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Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org
References
Updated October 2007
1.
Aroch I., King R. and Baneth G. 2007. Hematology and serum biochemistry
values of trapped, healthy, free-ranging rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis)
and their association with age, sex, and gestational status.Vet Clin
Pathol 36: 40-48.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: The rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) is an herbivore
prevalent from South Africa to Turkey, and a most common zoo animal.
Although many studies of hyrax diseases and physiology are available,
clinicopathologic data are limited. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this
study was to establish comprehensive hematologic and biochemical
reference intervals for trapped, apparently healthy, free-ranging rock
hyraxes using modern laboratory methods and to assess differences
related to sex, gestation, and age. METHODS: Blood samples were obtained
from 27 healthy, free-ranging hyraxes under anesthesia. Gender, body
weight, and gestational status were recorded. Hematologic (n = 25) and
serum biochemical (n = 22) analyses were performed using standard
automated methodology. Data for male vs female, adult vs juvenile, and
pregnant vs nonpregnant female hyraxes were compared using the
Mann-Whitney U-test. Associations between variables were assessed using
Pearson's or Spearman rank correlation tests. RESULTS: Significant age-
and sex-related, but not gestation-related differences were observed in
several variables. Serum alkaline phosphatase activity and phosphorus
concentration were significantly higher in juveniles compared with
adults. A unique type of monocyte comprised 1-3% of leukocytes in 4
hyraxes. Markedly high serum creatine kinase (CK) activity was observed
in most hyraxes. CONCLUSIONS: The large number of animals and the
availability of sex, age, and gestational data in this study will be
useful to zoo and wildlife veterinarians working with rock hyraxes. High
serum concentrations of betahydroxybutyric acid in the rock hyrax,
compared with dogs, cats, and ruminants, may be related to its unique
digestive system. High CK activity may have been the result of a capture
myopathy-like syndrome. The unique monocytes in hyraxes resemble those
of elephants and are a novel finding in this species.
2.
Portas T., Bryant B., Goritz F. et al. 2007.
Semen
collection in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) under combined
physical and chemical restraint.Aust Vet J 85: 425-427.
3.
Neiffer D.L., Miller M.A., Weber M. et al. 2005.
Standing
sedation in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) using detomidine-butoprhanol
combinations.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 36: 250-256.
4.
Plumb D.C. 2005. Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook. Blackwell Pub
Professional, pp.1-929.
5.
Rasmussen H.B., Wittemyer G. and Douglas-Hamilton I. 2005. Estimating
age of immobilized elephants from teeth impressions using dental
silicon.African Journal of Ecology 43: 215-219.
Abstract: High precision condensation dental silicon, ZetalaborTM,
was used to create moulds of the lower jaw molars from 22
immobilized African elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenback)
during radio collaring operations. These moulds were used to determine
the elephant's age using Laws and Jachmann's molar aging criteria. The
technique proved easy and fast and produced useful imprints in 90% of
the cases. We found our age estimates, based on physical appearance,
made prior to immobilizations were relatively accurate, with 75% within
±3 years and 95% within ±5 years from the age indicated from molar
evaluation. When re-collaring the same individuals in 2-3 years, new
moulds will be made to compare a known time period with the degree of
tooth wear. This will provide verification of Laws age estimates from
free-ranging elephants.
6.
Suedmeyer W.K., Oosterhuis J., Kollias G. et al. 2005. Elephant
restraint device assisted anesthesia in an African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory
Group, pp. 189-191.
Abstract: Modern elephant management programs often include the use of
protected contact. This allows improved safety for the elephant staff
but may limit access to medical conditions occurring in elephants.
A 27-yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) weighing
an estimated 3,700 kg was anesthetized for evaluation of a chronic,
progressive, fistulous tract of the left ventral mandible. The mandible
was routinely cultured, flushed with diluted peroxide, chlorhexidine,
betadine solution, or alternating antibiotics, based on microbial
sensitivities. To properly assess the left mandible, the elephant had to
be placed in right lateral recumbency, which was accomplished with the
use of a commercially available rotational elephant restraint device (ERD).
Because of the protected contact management program, right lateral
recumbency could not be guaranteed at the time of immobilization.
Malpositioning, tusk fracture and/or related injury could occur upon
recumbency without the additional control afforded by the ERD. The ERD
is a hydraulically operated unit that comfortably restrains an elephant,
minimizing safety risks to the animal and staff. The ERD consists of one
solid wall, three side panels, and hinged floor. The ends of the
restraint are closed with moveable shift doors. The three side panels
can be moved independently depending upon the size of the animal and are
further subdivided with moveable "subpanels" to allow direct access to
various areas of the animal. In addition, support straps help gently
stabilize limbs when performing medical procedures. The unit is
positioned within the elephant holding facility at the Kansas City Zoo.
The unit was installed in 1994 during renovation of the elephant
exhibit, whereupon the elephant management program was changed from
free-contact to protected contact. The ERD is utilized for reproductive
assessments, semen collection, transabdominal ultrasound, evaluation of
integumentary wounds, ophthalmic and aural examination, and
administration of injectable medications. However, no elephant had been
anesthetized and rotated in the restraint. The affected animal could not
be guaranteed to re-enter the ERD once rotated, but would enter and
station in the ERD on a daily basis. Because of this, a conspecific was
conditioned to allow rotation without the use of sedatives or
tranquilizers, to prepare for the actual immobilization. Adjustments in
strap placement, cushioning, critical evaluation of mechanical
stability, and placement of hydraulic panels allowed staff to prepare
for the actual immobilization, minimizing complications. The elephant
was conditioned to enter and station in the ERD. After strapping the
distal limbs, thorax and caudal abdomen for support, the elephant was
immobilized with a combination of 3,000 IU of hyaluronidase (O'Brien
Pharmacy, Kansas City, MO USA), 10 mg acepromazine maleate, and 7 mg
etorphine hydrochloride (Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins, CO
USA) via pole syringe. Close monitoring of induction was performed and
when stage III anesthetic plane was achieved, the elephant was rotated
into right lateral recumbency, elevating the elephant 6 feet above the
floor. No voluntary movement of the animal was noted while the restraint
was in motion. Direct arterial blood pressure, indirect oscillometric
blood pressure, blood gases, respiratory rate, excursion
characteristics, cardiac rate and rhythm, and pulse oximetry was
routinely monitored during the procedure. Anesthesia was maintained with
intermittent boluses of etorphine hydrochloride. Intravenous physiologic
fluids (lactated Ringers solution) were maintained via an i.v. aural
catheter, and insufflation with oxygen was provided on a continual
basis. Oral examination and palpation demonstrated an incomplete
transverse fissure of the left mandibular molar, intact gingival, and
proper dental occlusion with the upper arcade. Digital radiographs of
the left mandible were performed based on exposures obtained with a set
of skeletonized jaws. Advantages of this diagnostic modality are the
immediate imaging results, portability, and digital imaging and storage,
and does not require a developer or fixative. Adjustments in
radiographic angle and technique were made to obtain the best diagnostic
image. Radiographic imaging demonstrated a sequestrum consisting of a
fractured enamel plate 2of the mandibular molar with a
fistulous tract that coursed ventrally to communicate through the skin.
The elephant was elevated 6 feet above the ground, which presented
unique challenges. Because of the relatively small operating space,
intubation was not possible, but insufflation was readily achieved and
successful based on pulse oximetry trends. A commercial lift was
utilized to elevate two large-animal circle anesthetic units to the
level of the elephant's head. During immobilization the legs were
cushioned and restraint straps removed to lessen the potential for
occlusive damage to the tissues. The ERD allows an elephant to be
positioned in either right or left lateral recumbency.
Upon completion of diagnostic procedures, the narcotic agent was
reversed with 1,400 mg naltrexone hydrochloride (Zoopharm, Laramie, WY
USA) administered 25% intravenously and 75% subcutaneously. The elephant
awoke within 90 sec and was rotated to a standing position within the
restraint. Thereafter, the elephant was confined in the restraint for
approximately 45 min, until no untoward effects were likely to occur.
The elephant was released from the restraint and resumed normal eating
and drinking within 8 hr, and voluntarily entered the restraint within 2
wk following the procedure. The elephant was stable throughout the
procedure; however, a predetermined objective for mean arterial blood
pressures (<200 MAP) was not achieved. Hyaluronidase was utilized to
promote rapid absorption of the narcotic and neuroleptic agents.3
Acetylpromazine was used to maintain peripheral perfusion by
reducing the hypertensive effects of etorphine,1 which has
been documented in previous immobilizations of African elephants.3-5
Etorphine hydrochloride, a powerful narcotic agent, has been
successfully used as an immobilizing agent in both wild and captive
African elephants.3-5 Use of an ERD allowed full control of
the immobilization, increasing safety for personnel, preventing injury
to the elephant, and positioning the left mandible on the dorsal plane.
Disadvantages are the elevated height of the elephant, relatively small
operating space, and disrupted line of sight communication. A second
procedure will be performed in the near future to address the fracture
and subsequent sequestrum diagnosed during the first immobilization. The
elephant is currently being conditioned to allow restraint in a holding
stall that will allow greater access to the oral cavity and surgical
manipulation of the affected mandible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the staff of the Kansas City Zoological Park for their care,
concern, and expertise in helping make this procedure a success.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Booth, N.H. Psychotropic agents. In: Booth, N.H., and R.E.
McDonald (eds.). Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. W.B.
Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA. P. 329.
2 Fagan, V.D.A., J.E. Oosterhuis, and A. Roocraft. 2001. Captivity
disorders in elephants: impacted molars and broken tusks. Der
Zoologische Garten 71:281-303.
3 Honeymoon, V.L., G.R. Pettifer, and D.H. Dyson. 1992. Arterial blood
pressure and blood gas values in normal standing and laterally recumbent
African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus)
elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 23:205-210.
4. Kock, R.A., P. Morkel, and M.D. Kock. 1993. Current immobilization
procedures used in elephants. In: Fowler,
M.E. (ed.). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3. W.B.
Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA. Pp. 436-441.
5 Raath, J.P. 1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler,
M.E., and R.E. Miller (eds.). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current
Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA. Pp. 525-533.
7.
Abou-Madi N., Kollias G.V., Hackett R.P. et al. 2004. Umbilical
herniorrhaphy in a juvenile Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).Journal of
Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35: 221-225.
Abstract: An umbilical hernia was diagnosed in a 2-wk-old Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus) by physical and ultrasonographic examinations.
Umbilical herniorrhaphy was elected because the defect was large
(approximately 7 cm long and 10 cm deep) and could potentially lead to
incarceration of an intestinal loop. General anesthesia was induced with
a combination of ketamine, xylazine, and diazepam and maintained with
isoflurane in oxygen. The hernial sac was explored and contained fibrous
tissue, fat, and an intestinal loop but no adhesions. The hernial sac
was resected and the body wall closed using the technique of simple
apposition. Following a superficial wound infection, the surgical site
healed with no further complications.
8.
Buchanan K.L. and Goldsmith A.R. 2004. Noninvasive endocrine data for
behavioural studies: The importance of validation.Animal Behaviour 67:
183-185.
Abstract: There has been a substantial growth recently in the use of
noninvasive methods to quantify hormone production, through the
measurement of excreted hormones or hormone levels from saliva, sweat or
hair (e.g.Wasser et al. 2000; Cook 2002; Pfeffer et al. 2002). These
measures can quantify either current (e.g. Berg & Wynne-Edwards 2002;
Maso et al. 2002) or past (e.g. Wasser et al. 2000; Ostner et al. 2002)
levels of hormone production and the data can be used to determine the
relations between a range of hormone levels and animal behaviour across
taxa (Wasser et al. 2000). Such techniques have been used extensively to
examine social stress (Goymann et al. 2001), the effects of
environmental stress (Creel et al. 2002), reproductive cycles (Curtis et
al. 2000) and social dominance (von Engelhardt et al. 2000; Langmore et
al. 2002). They may have important applications in conservation science
(Ishii 1999). There are several reasons why noninvasive methods of
sampling are highly desirable. Importantly, animal suffering can
potentially be reduced. In practical terms there are also several
advantages: noninvasive methods allow samples to be obtained
retrospectively, which represent average hormone production over a
certain time frame, and the time spent handling the animal does not
affect the levels obtained, which is advantageous for highly pulsatile
hormones such as corticosteroids. In addition, the licensing constraints
for noninvasive methods of sampling are less restrictive. However, such
techniques also have disadvantages. In particular, faecal, hair or
feather samples can indicate only average hormone levels over a
considerable, and possibly unknown, period. Compared with plasma levels,
noninvasive measures may result in a loss of sensitivity in any further
analyses examining the relations between hormone levels and other
variables (Shirtcliff et al. 2002). Furthermore, faecal samples in
particular may not be available from known individuals a known amount of
time after excretion, preventing reliable determination of individual
hormone levels. It is also worth considering that while noninvasive
sampling will not cause large increases in pulsatile 'stress' hormones
as caused by capture and restraint, some increase may occur merely as a
result of the presence of the sampler. In addition, there are a number
of validation issues concerning the quantification of steroids from
noninvasive samples which we outline below. Koren et al. (2002)
documented a protocol for the extraction of testosterone and cortisol
from hair obtained from the rock hyrax, Procavia capensis. They used
this technique to quantify the levels of hormones contained in plucked
hair samples, allowing hormone levels during the period of hair
production to be determined, noninvasively. They found that the levels
of testosterone extracted correlated positively with the dominance rank
of male hyraxes. Although such methods are highly desirable, it is
important to emphasize that all new methods of measuring levels of
hormone production using hormone extracted from organic substrates
should be appropriately validated, such that the limitations of the
technique can be defined. This requires: (1) that the assay is validated
for each new species and substrate and (2) that the extraction
efficiency is determined for the target hormone in the species and
substrate of interest. Although ready-made endocrine kits are provided
with some data on the assay validation, the validation is relevant only
for the species and substrate tested by the commercial supplier,
generally in a limited range of biological media. It is essential to
extend these validations for the species and substrate to which the kit
is being applied. For example, a methanol extract of hair may contain
substances that interfere with the assay procedure and thus would give
misleading results.
9.
Dangolia A., Silva I. and Kuruwita V.Y. 2004. Neuroleptanalgesia in wild
Asian elephants (Elephas maximus maximus).Vet Anaesth Analg. 31:
276-279.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the suitability of etorphine with
acepromazine for producing prolonged neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian
elephants. ANIMALS: Ten adult wild elephants (four males, six females),
free-roaming in the jungles of the north-western province of Sri Lanka.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ten wild elephants were tranquilized for
attachment of radio transmitter collars from September to November 1997,
using Large-Animal Immobilon (C-Vet Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK),
which is a combination of etorphine (2.45 mg mL(-1)) and acepromazine
(10 mg mL(-1)). This was injected using projectile syringes fired from a
Cap-Chur gun (Palmer Chemical Co. Inc., Atlanta, USA). A volume of 3.3
(2.5-4.5) mL Immobilon (6.12-11.02 mg of etorphine and 25-45 mg
acepromazine) was injected intramuscularly after body mass estimation of
individual elephants. RESULTS: The body condition of all darted
elephants was good, and the mean (minimum-maximum) shoulder height was
225 (180-310) cm. The average approximate distance to elephants at
firing was 26 (15-50) m. The average time to recumbency after injection
was 18 (15-45) minutes. Nine out of 10 elephants remained in lateral
recumbency (and did not require additional dosing) for a period of 42
(28-61) minutes. The respiratory and heart rates during anaesthesia were
7 (4-10) breaths and 52 (40-60) beats minute(-1), respectively. An equal
volume (8.15-14.67 mg) of diprenorphine hydrochloride (Revivon, 3.26 mg
mL(-1) diprenorphine; C-Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK) was given
intravenously when the procedure was completed. Recovery (return to
standing position) occurred in 6 (2-12) minutes after diprenorphine
injection. Immediately afterwards, all elephants slowly retreated into
the jungle without complications. Continuous radio tracking of the
animals involved in this study indicated no post-operative mortality for
several months after restraint. CONCLUSIONS/CLINICAL RELEVANCE:
Etorphine-acepromazine combinations can be used safely in healthy wild
Asian elephants for periods of restraint lasting up to 1 hour.
10.
Dangolla A., Silva I. and Kuruwita V.Y. 2004.
Neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus maximus).Veterinary
Anaesthesia and Analgesia 31: 276-279.
Abstract: Objective: To evaluate the suitability of etorphine with
acepromazine for producing prolonged neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian
elephants. Animals : Ten adult wild elephants (four males, six females),
free-roaming in the jungles of the northwestern province of Sri Lanka.
Materials and methods: Ten wild elephants were tranquilized for
attachment of radio transmitter collars from September to November 1997,
using Large-Animal Immobilon (C-Vet Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK),
which is a combination of etorphine (2.45 mg mL)1) and acepromazine (10
mg mL)1). This was injected using projectile syringes fired from a Cap-Chur
gun (Palmer Chemical Co. Inc., Atlanta, USA).Avolume of 3.3 (2.5-4.5) mL
Immobilon (6.12-11.02 mg of etorphine and 25- 45 mg acepromazine) was
injected intramuscularly after body mass estimation of individual
elephants. Results: The body condition of all darted elephants was good,
and the mean (minimum maximum) shoulder height was 225 (180-310) cm. The
average approximate distance to elephants at firing was 26 (15-50) m.
The average time to recumbency after injection was 18 (15-45) minutes.
Nine out of 10 elephants remained in lateral recumbency (and did not
require additional dosing) for a period of 42 (28- 61) minutes. The
respiratory and heart rates during anaesthesia were 7 (4-10) breaths and
52 (40- 60) beats minute)1, respectively. An equal volume (8.15-14.67
mg) of diprenorphine hydrochloride (Revivon, 3.26 mg mL)1 diprenorphine;
C-Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK) was given intravenously when the
procedure was completed. Recovery (return to standing position) occurred
in 6 (2- 12) minutes after diprenorphine injection. Immediately
afterwards, all elephants slowly retreated into the jungle without
complications. Continuous radio tracking of the animals involved in this
study indicated no post-operative mortality for several months after
restraint. Conclusions/clinical relevance: Etorphine-acepromazine
combinations can be used safely in healthy wild Asian elephants for
periods of restraint lasting up to 1 hour.
11.
Janssen D.L., Oosterhuis J.E., Fuller J. and Williams K. 2004. Field
technique: A method for obtaining trunk wash mycobacterial cultures in
anesthetized free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana).
2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE, pp. 582-583.
Abstract: The Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants
2003 (Guidelines) of the National tuberculosis Working Group
for Zoo and Wildlife Species were written to protect the health and
safety of captive elephants together with their handlers and the viewing
public.1 The Guidelines specifically address the display and
transport of captive elephants but do not address the unique situation
of free-living elephants being imported and subsequently displayed to
the public.
Although the Guidelines describe a technique for collecting and
handling a trunk wash in a trained, standing, non-anesthetized elephant,
it does not describe a similar technique for anesthetized elephants in
lateral recumbency. In an attempt to detect active mycobacterial
infection in a group of 3 male and 8 female free-ranging African
elephants scheduled for import into the United States, a technique was
developed for collecting trunk washes in recumbent, anesthetized
elephants for mycobacterial culture.
A South African game-capture crew, experienced in translocating
elephants, anesthetized elephants in groups via remote drug delivery and
from a helicopter. The ground crew accomplished multiple simultaneous
procedures including anesthesia maintenance and monitoring, physical and
reproductive examinations, collection of general diagnostic and
investigative samples, and trunk washes for mycobacterial cultures. This
was accomplished while the capture crew was preparing animals for
loading into specially designed trailers for transport to a holding boma.
Little time was available for any one of procedure with multiple
animals being attended to at one time.
Once an elephant was stable in lateral recumbency, a 3-m foal stomach
tube, prepackaged and sterilized, was inserted into the dependent side
of the trunk tip. It was then gently fed up the trunk approximately 2.5
m. A 50-ml sample suction trap was attached to the end of the foal
tube.The suction trap was then attached to a battery powered, portable
aspirator pump designed for emergency medical care. The aspiration pump
was activated to collect secretions from the most proximal portion of
the trunk. If little or no secretions were collected by this means, the
system was disconnected between the sample trap and the foal tube. Then,
100 ml of sterile saline was placed into raised end of the foal tube
allowing it to drain toward the tip through gravity. The suction trap
and aspiration pump were reattached to collect a sample in the sample
trap. Then, the sample trap was replaced with a new trap, and the foal
tube was inserted into the oral pharynx for collection of a separate
oropharyngeal sample. This same procedure was repeated
with each elephant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
So African veterinarians, Mike Bester, Larry Killmar, Janet Payeur,
ARC/OVI, Thomas Hildebrant, Eric Zeehandelar, Kevin Reily, Denise
SoFranko.
LITERATURE CITED
1. National tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species.
2003. Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants 2003.
USDA-APHIS: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf
12.
Loomis M.R. and Loomis J.M. 2004. Equipment for use in monitoring
anesthetized animals in remote geographic locations. 2004 PROCEEDINGS
AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE, pp. 499-501.
Abstract: Monitoring anesthetized animals in remote geographic locations
with no electrical power source can be accomplished with the use of
commercially available equipment or with modifications of available
equipment. The use of portable solar panels to recharge batteries can
supply adequate power to operate most equipment. Equipment for
monitoring oxygenation, ventilation, cardiac rhythm and rate, blood
pressure and core temperature have been successfully used in areas
without an electrical grid or electrical generators.
Criteria for Choice of Equipment for Field Use
Size, weight, power requirements, durability and the ability to
operate in harsh environmental conditions should be considered when
choosing monitoring equipment for field use. Of concern are the power
requirement and the source of the power, particularly in areas where
there is no power grid or generator available.
Power Source
There are a number of types of rechargeable batteries on the
market.1 Nickel metal halide batteries (NiMH) were chosen for use in
monitoring equipment in this study (MAHA Powerx
2100mAh, Thomas Distributing, 128 East Wood, Paris, IL 61944). NiMH
batteries have several features that make them attractive for remote
use.1 They can be recharged 500 to 1000 times, have no memory, have a
fairly steady discharge curve and have the least negative environmental
impact when disposed of than other available batteries.1 One
disadvantage of NiMH batteries is that they have a self discharge rate
of 2-3% per day when not in use. AA NiMH batteries produce 1.2 volts.
Battery energy output is measured in milliamp hours (mAh)2. A battery
rated at 1700 mAh will produce 1700 mA for 1 hr. Different manufacturers
produce batteries with different power
outputs. AA NiMH batteries are rated at up to 2400 mAh. The higher the
mAh, the greater the output of the battery.
Batteries are charged using fast, smart chargers attached to portable
solar panels (iPowerUS fast smart charger, iPower corporation, CA, USA).
A fast charger delivers the amount of current necessary to recharge the
battery in 1 hr or less. In general, a slower charge rate will extend
the overall life of the battery.3 To overcome the deleterious effects of
rapidly charging a battery, a smart charger has a current-limiter built
into it that reduce the current as the battery is charged, thereby
preventing most of the deterioration.3 The fast smart charger is
attached to a portable solar panel (Sun Catcher Expedition solar
charger, PowerQwest, Inc.3400 Corporate Way, Suite C Duluth, GA 30096
USA) via a 12 volt "cigarette lighter" type plug.
The panel produces 25 watts of power, which is more than enough power to
charge 8 AA NiMH batteries at a time.
Equipment that uses AA or AAA batteries is preferred so that a large
number of different sized rechargeable batteries are not required in the
field.
Monitoring Equipment
Oxygenation is measured with a pulse oximeter or by arterial blood
gas determination using a portable clinical analyzer. Several brands of
pulse oximeters have been successfully used and recharged in the field.
An Invacare model 3402NV (Sims BCI, Inc., Waukesha, WI 53186) is
relatively small, light weight and operates on 6 AA batteries. This
oximeter is durable and operates well on rechargeable AA NiMH batteries.
An I-Stat portable clinical analyzer (Heska Corp. 1613 Prospect Parkway,
Fort Collins, CO 80525 USA) has been successfully used in the field
using rechargeable 9-volt NiMH batteries. A challenge of using the
I-Stat in the field is the analyzer's normal operating temperature of
16-30°C (61-86°F). The I-Stat has been kept in the proper operating
temperature range by placing it in a 12-volt thermoelectric cooler
(Coleman, Spirit Lake, IA 51360, USA). The thermoelectric cooler runs
directly off of the solar panel.
Ventilation is measured using capnography or arterial blood gas
determination. The criteria for choice of a capnograph include a
waveform display, mainstream and sidestream capabilities and powered by
rechargeable AA batteries. The Novametrix Tidal Wave model 615 (Novametrix
Medical Systems, INC., Wallingford, and CT USA 06492) meets these
criteria. The Tidal Wave comes standard with a rechargeable
computer-type battery, but can be ordered with a battery tray, which
holds 7 AA batteries. This instrument is durable and operates well on
rechargeable NiMH batteries. The sidestream capability allows a large
gauge needle to be placed in the lumen of a large endotracheal tube for
sampling.
Cardiac rate and rhythm are monitored by use of an electrocardiograph (ECG).
A compact ECG unit (Heska Vet/ECG 2000, Heska Corp., 1613 Prospect
Parkway, Fort Collins, CO 80525 USA) that operates on 3 AAA rechargeable
NiMH batteries is durable and dependable in the field. Blood pressure is
measured by a direct arterial line or by indirect methods. Of the
indirect methods, automated oscillometry has been successfully used in
the field. No automated oscillometric blood pressure machine that runs
on replaceable batteries could be found. A compact, durable instrument,
Oscillomate 9300 (CAS Medical Systems, Inc., 44 East Industrial Blvd.,
Branford, CT 06405), was modified for field use. A transformer was
manufactured which is inserted between the internal battery of the blood
pressure monitor and the solar panel. This allows the internal battery
of the blood pressure monitor to be recharged directly from the solar
panel.
All monitoring equipment, battery chargers and rechargeable NiMH
batteries are transported into the field in a backpack that is designed
for photographic equipment (Lowepro Supertrecker AW II, Lowepro USA,
P.O. Box 6189, Santa Rosa, CA 95406). All of the above equipment has
been dependably used to monitor immobilized elephants in a variety of
remote habitats in Cameroon, including dry, hot habitat,2 hot humid
habitat.
LITERATURE CITED
1. New technology batteries guide: available battery types.
http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/batype. htm, March, 2004.
2. New technology batteries guide: performance, economics and
tradeoffs.http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/ba-type.htm,
March, 2004.
3. New technology batteries guide: battery chargers and adapters.http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/ba-char.htm,
March, 2004.
4. Horne, W.A., M.N. Tchamba, and M.R. Loomis. 2001. A simple method of
providing intermittent positivepressureventilation to etorphine-immobilized
elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field.
J.
Zoo Wildl.Med. 32: 519-522.
13. Sarma K.K., Sarma M. and Sarma D.K. 2004.
Safety of
repeated xylazine hydrochloride administrations in elephants.Indian
Veterinary Journal 81: 886-889.
14.
2003. Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project
Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp.1-199.
15.
Mikota S.K., Hammatt H. and Finnegan M. 2003. Occurrence and prevention
of capture wounds in Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus).
Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet, pp. 291-293.
Abstract: The capturing of elephants in Indonesia began in 1986 as an
attempted solution to human-elephant conflict. The intent was to train
"problem" elephants for use in agriculture, logging and tourism. The
initial captures were conducted under the guidance of Thai mahouts and
Thai koonkie elephants (trained elephants used for capture). A number
of the Indonesians that were originally trained in capture techniques
still work for the government forestry department (KSDA). The younger
pawangs (elephant handlers) that participate in captures have learned
from their peers. There is no formal training program. The actual
mortality rate associated with elephant captures in Sumatra is unknown
as official reports are lacking. The age structure of the existing ~
400 captive elephants is young (most under 25) which suggests that
smaller, younger elephants are preferentially captured and / or that
adult elephants do not survive the capture and training processes. Our
personal experiences (Mikota and Hammatt) in Sumatra show that mortality
in newly captured elephants is high.In 2001, with endorsement from the
World Wide Fund for Nature-Indonesia (WWF), the Wildlife Conservation
Society (WCS), Fauna and Flora International (FFI), and the
International Elephant Foundation (IEF), we requested a two-year
Moratorium on elephant captures during which time capture techniques
would be improved and alternative conflict mediation techniques
evaluated.
A Moratorium against placing additional elephants into the Elephant
Training Centers has been issued by the central government, however
capture for translocation is still sanctioned. Unfortunately, the
provincial governments have increasingly acted in their own interests
since the government of Indonesia began a de-centralization process a
few years ago. Riau Province is thought to have the largest remaining
populations of wild Sumatran elephants.Fifty-seven, human-elephant
conflicts occurred in Riau between 1997-2000. Although Riau is a hotbed
of conflict, problems are occurring throughout Sumatra and we are aware
of conflicts and captures in Bengkulu and North Sumatra. In October
2002, we were invited by KSDA (the provincial forestry department) to
accompany their team into the field as they attempted to capture a large
bull that had been raiding a palm oil plantation. This opportunity was
invaluable as we were able to observe first hand the techniques being
used and where improvements were needed. As a result of this and other
experiences with newly captured elephants we observed: ·Equipment
(Palmer) is old, poorly maintained, and used improperly. ·Essential
supplies are lacking or homemade substitutes are used.
·The dose of xylazine is very high compared to wild elephant capture
doses used in India and Malaysia. The same dose is often used
regardless of the size of the elephant. ·The needles are too short to
reach muscle; open-ended needles are used which can become plugged with
tissue, thus preventing injection. ·Neither the correct charge nor the
correct load is selected. We observed that many darts bounced making it
difficult to ascertain the amount of drug injected or its depth of
penetration. Selection of an inappropriate charge results in
unnecessary trauma. ·The preparation and use of darts, needles, and
syringes lacks basic hygiene. ·Dart wounds are not treated and
antibiotics are not administered. ·There is no understanding of stress
or capture myopathy. ·The capture team was not aware that sternal
recumbency severely compromises respiration in elephants and that they
can quickly die in this position. ·It is believed that elephant
restraints must inflict pain to prevent wild elephants from escaping
once captured. ·There is no veterinarian on the capture team. The
current capture techniques result in leg wounds from unprotected chains,
neck wounds from "kahs" (neck yokes made of wood and wire), and
abscesses from inappropriately administered darts. Leg and neck wounds
often become maggot infested. Infections from dart wounds are, however,
the primary cause of capture-related mortality. These abscesses can
drain for several months, even with treatment, and often progress to a
necrotizing fasciitis, acute sepsis, and death. The Riau Province KSDA
Team has been receptive to suggested changes to minimize wounds.
Provision of heavier chains has alleviated the fear that elephants will
escape. Covering the chains with fire hose or heavy plastic minimizes
injuries to legs and use of the kah has been discontinued. A basic dart
wound treatment protocol has been established. In June 2003, a
comprehensive Elephant Immobilization and Translocation Workshop for
Sumatra is planned to retrain all of Sumatra's field teams and to
upgrade equipment. Sumatra's wild elephant population probably numbers
fewer than 3000 and is under continued threat. With so few elephants
left, the preservation of as many viable herds as possible takes on
increased urgency. The Moratorium achieved in 2001 has set the
groundwork for KSDA to choose translocation of wild elephants rather
than capture and placement into already over-crowded and under-resourced
Elephant Training Centers. We cannot guarantee that Sumatra will
capture elephants only for translocation, and it is inevitable that many
more elephants will end up in captivity. Regardless, all of the
elephants that must suffer the interruption of their lives at the hand
of man deserve, at the very least, humane treatment. Translocations are
neither simple nor a complete panacea. Identifying suitable
translocation areas and insuring that elephants remain there are
significant challenges. WWF-Indonesia is continuing its efforts to
secure the lowland forest of Tesso Nilo in Riau Province as a "safe
haven" for at least some of Sumatra's wild elephants (see WWF AREAS
Program Riau, Sumatra: http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/attachments/riau_profile.pdf).
The identification of interim release sites, together with improved
capture techniques, offers the hope that fewer elephants will be removed
from the wild. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Our work in Sumatra has been supported
by the Guggenheim Foundation, a CEF grant from the American Zoo and
Aquarium Association, the International Elephant Foundation, Oregon Zoo,
Columbus Zoo, Disney, Peace River Refuge, the Elephant Managers
Association, the Riddles Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Tulsa Zoo,
Toronto Zoo, Niabi Zoo, San Antonio Zoo, Denver Zoo (AAZK Chapter),
Milwaukee Zoo (AAZK Chapter), the Audubon Nature Institute (Youth
Volunteers), Buttonwood Park Zoo, Melbourne Zoo, and private donors.
Special thanks to Harry Peachey, John Lehnhardt, Holly Reed, Kay Backues,
Mike Keele, Steve Osofsky, and Heidi and Scott Riddle.
16.
Ollivet-Courtois F., Lecu A., Yates R.A. and Spelman L.H. 2003.
Treatment of a sole abscess in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) using
regional digital intravenous perfusion.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 34: 292-295.
Abstract: Regional digital i.v. perfusion was used to treat a severe
sole abscess associated with a wire foreign body in a 19-yr-old female
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) housed at the Paris Zoo. The cow
presented with acute right forelimb lameness and swelling that persisted
despite 4 days of anti-inflammatory therapy. Under anesthesia, a 10- x
0.5- x 0.5-cm wire was extracted from the sole of the right foot. There
was a 2-cm-deep, 7-cm-diameter abscess pocket that was subsequently
debrided. Regional digital i.v. perfusion was performed and repeated 15
days later, using cefoxitin and gentamicin on both occasions. Between
treatments, the cow received trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and
phenylbutazone orally. Within 2 days of administering anesthesia and the
first perfusion treatment, the lameness improved dramatically. When
phenylbutazone was discontinued 1 wk after the first treatment, the
lameness had completely resolved. At the second treatment, there was no
evidence of further soft tissue infection, and the abscess pocket had
resolved.
17.
Pathak S.C. 2003. Restraint and chemical immobilization of elephants.
In: Das D (ed), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants
pp. 23-27. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.
18.
Pitts N.I. and Mitchell G. 2003. In vitro succinylcholine hydrolysis in
plasma of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and impala (Aepyceros
melampus).Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 134: 123-129.
Abstract: In elephants the time lapsed from i.m. injection of an
overdose of the muscle relaxant succinylcholine (SuCh) until death, is
significantly longer than in impala. To determine a difference in the
rate of SuCh hydrolysis, once the drug enters the circulation,
contributes to this phenomenon we have measured the rate of hydrolysis
of SuCh in elephant and impala plasma, and by elephant erythrocytes.
Rate of hydrolysis was determined by incubating SuCh in plasma or
erythrocyte lysate at 37 degrees C and quantifying the choline produced.
Plasma SuCh hydrolytic activity in elephant plasma (12.1+/-1.7 Ul(-1)
mean+/-S.D.; n=9) was significantly higher than it was in impala plasma
(6.6+/-0.6 Ul(-1); n=5), but were approximately 12 and 21 times lower,
respectively, than in human plasma. Elephant erythrocyte lysate had no
SuCh hydrolytic activity. Applying this data to previous studies, we can
show that the ratio of SuCh absorption to SuCh hydrolysis is expected to
be 1.25:1 and 1.41:1 for elephants and impala respectively. It will thus
take at least 1.7 times longer for elephant to achieve a plasma SuCh
concentration similar to that in impala. We conclude that a more rapid
hydrolysis of SuCh in elephant plasma is one factor that contributes to
the longer time to death compared to impala.
19.
Schmitt D.L. 2003. Proboscidea (Elephants). In: Fowler ME and Miller RE
(eds), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine pp. 541-550. Elsevier Science USA.
20.
Steiner M., Gould A.R., Clark T.J. and Burns R. 2003. Induced elephant
(Loxodonta africana) tusk removal.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine
34: 93-95.
Abstract: Elephant tusk removal usually requires costly surgical
procedures that are time-consuming and present a significant risk to the
animal when performed using general anesthesia. Such techniques require
gauges, chisels, and forceps to remove the tusk. This article reports
the simple removal of the tusk of an 18-yr-old African elephant
(Loxodonta africana) without the use of surgical instruments and
anesthesia. Rubber elastics were placed around a tusk, causing loss of
alveolar bone with subsequent exfoliation of the tusk within 3 wk. The
healing process was uneventful. Department of Surgical and Hospital
Dentistry, School of Dentistry, University of Louisville, Louisville,
Kentucky 40292, USA.
21.
Vodicka R. and Kral J. 2003.
Purulent
trunk dermatitis in a male Ceylon elephant (Elephas maximus).Verh.ber.Erkrg.Zootiere
41: 151-153.
Abstract: A report in given on the therapy of purulent trunk dermatitis
in an aggressive male Ceylon elephant. Despite the non-standard steps we
took (repeated anaesthesias during a short time, non-compliance with the
recommendations as to the application of some drugs, etc.) and the
difficult handling (an aggressive; incontrollable elephant, no restraint
chute), it is possible even to treat a case like this.
22.
Alex P.C. 2002. The Musth, the vicious and the rogue elephants - a
review.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 26-27.
23.
Chandrasekharan K. 2002. Elephant - an overview.Journal of Indian
Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 8-11.
24.
Cheeran J. 2002. Adverse drug experiences in elephants.Journal of Indian
Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 61.
25.
Cheeran J.V., Panicker K.C., Kaimal R.K. and Giridas P.B. 2002.
Tranquillization and translocation of captive bulls. In: Baker I and
Kashio M (eds), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International
Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10
February 2001. pp. 219-222. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
(RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional
Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,
Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org
26.
Cheeran J.V., Radhakrishnan K. and Chandrasekharan K. 2002.
Musth.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 28-30.
27.
Cheeran J.V., Chandrasekharan K. and Radhakrishnan K. 2002.
Tranquilization and translocation of elephants.Journal of Indian
Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 42-46.
28.
Kreeger T.J., Arnemo J.M. and Raath J.P. 2002. Handbook of wildlife
chemical immobilization. Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins,
Colorado, U.S.A., pp.1-412.
29.
Milroy A.J.W. 2002. A.J.W. Milroy's Management of Elephants in
Captivity. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun, New Delhi, India, pp.1-160.
30.
Nayar K.N.M., Chandrasekharan K. and Radhakrishnan K. 2002. Management
of surgical affections in captive elephants.Journal of Indian Veterinary
Association Kerala 7: 55-59.
31.
Pitts N.I. and Mitchell G. 2002. Pharmacokinetics and effects of
succinylcholine in African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and impala (Aepyceros
melampus).Eur J Pharm Sci 15: 251-260.
Abstract: The phenomenon of slow onset of succinylcholine (Sch) effect
in elephants was investigated by analyzing blood concentrations of Sch
and its metabolite choline in elephant and impala. To assess whether the
slow onset phenomenon is related to the pharmacokinetics of Sch
following i.m. administration, we analyzed the time course of plasma
concentrations of intact drug and its metabolite and determined its
pharmacological effects. Blood samples were obtained from anaesthetized
elephant (n=6) and impala (n=7) following i.m. administration of a
lethal dose of Sch. Time from Sch injection to onset of apnoea and to
death was significantly longer for elephant than impala (mean+/-S.D.
apnoea 4.4+/-1.5 and 2.3+/-0.9 min, respectively; death 32.6+/-7.3 and
6.2+/-3.4 min, respectively). The C(max) was not different between
elephants and impala (20.3+/-7.9 vs. 14.4+/-6.8 nmol ml(-1),
respectively) but the t(max) was significantly longer for elephants
(23.0+/-7.6 vs. 3.7+/-2.2 min). Analysis of the plasma Sch and choline
concentrations over time revealed that the relative amount of Sch
entering the circulation within the first 30 s after i.m. injection is
greater for impala than elephant. No greater rate in the plasma
hydrolysis of Sch in elephant compared to impala was apparent.
32.
Rajkamal P.J. and Rajeev T.S. 2002. Training the Mahouts.Journal of
Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 24, 30-30.
33.
Sarma B., Pathak S.C. and Sarma K.K. 2002. Medetomidine a novel
immobilizing agent for the elephant (Elephas maximus).Research in
Veterinary Science 73: 315-317.
Abstract: Medetomidine was injected by the intramuscular route at the
rates of 3 and 5 microg/kg body weight into two groups of Indian
elephants (Elephas maximus). Sedation was induced at 6.20 (0.81) and
5.90 (0.60) min respectively after injection. The duration of
anaesthesia was 66.20 (10.4) and 134.20 (24.12) min, respectively and
recovery occurred at 125.80 (25.23) and 205.89 (29.3) min. The notable
signs of sedation exhibited by the elephants were protrusion of penis,
complete relaxation of trunk, flaccidity of tail and drooping of the
ears with a head down position. During sedation, physiological
parameters recorded were bradycardia, decreased respiration and
hypothermia.
34.
Tongwongsa S., Diskul M.L.P., Kanchanapangka S. et al. 2002.
The
use of an etorphine-acepromazine cocktail for immobilization and
diprenorphine as it's antagonist in an elephant (Elephas maximus
indicus).Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 32: 45-51.
Abstract: Etorphine hydrochloride (2.45 mg/ml) in combination with
acepromazine maleate (10 mg/ml) is a very potent neuroleptanalgesic. The
drug principally affects psychomotor activities. With a bundle of
roughage still in his mouth, Plai Kum-Sand, a 3400 kgs, bull elephant,
35 years of age lay down 6 minutes after an intramuscularly injection.
In lateral recumbency and snoring, the heart rate was 44 beats/minute
with respiration at 4 breaths/minute. This heavy level of sedation was
reversed quickly and successfully using 9.78 mg of the antidote,
diprenorphine hydrochloride intravenously, 18 minutes after anaesthetic
challenge. The bull opened his eyes 2 minutes afterward. He moved, stood
upright, and started nibbling food 6 minutes 30 seconds after
diprenorphine administration.
35. du
Toit J.G. 2001. Veterinary Care of African Elephants. Novartis and south
African Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria, Republic of Southhttp://bigfive.jl.co.za./elephant_book.htm
Africa, pp.1-59.
Abstract: This manual is a project of the South African Veterinary
Foundation and Novartis South Africa (Pty) Ltd. It is distributed by
Wildlife Decision Support
PO BOX 74610, Lynnwood Ridge, Pretoria, RSA, 0040; Tel: +27 12991-3083;
Fax: +27 12991-3851 Online:http://bigfive.jl.co.za./elephant_book.htm
36.
Horne W.A., Tchamba M.N. and Loomis M.R. 2001. A simple method of
providing intermittent positive-pressure ventilation to etorphine-immobilized
elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 32: 519-522.
Abstract: Five African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were immobilized
with etorphine in Waza National Park, Cameroon, for the purpose of
deploying radio/satellite tracking collars. A portable ventilator
constructed from two high-flow demand valves and the Y-piece of a large
animal anesthesia circuit was used to provide intermittent
positive-pressure ventilation with 100% oxygen. Oxygenation status
improved dramatically in all five elephants. In one hypoxemic elephant,
arterial PaO2 increased from 40 to 366 mm Hg. The results of this study
demonstrate that both oxygenation and ventilation can be readily
controlled etorphine-immobilized elephants even under remote field
conditions.
37.
Rietschel W., Hildebrandt T., Goritz F. and Ratanakorn P. 2001. Sedation
of Thai Working Elephants with Xylazine and Atipamezole as a Reversal.
A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the
International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11,
2001, 2001, pp. 121-123. Schuling Verlag, Vienna, Austria.
38.
Sarma K.K. 2001. Musth in Asian Elephant. Central Zoo Authority, New
Delhi, India, pp.1-61.
39.
Sarma K.K. 2001. Medetomidine as an immobilizing agent in free ranging
Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).Intas Polivet 2: 209-211.
40.
Sarma K.K. and Pathak S.C. 2001. Cardio vascular response to xylazine
and Hellabrunn mixture with Yohimbine as reversal agent in Asian
elephants.Indian Veterinary Journal 78: 400-492.
Abstract: Xylazine (0.1 mg/kg body weight) produced highly significant
bradycardia and hypotension in recumbent Asian elephants, with a peak
depression observed at the 30th minute for heart rate and 30th minute in
the mean arterial pressure (MAP). Ketamine (1.25 : 1 ratio with xylazine)
mildly marginalised the bradycardia, but remarkably improved the MAP.
Yohimbine, used to reverse the sedation produced by xylazine did not
appear to influence these parameters to any appreciable levels.
41.
Suedmeyer W.K. 2001. Serum hydrocortisone levels in a manually
restrained African elephant (Loxodonta africana) pre- and post- semen
collection. In: Kirk Baer C and Wilmette MW (eds), Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife
Veterinarians, Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians and
the National Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians Joint
Conference, September 18, 2001-September 23, 2001, pp. 388-389.
American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.
42.
Fowler M.E., Steffey E.P., Galuppo L. and Pascoe J.R. 2000. Facilitation
of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) standing immobilization and
anesthesia with a sling.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 31:
118-123.
Abstract: An Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) required general
anesthesia for orthopedic foot surgery. The elephant was unable to lie
down, so it was placed in a custom-made sling, administered i.m.
etorphine hydrochloride in the standing position, and lowered to lateral
recumbency. General anesthesia was maintained with isoflurane
administered through an endotracheal tube. After surgery, the isoflurane
anesthesia was terminated, with immobilization maintained with
additional i.v. etorphine. The elephant was lifted to the vertical
position, and the immobilizing effects of etorphine were reversed with
naltrexone. The suspension system and hoist for the sling were designed
specifically for the elephant house.
43.
Heard D.J. 2000. Captive elephant anesthesia. Proc.North Am.Vet.
Conf., pp. 1043-1044.
44.
Horne W.A., Tchamba M.N. and Loomis M.R. 2000. A simple method of
providing intermittent positive-pressure ventilation to etorphine-immobilized
elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field. Proceedings AAZV and IAAAM
Joint Conference, pp. 27-30.
45.
Osofsky S.A. and Hirsch K.J. 2000. Chemical restraint of endangered
mammals for conservation purposes: a practical primer.Oryx 34: 27-33.
46.
Ramsay E. 2000. Standing sedation and tranquilization in captive African
elephants (Loxodonta africana). Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet., pp.
111-114.
47.
Brockett R.C., Stoinski T.S., Black J., Markowitz T. and Maple T.L.
1999. Nocturnal behavior in a group of unchained female African
elephants.Zoo Biology 18: 101-109.
Abstract: A study of 3 unchained female African elephants was undertaken
to document their nocturnal behaviour. The subjects were observed
between the hours of 1800 and 0800 for 10 weeks in the summer of 1992
(total of 172 h) and 14 weeks in the summer of 1994 (total of 153 h).
Scan data were collected every 5 min to gather information on activity
budgets, social proximity and space utilization. All-occurrence data
were collected on social and non-social behaviours. In each year of the
study, the subjects spent equivalent amounts of time eating, lying,
standing, and walking. Additionally, subjects spent half of their time
within 1 body length of another animal and utilized all 3 available
enclosures. Social and non-social behaviours were frequent, and these
data plus the activity profiles revealed the elephants generally were
most active between the hours of 1800 and 2400 and 0600 and 0700. The
findings suggest that the use of no restraints is currently an effective
strategy for this elephant group. The high activity levels observed
during many of the early evening hours suggest that zoos could permit
increased activity and social interactions by extending the hours when
the elephants are unchained.
48.
Fowler M.E., Steffey E.P., Galuppo L. and Pascoe J.R. 1999. Standing
immobilization and anesthesia in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet., pp. 107-110.
49.
Fowler M.E. and Miller R.E. 1999. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current
Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp.1-747.
50.
Gage L.J., Blasko D.R. and Galuppo L.D. 1999. Diagnostics and treatment
of severe swelling of the pharyngeal tissues of an African elephant
(Loxodonta africana). Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo
Veterinarians, October 9, 1999, pp. 105-108.
51.
Hoare R. 1999. Reducing Drug Inductions Time in the Field Immobilization
of Elephants.Pachyderm 27: 49-54.
Abstract: Individual elephants have been routinely immobilized by remote
injection (darting) methods for research, translocation or the treatment
of injuries. Any operation to immobilize an elephant is both expensive
and a considerable logistical exercise in which much can go wrong.
Logistical problems, veterinary complications, danger to people and
wastage of money can be largely avoided by limiting the animal's
post-darting travel. Although operator technique plays a large part,
safe recumbency can be greatly facilitated through the rapid knock-down
effect of high doses of the immobilizing drug propelled in a type of
dart which overcomes two common problems: poor placement and malfunction
of the internal detonation mechanism.
52.
Mohan A.B. and Lakshmi B.B. 1999. The successful capture and training of
two strayed wild elephants "Jay - Vijay" in Sri Venkateswara Wildlife
Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh.Zoos' Print Journal 14: 1-6.
53.
Nielsen L. 1999. Chemical Immobilization of Wild and Exotic Animals.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, pp.1-342.
54.
Raath J.P. 1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler ME and
Miller RE (eds), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4 pp.
525-533. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
55.
Sarma K.K. 1999. Bizarre behaviour of an elephant during xylazine
anaesthesia.Indian Veterinary Journal 76: 1018-1019.
56.
Stegmann G.F. 1999. Etorphine-halothane anaesthesia in two five-year-old
African elephants (Loxodonta africana).Journal of the South African
Veterinary Medical Association 70: 164-166.
Abstract: Anaesthesia of 2 five-year-old female African elephants
(Loxodonta africana) was required for dental surgery. The animals were
each premedicated with 120 mg of azaperone 60 min before transportation
to the hospital. Before offloading, 1 mg etorphine was administered
intramuscularly (i.m.) to each elephant to facilitate walking them to
the equine induction/recovery room. For induction, 2 mg etorphine was
administered i.m. to each animal. Induction was complete within 6 min.
Surgical anaesthesia was induced with halothane-in-oxygen after
intubation of the trunk. During surgery the mean heart rate was 61 and
45 beats/min respectively. Systolic blood pressures increased to 27.5
and 25.6 kPa respectively, and were treated with intravenous azaperone.
Blood pressure decreased thereafter to a mean systolic pressure of 18.1
and 19.8 kPa, respectively. Rectal temperature was 35.6 and 33.9 degrees
C at the onset of surgery, and decreased to 35.3 and 33.5 degrees C,
respectively, at the end of anaesthesia. Etorphine anaesthesia was
reversed with 5 mg diprenorphine at the completion of 90 min of surgery.
57.
Elkan P.W., Planton H.P., Powell J.A., Haigh J.A. and Karesh W.B. 1998.
Chemical immobilization of African elephant in lowland
forest,southwestern Cameroon.Pachyderm 25: 32-37.
58.
Hattingh J., deVos V., Ganhao M.F. and Pitts N.I. 1998. Physiological
responses of the buffalo Syncerus caffer culled with succinyldicholine
and hexamethonium.Koedoe 31: 91.
Abstract: Changes in the blood composition of elephants and buffaloes
herded by helicopter and killed with succinyldicholine (Scoline)
indicate stress. Death is probably due to decreased PO2 levels. The
collective percentage change of eight blood constituents used to measure
physiological stress was reduced from 30% in buffaloes killed with
succinyldicholine alone to 22% in those killed with succinyldicholine
plus hexamethonium, as opposed to 17% with herding alone and 10% with
succinyldicholine alone without herding.
59.
Honeyman V.L., Cooper R.M. and Black S.R. 1998. A protected contact
approach to anesthesia and medical management of an Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus). Proceedings AAZV and AAWV Joint Conference, pp.
338-341.
60.
Shrestha S.P., Ullrey D.E., Bernard J.B., Wemmer C. and Kraemer D.C.
1998. Plasma vitamin E and other analyte levels in Nepalese camp
elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 29: 269-278.
Abstract: Plasma concentrations of a-tocopherol (vitamin E) and other
analytes in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) inn Nepal were
determined during typical work camp management of the elephants.
Elephants foraged for food for 4-6 hr each day under the control of
mahouts and were also provided daily with cut forage and supplements of
unhusked rice, cane molasses, and salt. Blood samples were taken
monthly for 1 yr without chemical restraint from 26 female elephants in
four camps. Elephants were 6-60+ yr of age. Mean (+/-SEM) a-tocopherol
concentration was 0.77+/-0.047 mg/ml with a range of 0.23-1.57 mg/ml.
Subadults had lower concentrations than did older elephants, and there
were significant differences in mean concentrations from different camps
and in mean monthly concentrations. Plasma a-tocopherol concentration
appears to vary widely between individuals, and a single value of <0.3
mg/ml is not sufficient to diagnose incipient vitamin E deficiency.
Mean (+/-SEM) plasma retinol (vitamin A) concentration was 0.0063 +/-
0.0003 mg/ml with a range of 0.01-0.12 mg/ml. Subadults had higher
concentrations than did older elephants, and mean retinal values
differed significantly among camps. Beta-carotene was not found in
plasma. Twenty-five other analytes determined or derived were generally
similar to those reported in other Asian and African (Loxodonta
africana) elephants. Estimates of nutrient intake, based upon diet
composition, suggested that dietary concentrations of zinc and sodium
may have been marginal, but the absence of signs of any nutrient
deficiencies indicates that dietary husbandry in these elephant camps
was generally satisfactory.
61.
Bosi E.J., Kilbourn A.M., Andau M. and Tambing E. 1997. Translocation of
wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Sabah, Malaysia. Proceedings
American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, p. 302.
Abstract: The East Malaysian State of Sabah is believed to be home to
about 1000 wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Some forest habitat
has been lost through agricultural development. In some cases,
elephants are stranded in small pockets of forest which are unable to
sustain them. The Wildlife Department of Sabah has adopted a policy of
capturing and translocating these animals to wildlife forest reserves.
The capture of these wild animals is made possible using chemicals such
as Immobilon (etorphine HCl and acepromazine maleate) and Xylazil-100 (xylazine
HCl). The reversal agents are Revivon (Diprenorphine) and Reverzine (Yohimbine),
respectively. A recent capture and translocation exercise carried out
involving eight wild elephants employed xylazine hydrochloride. The
dose of xylazine used was calculated based on the diameter of the front
footprint which provides information on body dimensions when actual
weights are not available. Xylazine doses used ranged from 100-550 mg
with a mean of 0.209 mg/kg body weight. Sedation was observed within 26
min after the darting. The animals were then shackled and tethered.
The time for the capture operations ranged from 27-110 mins, with a mean
of 72 min. Xylazine is used again during the loading of the animals
onto the lorries. It is an effective sedative for wild elephants which
can be adjusted or reversed. The choice and used of this drug depends
entire on the ability to track the animal after darting and the ability
to maneuver the captive elephants into suitable locations for tethering
prior to loading. Heavy machinery is required to load the animals,
unlike most other wild Asian elephant translocations were trained
elephants are used to facilitate loading.
62.
Karesh W.B., Smith K.H., Smith F. et al. 1997. Elephants,
buffalo, kob, and rhinoceros: immobilization, telemetry, and health
evaluations. Proceedings American Association of Zoo
Veterinarians, pp. 296-230.
63.
Osofsky S.A. 1997. A practical anesthesia monitoring protocol for
free-ranging adult African elephants (Loxodonta africana).Journal of
Wildlife Diseases 33: 72-77.
Abstract: Twenty free-ranging adult African elephants in northern
Botswana were immobilized with a mean (± SD) of 9.5 ± 0.5 mg etorphine
hydrochloride and 2000 IU hyaluronidase by i.m. dart. The mean time to
recumbency was 8.7 ± 2.4 min. All animals were maintained in lateral
recumbency. The anaesthesia monitoring protocol included cardiothoracic
auscultation; palpation of auricular pulse for quality and regularity;
checking of rectal temperature, and monitoring of respiratory and heart
rates. Results of basic physiological measurements were similar to those
of previous field studies of African elephants immobilized with
etorphine or etorphine-hyaluronidase. In addition, continuous real-time
pulse rate and percent oxygen saturation of haemoglobin (SpO2)
readings were obtained on 16 elephants with a portable pulse oxygen
meter. Duration of pulse oximetry monitoring ranged from 3 to 24 min
(mean ±SD = 8.2 ± 4.8 min). Differences between minimum and maximum SpO2
values for any given elephant ranged from 1 to 6 percentage points,
evidence for relatively stable trends. The SpO2 readings
ranged from 70% to 96% among the 16 elephants, with a mean of 87.3 ±
2.8%. 15 of 16 elephants monitored with a pulse oximeter had mean SpO2
values = 81 ± 2.4%, with 11 having mean SpO2 values = 85 ±
1.5%. All 20 animals recovered uneventfully following reversal:
diprenorphine at 23.3 ± 1.5 mg (IV) with 11.7 ± 0.5 mg IM, or 24 mg
diprenorphine given all IV.
64.
Sarma K.K. and Pathak S.C. 1997. A review of the anaesthetic management
of elephants.Journal of Assam Vet.Council, 7-8: 16-17.
65.
Sharma S.P. 1997. Surgical treatment of gunshot wounds under xylazine
and ketamine anaesthesia in an elephant: clinical case report.Indian
Veterinary Journal 74: 973-974.
66.
Bengis R.G. 1996. Chemical capture of the free ranging African
elephant. Proc.North. Am.Vet.Conf., pp. 892-894.
67.
Bush M., Raath J.P., de Vos V. and Stoskopf M. 1996. Serum
oxytetracycline levels in free-ranging male African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) injected with a long-acting formulation.Journal of Zoo and
Wildlife Medicine 27: 382-385.
Abstract: Thirteen adult free-living male African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) were anesthetized and given 20-100 g of a long-acting
tetracycline (OTC) preparation either i.m. or i.v. Five dosages were
established based on body measurements (the sum of the body length and
the girth in centimeters) Serum concentrations of OTC were measured 48
hr after injection. Serum concentrations >/= 0.5 mg/ml were measured in
11 of 12 elephants receiving OTC dosages of 52-133 mg/cm either i.v. or
i.m. The i.m. administration route produced serum concentrations from
0.75-1.6 mg/ml in four of four elephants. A dosage of 60-80 mg/cm i.m.
or i.v. should provide a therapeutic serum concentration of OTC for at
least 48 hr. The use of an i.v. catheter avoids multiple i.m.
injections of large drug volumes.
68.
Coetsee C. 1996. Elephant Translocations.Pachyderm 22: 81.
Abstract: Notes: Following immobilization for translocation of 670
elephants in family units in 1993, haloperidol (40 to 120 mg depending
on body size) was used as a tranquilizer during transport. In addition,
azaperone, (50-200 mg) was often administered to avoid aggression.
Trilafon (perphenazine (100-300 mg) was administered to keep animals
calm after their release into bomas.
69.
Manna S. 1996. Chemical immobilization and treatment of a wild
elephant.Indian Veterinary Journal 73: 1260-1261.
70.
Njumbi S.T., Waithaka J., Gachago S. et al. 1996. Translocation
of elephants: the Kenyan experience.Pachyderm 22: 61-65.
71.
Sarma K.K., Kalita D., Dutta B. and Barua S.K. 1996.
Determination
of mean arterial pressure (MAP) in Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus).Indian Veterinary Journal 73: 777-778.
72.
Schaftenaar W. 1996. Vaginal vestibulotomy in an Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus). Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians,
pp. 434-439.
Abstract: Due to its dimensions, dystocia in elephants presents a
difficult problem. This paper describes the delivery of a dead calf by
surgical intervention. A vestibulotomy was performed under local
anesthesia. Complications in wound healing resulted in a permanent
fistula of the vestibulum. The difficulties in decision making and the
interpretation of clinical signs are discussed.
73.
Schmitt D., Bradford J. and Hardy D.A. 1996. Azaperone for standing
sedation in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 48-51.
Abstract: Azaperone was used for standing sedation in four Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) in 93 trials at Dickerson Park Zoo (DPZ).
Procedures including surgical artificial insemination, semen collection,
and routine foot trimming were completed while utilizing azaperone as a
sedative. All procedures were performed within an elephant restraint
device. Azaperone has proven to be a safe and reliable drug for
facilitation of routine health and reproductive-related procedures in
captive Asian elephants when administered at 0.30 mg/kg. the
procurement of azaperone in the United States has been difficult due to
changing manufacturing and distribution procedures. The utilization of
an Investigational New Animal Drug permit from the Food and Drug
Administration is described, to facilitate procurement of azaperone from
Canada for use in the United States.
74.
Schmitt D.L., Bradford J.P. and Hardy D.A. 1996. Foot care in Asian
elephants using rotating elephant restraint device. Proceedings
American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 52-53.
Abstract: Foot care for elephants is an area that many veterinarians
often become involved with only when individuals are not responsive to
normal foot care provided by keepers or when intractable elephants
require veterinary attention for sedation to enable access to the animal
for treatment. The use of a rotating elephant restraint is described
and the methods for foot treatment that are useful in the normal care of
elephants with or without the use of a rotating elephant restraint.
75.
Singh L.A.K., Nayak B.N. and Acharjya S.K. 1996. Chemical capture of a
problem-elephant in Bolangir, Orissa.Indian Forester, Special issue:
wildlife management. 122: 955-960.
Abstract: A detailed account is given of the method used to capture an
elephant which had been regularly (over 18 yr) entering villages in the
Bolangir and Padampur areas of NW Orissa, and causing damage to
buildings, eating stored grains and injuring humans. Some 45 people took
part in the capture operation which involved the use of darts containing
Immobilon (etorphine hydrochloride and acepromazine maleate) to the
animal, and of (diprenorphine hydrochloride) for revival. The human
antidote for (Nar can) was kept on hand. The communication system, the
operational strategies used, and then care and revival processes adopted
for the animal are described. It is thought that the animal (with a
female) had originally been in the care of a mahout who was taken into
custody for some crime so that the animals were abandoned. The female
appeared to have been accepted back into the wild, while the male
continued to follow the routes used by the mahout. The purpose of
capture was to control or translocate the animal.
76.
Still J., Raath J.P. and Matzner L. 1996. Respiratory and circulatory
parameters of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) anaesthetised with
etorphine and azaperone.J S Afr Vet Assoc 67: 123-127.
Abstract: Department of Companion Animal Medicine and Surgery, Medical
University of Southern Africa, Medunsa, South Africa.
Respiratory rate, heart rate, blood-gas tensions (PO2 and PCO2) and pH
of arterial (a) and peripheral venous (v) blood, concentration of
haemoglobin in arterial blood (Hb), saturation of arterial haemoglobin
with oxygen and the end-expiratory concentration of oxygen were measured
in 22 juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta africana) anaesthetised with
etorphine and azaperone during a period of 35-65 minutes after they had
assumed lateral recumbency. Based on these parameters the
alveolar-arterial and arterial-peripheral venous differences of PO2
[P(A-a)O2 and P(a-v)O2 respectively] and oxygen content of arterial
blood (CaO2) were calculated. Elephants with body mass of < or = 600 kg
showed statistically significant changes in the following parameters,
compared with elephants with a body mass of more than 600 kg (x +/- SD):
PaO2 (64 +/- 11 versus 82 +/- 8 mmHg), P(a-v)O2 (9 +/- 5 versus 22 +/- 9
mmHg), P(A-a)O2(37 +/- 16 versus 15 +/- 8 mmHg) and Hb (148 +/- 20
versus 130 +/- 10 g/l) (p < 0.05). These findings suggested a tendency
towards impaired oxygen exchange in the lungs, reduced peripheral
extraction of oxygen and elevated oxygen-carrying capacity of arterial
blood in smaller elephants. These changes were theoretically attributed
to the respiratory-depressant and sympathomimetic effects of higher
dosages of etorphine used in the smaller elephants to maintain a
clinically acceptable anaesthetic plane. Individual elephants spent
35-150 minutes under anaesthesia and all recovered uneventfully after
reversal of etorphine with diprenorphine.
77.
Cheeran J.V., Chandrasekharan K. and Radhakrishnan K. 1995. Principles
and Practice of Fixing Dose of Drugs for Elephants. In: Daniel JC (ed),
A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian
Elephants pp. 430-438. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University
Press, Bombay, India.
Abstract: The traditional thumb rule of determining dose in domestic
animals has been Cat - 1/2, Dog - 1, Sheep and Goat - 3, Horse - 16,
Cattle - 24. However this was valid only for galenicals like Tinctures
and Pulvis and also to some extent for pure chemicals used as drugs like
potassium iodide, ammonium chloride etc. Development of modern
techniques like determination of half life and minimum effective
concentration changed the course and pattern of determining the dose of
drugs in animals as well as in man. Some drugs which are of low
therapeutic margin is, even recommended considering the surface area of
the body (e.g. antineoplastic drugs). Wild animals provide not enough
number, for experimental purposes to arrive at a proper recommendation.
In such circumstances pharmacologists often extrapolate the dose from
their "evolutionary cousins" some of which are domestic animals. But
unfortunately in elephants such "close cousins" do not exist neither in
the wild nor in the domestic category. This makes fixing of dosage all
the more difficult. Hence often the dose has been arbitrarily fixed from
clinical experiences. The article details the above principles as well
as lists of dose of various pharmacological and chemotherapeutic agents
used in clinical practice in elephants (Table 1).
78.
Daim M.S. 1995. Elephant Translocation: The Malaysian Approach. In:
Daniel JC (ed), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International
Seminar on Asian Elephants pp. 242-248. Bombay Natural History Society;
Oxford University Press, Bombay, India.
79.
Ebedes H. 1995. The use of long term neuroleptics in the confinement and
transport of wild animals. Joint Conf AAZV/WDA/AAWV, 1995, pp. 173-176.
80.
Fowler M.E. 1995. Elephants. Restraint and handling of wild and
domestic animals pp. 265-269. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa,
USA.
81.
Fowler M.E. 1995. Restraint and handling of wild and domestic animals.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, p.viii-383.
82.
Kramer B. and Hattingh J. 1995. The neuromuscular junction in the
African elephant Loxodonta africana and African buffalo
Syncerus caffer.South African Journal of Wildlife Research 25: p14,
3p, 2bw.
Abstract: Differences in the physiological response to the drug
succinyldicholine occur between the African elephant Loxodonta
africana and African buffalo Syncerus caffer, irrespective of
the route of administration of the drug. The response in elephants has
suggested the presence of unique acetylcholine receptors in their
respiratory muscles. In this paper the first observations of the
neuromuscular junction in the African elephant and African buffalo are
reported. While the basic structure of the junction was found to be
typically mammalian in both species, differences were found in the
morphology of the postjunctional area where these receptors reside.
Elucidation of the structure and function of this junction in these
animals is important in the selection of drugs that act as neuromuscular
blockers.
83.
Osofsky S.A. 1995. Pulse oximetry monitoring of free-ranging African
elephants (Loxodonta africana) immobilized with an etorphine/hyaluronidase
combination antagonized with diprenorphine. Joint Conference AAZV/WDA/AAWV,
pp. 237-277.
84.
Schumacher J., Heard D.J., Caligiuri R., Norton T. and Jacobson E.R.
1995. Comparative effects of etorphine and carfentanil on
cardiopulmonary parameters in juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta
africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 26: 503-507.
Abstract: Fourteen African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were
immobilized with either etorphine hydrochloride (3.2 ± 0.5 µg/kg i.m.)
or carfentanil citrate (2.4 µg/kg i.m.). Induction time with etorphine
was significantly longer (30 ± 21 min) than with carfentanil (8 ± 2
min). Immediately following immobilization all elephants were placed in
lateral recumbency and respiratory rate, heart rate, and rectal body
temperature were monitored every 5 min throughout the immobilization
period. Arterial blood samples, collected from an auricular artery,
were taken 10 min after immobilization and every 15 min thereafter for
up to 1 hr. At the first sampling, mean values for arterial blood gas
variables for etorphine immobilized elephants were pHa, 7.29 ± 0.03;
PaCO2, 53.4 ± 5.2 mmHg; PaO2, 71.8 ± 13.8 mmHg;
standard base excess (SBE), -1.6 ± 2.9 mEq/L; and HCO3, 25.7 ± 2.7 mEq/L.
After 1 hr of immobilization, mean arterial blood gas values were pHa,
7.32 ± 0.06; PaCO2 , 57.2 ± 9.6 mm Hg; and PaO2 ,
53.8 ± 10.5 mm Hg; SBE, 2.7 ± 1.4 mEq/L; and HCO3-, 30.6 ±
1.6 mEq/L. For carfentanil immobilized elephants, blood gas values at
the first time of collection were pHa, 7.28 ± 0.04; PaCO2,
52.1 ± 2.8 mmHg; PaO2, 78.3 ± 14.7 mmHg; SBE, -2.3 ± 24 mEq/L;
and HCO3-, 24.3 ± 2.1 mEq/L. Sixty minutes after the first
sampling, blood gas values of one elephant were pHa, 7.38; PaCO2,
48.7 mmHg; PaO2, 52 mmHg; SBE, 3.4 mEq/L, and HCO3-,
28.8 mEq/L. Over time there was a progressive decline in arterial PO2
in all elephants. It is concluded that elephants immobilized with
either etorphine HCl or carfentanil developed hypoxemia (PaO2
< 60 mmHg) after 30 min of immobilization. It is recommended that the
administration of one of these opioid drugs be accompanied by
supplemental oxygen, or followed by an inhalant anesthetic in 100%
oxygen for prolonged procedures. Diprenorphine or nalmefene reversal
was rapid and uneventful in both the etorphine and carfentanil group.
No cases of renarcotization were noted. Additional excerpt: All
elephants in the etorphine group (n=8) received diprenorphine at a mean
dosage of 8.3 ± 1.1 µg/kg IV. Two elephants in the carfentanil group
(n=6) were administered diprenorphine at a dosage of 8.9 µg/kg IV and
IM. Three elephants in this group received nalmefene hydrochloride.
One of the three elephants was given nalmefene 166.7 µg/kg both IV and
SC. Two of the three elephants were given nalmefene IV and IM. The
dosage was 88.9 µg/kg IV and IM in one elephant and 53.3 µg/kg IV and IM
in the other. One elephant in the carfentanil group was administered
nalmefene (88.9 µg/kg IV) followed by diprenorphine (8.9 µg/kg IM).
85.
deSilva D.D.N. and Kuruwita V.Y. 1994. Sedation of wild elephants
(Elephas maximus Ceylonicus) using Detomidine HCL ("Domosedan") in Sri
Lanka. Fifth International Congress of Veterinary Anesthesia.
Abstract: Full text: Eight wild elephants weighing 3818-4500 kg were
sedated using detomidine HCl 1% (Farmos) after being captured using
Large Animal Immobilon (C-Vet) and revived with Revivon (C-Vet) in the
process of wild elephant capture and translocation program carried out
in Sri Lanka. The total volume of detomidine used on each animal ranged
from 2.0 to 2.5 ml using a Cap-Chur pistol. Exsheathment of the penis
in males was evident within 5 to 10 minutes of administration of
detomidine. From 5 minutes post-administration, gradual flaccidity of
the trunk was observed and complete "limping" of the trunk was seen in
12 to 15 minutes. Dribbling of urine, slaiva, ptosis, gradual cessation
of ear flapping were the other changes indicating sedation. Seven out
of 8 animals remained standing and were nonresponsive to low threshold
physical or auditory stimuli, but moved steadily when traction was
applied on the ropes tying the legs. With this dosage of the drug,
animals could be loaded onto a truck within 30-45 minutes of medication
and were ready for transportation. Antisedan (Farmos) had to be given
to one animal which adopted lateral recumbency after detomidine. After
sedating and loading into trucks, the elephants were transported to a
distance of 40 to 100 km (average transport time was 8 hours) during
which there was no need for further "topping-up". Animals started
eating and moving the trunk about 6 hours after detomidine
administration but never adopted a recumbent position while being
transported. It is concluded that wild elephants are very sensitive to
detomidine and the dosage needed is much lower (approximately 5.5 µg/kg)
than that needed for some other species of animals (equine and bovine).
86.
Dunlop C.I., Hodgson D.S., Cambre R.C., Kenny D.E. and Martin H.D. 1994.
Cardiopulmonary effects of three prolonged periods of isoflurane
anesthesia in an adult elephant.Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 205: 1439-1444.
Abstract: Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary
Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort
Collins 80523.
An adult 3500-kg female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was
anaesthetized 3 times for treatment of subcutaneous fistulas over the
lateral aspect of each cubitus (anaesthesia 1 and 2) and for repair of a
fractured tusk (anaesthesia 3). Lateral recumbency and anaesthesia were
achieved with etorphine (anaesthesia 1 and 2) or etorphine and azaperone
(anaesthesia 3). The trachea was intubated and anaesthesia was
maintained by isoflurane and oxygen delivered through 2 standard large
animal anaesthesia machines joined in parallel. The range of total
recumbency time was 2.4 to 3.3 h. Breathing and heart rates, systemic
arterial pressure, rectal temperature, PaO2, pH and end-tidal gases were
monitored. After administration of etorphine, measurements were made
while the elephant was recumbent and breathing air, then every 5 min
(cardiovascular) or 15 min (blood gases) after the start of
administration of isoflurane and oxygen. Tachycardia and hypertension
were detected after administration of etorphine, but heart rate and
systemic arterial pressure decreased to within normal ranges after
administration of isoflurane and oxygen. The elephant remained well
oxygenated while anaesthetized and breathing a high oxygen mixture. The
elephant had an uneventful recovery from each anaesthesia.
87.
Gross M.E., Clifford C.A. and Hardy D.A. 1994. Excitement in an elephant
after intravenous administration of atropine.Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 205: 1437-1438.
Abstract: A 28-year-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was
anaesthetized for cesarean section to remove a dead calf. The elephant
was sedated with azaperone, and atropine was administered i.v. 90
minutes later in preparation for induction of anaesthesia with etorphine
HCl. Within a minute of the injection of atropine the elephant began
swaying kicking and moving in an agitated manner around the stall. It
was concluded that there is considerable variation among species in the
toxicity of atropine, although development of toxicosis usually is
associated with overdosage.
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