marking of African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) in Botswana. Akademie-Verlag 14, 185-191.
Abstract: 58 elephants were successfully immobilized in their natural
environment in the Chobe Nation Park and on privately owned farms in
Botswana using a drug mixture of etorphine (M99 Reckitt) and
acetylpromazine. The specific antidote cyprenorphine (M285 Reckitt) was
used in most cases to resuscitate the animals. One known mortality
occurred. For the long term monitoring of social organization and long
and short term movements collars manufactured from machine belting and
fitted with colour codes or symbols proved most satisfactory. Stamping
the tusks near the lip provided a permanent marking although not useful
for field observation. Various other marking techniques were tested but
were considered unsatisfactory for long term identification. Various
behavioral aspects associated with the immobilizing of elephants are
described and discussed.
Silberman,
M.S., 1977. Tranquilization of the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana Blumenbach) with neuroleptic azaperone (R-1929). Journal of
Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 8, 7-8.
Harthoorn,
A.M., 1976. The chemical capture of animals. Bailliere and Tindall,
London.
Ebedes, H.,
1975. The immobilization of adult male and female elephant, Loxodonta
africana, with etorphine and observation on the action of
diprenorphine. Madogua 9, 19-24.
Schmidt, M.J.
The use of xylazine in captive Asian elephants. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.
1-11. 1975.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Schmidt, M.J.,
1975. A preliminary report on the use of rompun in captive Asian
elephants. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 6, 13-21.
Smuts, G.L.,
1975. An appraisal of naloxone hydrochloride as a narcotic antagonist in
the capture and release of wild herbivores. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 167, 559-561.
Abstract: Naloxone hydrochloride was used as the narcotic antagonist
during capture operations conducted on 84 specimens of 11 game species
in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. It was found that 10 mg of
naloxone was sufficient to antagonize wide dosage ranges of etorphine
hydrochloride or fentanyl, used in combination with a variety of
tranquilizers. The absence of undesirable side effects and the fact that
naloxone can be administered without fear of overdosage make it a unique
and valuable drug in the capture and release of wild animals.
Alford, B.T.,
Burkhart, R.L., Johnson, W.P., 1974. Etorphine and diprenorphine as
immobilizing and reversing agents in captive and free-ranging mammals.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 164,
702-705.
Abstract: Summary: Etorphine, an opium alkaloid derivative of thebaine,
and its specific antagonist, diprenorphine, were evaluated by research
workers and zoo veterinarians in captive and free-ranging animals. An
intramuscular injection of etorphine usually resulted in rapid
immobilization, sedation, analgesia, and muscle relaxation in Equidae,
Ursidae, Cervidae and Bovidae, when given at a rate of 0.44, 0.5, 0.98
and 1.09 mg/45 kg (100 lb.), respectively. Satisfactory immobilization
was usually achieved within 5 to 15 minutes after intravenous
administration of diprenorphine at twice the etorphine dosage.
Procedures performed after etorphine administration included dehorning,
blood sampling, tail docking, antibacterial injection, radiography,
orthopedic surgery, and obstetrical manipulation. Side effects were
commonly noticed in free-ranging mammals. The type and degree of
reaction varied according to the species and included tachycardia,
bellowing, bradycardia, respiratory depression, opisthotonos, muscular
tremors, mydriasis, and hyperpyrexia. Of 1,600 animals tested, 2.9%
died as a result of severe heat prostration, inhalation pneumonia,
respiratory depression, severe excitement due to underdosing, cardiac
arrest, and inapparent disease.
Gale, U.T.,
1974. Burmese timber elephant. Trade Corporation, Rangoon, Burma.
Fowler, M.E.,
Hart, R., 1973. Castration of an Asian elephant, using etorphine
anesthesia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 163,
539-543.
Abstract: A 9-year-old Asian elephant was castrated, using etorphine HCl
for anesthesia. The intraabdominal surgery was completed in 2 stages.
Respiratory and heart rates were normal throughout each surgical
procedure. Normal PaCO2 and PaO2 were maintained
without the need of intermittent positive pressure ventilation.
Jainudeen,
M.R., Bongso, T.A., Perera, B.M.O.A., 1971. Immobilisation of aggressive
working elephants (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 89,
686-688.
Abstract: The capture of aggressive working elephants, Elephas
maximus, by the drug immobilisation technique is described. Doses of
5 mg to 8 mg etorphine hydrochloride alone, satisfactorily immobilised
four adult elephants. Cyprenorphine hydrochloride reversed the
immobilising effects almost immediately and completely. Recovery was
uncomplicated. The value of this method of capture is discussed in
relation to aggressive working elephant.
Dinnes, M.R.
The use of M-99 (etorphine) on an elephant and gemsbok.
Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 49. 1970.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Gray, C.W.,
Nettasinghe, A.P.W., 1970. A preliminary study of immobilization of the
Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) utilizing etorphine (M-99).
Zoologica 55, 51-53.
Abstract: A preliminary study of M-99 for the immobilization of the
Ceylonese elephant indicates the effective dosage is approximately twice
that used in the African elephant, based on comparative body weights. A
dosage rate of 7 to 8 mgs of M-99 was necessary to immobilize the
Ceylonese elephant as compared to 5 or 6 mgs of M-99 for African
elephants of almost double the weight.
Harthoorn,
A.M., 1970. The flying syringe. Geoffrey Bles., London.
Jainudeen,
M.R., 1970. The use of etorphine hydrochloride for restraint of a
domesticated elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 157, 624-626.
Abstract: A domestic male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in "musth"
(aggressive state) was successfully immobilized with 8 mg. of etorphine
hydrochloride (M.99). The clinical signs of immobilization were
comparable to those reported in the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). Cyprenorphine hydrochloride (M.285) reversed the
immobilizing effects almost immediately and completely. Recovery was
uncomplicated.
Anderson, I.L.,
1968. Tutu poisoning in two circus elephants. New Zealand Veterinary
Journal 16, 146-147.
Gandal, C.P.,
1968. M-99 usage in African elephant, okapi and blesbok. American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians Newsletter 1.
Gray, C.W.,
1968. The use of M-99 in wild Asian elephant. American Association of
Zoo Veterinarians Newsletter March 25.
Wallach,
J.D., Anderson, J.L., 1968. Oripavine (M.99) combinations and solvents
for immobilization of the African elephant. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 153, 793-797.
Abstract: The oripavine derivative, M.99, alone or in combination with
small amounts of tranquilizer, satisfactorily immobilized 21 adult
African elephants. The addition of scopolamine to M.99 solutions in
doses high enough to produce a physiologic effect prolonged the recovery
period unnecessarily. There was no reduction of the induction period
when dimethyl sulfoxide was used as a solvent for M.99 given
subcutaneously or by deep intramuscular injections. Cyprenorphine
(M.285) reversed the immobilizing effects of M.99 alone or in
combination with small amounts of tranquilizer.
Harthoorn,
A.M., 1966. Restraint of undomesticated animals. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 149, 875.
Abstract: .
Maung, M.,
1966. The elephant catching co-operative society of Burma: A case study
on the effect of planned socio-economic change. Asian Survey 6,
327-337.
Pienaar,
U.d.V., Van Niekerk, J.W., Young, E., 1966. The use of oripavine
hydrochloride (M.99) in the drug immobilization and marking of wild
African elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach) in the Kruger
national park. Koedoe 9, 108-124.
Harthoorn,
A.M., Bligh, J., 1965. The use of a new oripavine derivative with potent
morphine-like activity for the restraint of hoofed wild animals.
Research in Veterinary Science 6, 290-299.
Abstract: The use of one of a series of oripavine derivatives (No. M.99)
for the immobilization and capture of hoofed wild animals is described.
This substance, usually injected in combination with tranquilizer and
hyoscine, is suitable for the restraint of all hoofed wild animals on
which it has been used. The very low mortality achieved originally with
the use of tranquilizer/synthetic morphine/hyoscine mixtures has been
maintained, while the speed of reaction has greatly increased. The much
smaller bulk of this substance (approximately 0.2 ml compared with 10 ml
equivalent of solution formerly needed) has considerably increased the
ease of injection through the use of much smaller projectile syringes.
The effect of this oripavine substance may be reversed with nalorphine.
Gopalan, S.,
1962. Elephants - Their Capture, Care and Management. The Manager,
Publications, Government of India Press, Delhi. 8., Delhi.
Abstract: Note: Dr. S. Chandrasekharam Pillai's notes revised by Dr. S.
Gopalan of Madras Forestry Dept.
Harthoorn,
A.M., Lock, J.A., Luck, C.P., 1961. Handling and marking of wild African
elephants (Loxodonta africana) with the use of the drug
immobilizing technique -- a preliminary report. British Veterinary
Journal 117, 87-91.
Kodituwakku,
G.E., Dissanayake, K., Seneviratne, E., 1961. General anesthesia in an
elephant. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 9, 75.
Counsilman,
J.W., 1954. Demerol hydrochloride as an anesthetic for an elephant.
North American Veterinarian 35, 835-836.
Ferrier, A.J.,
1947. The care and management of elephants in Burma. Steel Brothers,
London.
Milroy, A.J.W.,
1922. A short tretise on the management of elephants. Government
Printer, Shillong.
Tennent, J.E.,
1867. The wild elephant and the method of capturing and taming it in
Ceylon. Longmans, Green and Co., London.
1839. The
Elephant (as he exists in a wild state and as he has been made
subservient, in peace and war, to the purposes of man). Harper and
Brothers, New York.
Abstract: Note: This work was originally published by the British
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge |