Elephant
Bibliographic
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The following articles pertain to captive elephants.  The list is not all-inclusive as this information is not always conveyed in the title or abstract and some articles may have been missed.  We recommend searching the other topics for the specific information you are seeking.

 Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org

References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent first.

2009. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections from an elephant calf--San Diego, California, 2008
91. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58, 194-198.
Abstract: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections are a major cause of human skin and soft tissue infections in the United States. MRSA colonization and infection also have been observed in turtles, bats, seals, sheep, rabbits, rodents, cats, dogs, pigs, birds, horses, and cattle, and MRSA infections with an epidemiologic link to animal contact have been reported in veterinary personnel, pet owners, and farm animal workers. On January 29, 2008, the County of San Diego Health and Human Services Agency was notified of skin pustules on an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) calf and three of its caretakers at a zoo in San Diego County. After each of these infections (including the calf's infection) was laboratory confirmed as MRSA, an outbreak investigation and response was initiated by the zoo and the agency. This report summarizes the results of that investigation, which identified two additional confirmed MRSA infections, 15 suspected MRSA infections, and three MRSA-colonized persons (all among calf caretakers), and concluded that infection of the elephant calf likely came from a colonized caretaker. This is the first reported case of MRSA in an elephant and of suspected MRSA transmission from an animal to human caretakers at a zoo. Recommendations for preventing MRSA transmission in zoo settings include 1) training employees about their risks for infection and the recommended work practices to reduce them; 2) performing proper hand hygiene before and after animal contact; 3) using personal protective equipment (PPE) when working with ill or infected animals, especially during wound treatment; and 4) cleaning and disinfecting contaminated equipment and surfaces

Bartlett, S.L., Abou-Madi, N., Kraus, M.S., Wiedner, E.B., Starkey, S.R., Kollias, G.V., 2009. Electrocardiography of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 40, 466-473.
Abstract: Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are infrequently performed on Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), and few studies have been reported in the literature. The aim of this study was to determine reference ranges of ECG parameters in Asian elephants and to ascertain if age, body weight, and position of the elephant significantly affected the ECG. Electrocardiograms were obtained from 27 captive, nonsedated apparently healthy Asian elephants while they were standing (ST), in right lateral recumbency (RL), and/or in left lateral recumbency (LL). Six-lead ECGs were obtained using novel clamps and long ECG cables (71 cm). From lead I, standard waveforms and intervals were analyzed, including PR interval, QT interval, ST segment, P, QRS, T, and U waves if they were present. One animal was determined to have a previously undiagnosed conduction abnormality and was not included in the study. Most elephants had a sinus arrhythmia in at least one position. With increasing age, there was a trend toward a slower heart rate and significantly longer P waves. Increasing body weight was significantly correlated with longer QT intervals and T waves with lower amplitude. Compared with measurements in ST, LL resulted in P waves and QRS complexes with shorter amplitude, U waves with greater amplitude, PR intervals with shorter duration, and an increased heart rate. Compared with measurements in LL, RL resulted in larger QRS complexes. U waves were most commonly detected in RL and LL. Mean electrical axis calculated in the frontal plane were as follows: standing range -125 to +141 degrees, mean -5 degrees; left lateral range -15 to +104 degrees, mean 27 degrees; right lateral range -16 to +78 degrees, mean 9 degrees. Position-specific reference ranges should be used when interpreting ECGs, and clinicians must be aware of how age and body weight may affect the ECG

Behr, B., Rath, D., Hildebrandt, T.B., Goeritz, F., Blottner, S., Portas, T.J., Bryant, B.R., Sieg, B., Knieriem, A., de Graaf, S.P., Maxwell, W.M., Hermes, R., 2009. Germany/Australia index of sperm sex sortability in elephants and rhinoceros. Reprod. Domest. Anim 44, 273-277.
Abstract: Flow cytometric sexing of spermatozoa followed by application in artificial insemination or in vitro fertilization provides a unique opportunity to predetermine the sex of offspring and might enhance the conservation management of endangered species in captivity such as the elephant and rhinoceros. To obtain an indication of the sortability of spermatozoa from these species, the relative DNA differences between X and Y chromosome bearing spermatozoa (fresh, frozen thawed, epididymal) from three rhinoceros species [white (Ceratotherium simum), black (Diceros bicornis), Indian (Rhinoceros unicornis)] and both elephant species, the Asian and the African elephant (Elephas maximus, Loxodonta Africana), were determined through separation of spermatozoa into X and Y chromosome bearing populations, using a modified high speed flow cytometer. The head profile areas of spermatozoa from all five species were measured using light microscopy. By multiplying the relative DNA differences and the head profile areas, the sperm sorting indices were calculated to be 47, 48 and 51 for white, black and Indian rhinoceros respectively. The calculated sorting index for the Asian elephant was 66. In the African elephant, we determined the highest sorting index of 76. These results indicate the practicability of flow cytometric sex sorting of spermatozoa from the tested rhinoceros species and both elephant species. The lower sorting indices in rhinos indicate that sex sorting of spermatozoa from the rhinoceros will be more challenging than in elephants

Bertelsen, M.F., Kjelgaard-Hansen, M., Grondahl, C., Heegaard, P.M., Jacobsen, S., 2009. Identification of acute phase proteins and assays applicable in nondomesticated mammals
72. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 40, 199-203.
Abstract: The serum concentration of acute phase proteins (APPs) increases dramatically in response to inflammation and tissue injury. APPs are clinically useful in a range of domesticated mammals; however, knowledge is limited in nondomesticated mammals. The detective ability of two assays for each of three potential APPs--serum amyloid A (SAA), C-reactive protein (CRP), and haptoglobin (Hp)--was evaluated in eight species. For SAA, a turbidimetric immunoassay (TIA) demonstrated significant detective abilities in the Asian elephant (Elaphas maximus), impala (Aepyceros melampus), musk ox (Ovibos moschatus), and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), as did an SAA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the impala. For CRP, both TIA and ELISA had significant detective abilities in the chimpanzee. For Hp, a colorimetric assay demonstrated significant detective abilities in impala, musk ox, sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekeii), and chimpanzee, as did the Hp ELISA in the impala, musk ox, and sitatunga. In conclusion, these results suggest that assays for detection of relevant APPs in several nondomesticated animals are available

Coeling, A., 2009. The application of social network theory to animal behavior. Bioscience Horizons 2, 32-43.
Abstract: Social network analysis (SNA) is a mathematical technique for analysing social relationships and the patterns and implications of these relationships (Wasserman S, Faust K (1994) Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). It has only recently been discovered by behavioural biologists as a useful tool in the study of animal behaviour (Wey T, Blumstein DT, Shen W et al. (2008) Social network analysis of animal behaviour: a promising tool for the study of sociality. Anim Behav 75: 333-344). Video recording over a 2 month period was used to record the behaviour of the elephant group at Chester Zoo. SNA was applied in an investigation of the group structure and interactions of the group. Observations of individual and group behaviour were based upon 40 h of playback of the social interactions were recorded and analysed using AGNA (2003) and Pajek (2005) packages. The analysis showed that the many facets of individual behaviour could be understood in terms of social structure of the group. This study has demonstrated that SNA is a powerful approach to understanding group dynamics and is particularly applicable to the study of obligate social species. In conclusion, it is suggested that SNA is potentially a useful tool in the management of captive animal populations.

Freeman, E.W., Guagnano, G., Olson, D., Keele, M., Brown, J.L., 2009. Social factors influence ovarian acyclicity in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo. Biol. 28, 1-15.
Abstract: Nearly one-third of reproductive age African elephants in North America that are hormonally monitored fail to exhibit estrous cycle activity, which exacerbates the nonsustainability of the captive population. Three surveys were distributed to facilities housing female African elephants to determine how social and environmental variables contribute to cyclicity problems. Forty-six facilities returned all three surveys providing information on 90% of the SSP population and 106 elephants (64 cycling, 27 noncycling and 15 undetermined). Logistic analyses found that some physiological and social history variables were related to ovarian acyclicity. Females more likely to be acyclic had a larger body mass index and had resided longer at a facility with the same herdmates. Results suggest that controlling the weight of an elephant might be a first step to helping mitigate estrous cycle problems. Data further show that transferring females among facilities has no major impact on ovarian activity. Last, social status appears to impact cyclicity status; at 19 of 21 facilities that housed both cycling and noncycling elephants, the dominant female was acyclic. Further studies on how social and environmental dynamics affect hormone levels in free-living, cycling elephants are needed to determine whether acyclicity is strictly a captivity-related phenomenon

Freeman, E.W., Schulte, B.A., Brown, J.L., 2009. Investigating the impact of rank and ovarian activity on the social behavior of captive female African elephants . Zoo Biology 0, 1-14.
Abstract:
Over a third of captive female African elephants in North America fail to exhibit normal estrous cycles based on long-term serum progestagen analyses. Why acyclicity occurs is unknown; however, the majority of noncycling females are ranked by keepers as the dominant individual within the group. To investigate the relationship between ovarian cyclicity status and keeper-determined social rank, observations were conducted on 33 female African elephants (18 cycling, 15 noncycling). Based on keeper evaluations, five cycling elephants were ranked dominant, seven in the middle and six as subordinate. In contrast, 10 noncycling elephants were ranked as dominate and five as subordinate with none ranked as middle. When comparing the behavior of the elephants by their keeper-determined rank, the dominant females dominant were significantly more likely to approach, displace and push. Similarly, keeper-determined subordinate females more frequently presented their hind end and held their ears erect. Behaviors initiated by one elephant toward another did not vary between cycling and noncycling females, except when the interaction with social rank was tested. Dominant, noncycling females initiated a higher percentage of approach and displace behaviors than both cycling and noncycling, subordinate elephants. Subordinate, noncycling elephants displayed the highest percentage of ears erect. Social rank drives the interactions of ex situ female African elephants more than ovarian cyclicity status. Thus, behavioral interactions cannot be used to predict which cycling elephants are most likely to become acyclic.

Freeman, E.W., Schulte, B.A., Brown, J.L., 2009. Investigating the impact of rank and ovarian activity on the social behavior of captive female African elephants . Zoo Biology 0, 1-14.
Abstract: Over a third of captive female African elephants in North America fail to exhibit normal estrous cycles based on long-term serum progestagen analyses. Why acyclicity occurs is unknown; however, the majority of noncycling females are ranked by keepers as the dominant individual within the group. To investigate the relationship between ovarian cyclicity status and keeper-determined social rank, observations were conducted on 33 female African elephants (18 cycling, 15 noncycling). Based on keeper evaluations, five cycling elephants were ranked dominant, seven in the middle and six as subordinate. In contrast, 10 noncycling elephants were ranked as dominate and five as subordinate with none ranked as middle. When comparing the behavior of the elephants by their keeper-determined rank, the dominant females dominant were significantly more likely to approach, displace and push. Similarly, keeper-determined subordinate females more frequently presented their hind end and held their ears erect. Behaviors initiated by one elephant toward another did not vary between cycling and noncycling females, except when the interaction with social rank was tested. Dominant, noncycling females initiated a higher percentage of approach and displace behaviors than both cycling and noncycling, subordinate elephants. Subordinate, noncycling elephants displayed the highest percentage of ears erect. Social rank drives the interactions of ex situ female African elephants more than ovarian cyclicity status. Thus, behavioral interactions cannot be used to predict which cycling elephants are most likely to become acyclic.

Freeman, E.W., Schulte, B.A., Brown, J.L., 2009. Using behavioral observations and keeper questionnaires to assess social relationships among captive female African elephants
60. Zoo. Biol. 28, 1-14.
Abstract: Free-ranging African elephants are highly social animals that live in a society where age, size, kinship, and disposition all contribute to social rank. Although captive elephant herds are small and largely comprises of unrelated females, dominance hierarchies are common. The goal of this study was to delineate how the behavior of captive female African elephants varies with respect to age and social rank based on a combination of keeper questionnaires and behavioral observations. "Body movements" and "trunk to" behaviors of 33 nonpregnant female African elephants housed at 14 North American zoos were recorded over 8 hr. Keepers at each facility also rated each elephant based on a series of questions about interactions with herdmates. The assessment of social rank based on observations correlated strongly with ranks assigned by keepers via the questionnaires. Observations and questionnaire responses indicated that body weight of the female, and to a lesser extent age, were significantly related to rates and types of "body movements" and that these demographic factors dictate the captive elephant hierarchy, similar to that observed in the wild. Many of the observed "body movements," such as back away, displace, push, and present, were correlated with keeper questionnaire responses about elephant interactions. However, none of the "trunk to" behaviors were related to age, size, or questionnaire responses even though they occurred frequently. In conclusion, we demonstrated that short-term behavioral observations and keeper questionnaires provided similar behavioral profiles for female African elephants housed in North American zoos. Zoo Biol 28:1-14, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Gandolf, A.R., Lifschitz, A., Stadler, C., Watson, B., Galvanek, L., Ballent, M., Lanusse, C., 2009. The pharmacokinetics of orally administered ivermectin in African elephants (Loxodonta africana): implications for parasite elimination
73. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 40, 107-112.
Abstract: Loxodonta africana are susceptible to a wide variety of parasites that are often treated with the broad spectrum antiparasitic ivermectin (IVM) based on empirical knowledge. The objectives of this study were to 1) measure plasma IVM levels following administration of 0.1 mg/kg IVM p.o., 2) compare plasma IVM levels following administration with regular versus restricted feed rations, 3) measure IVM excretion in feces, and 4) use these findings to generate dosing recommendations for this species. Using a crossover design, six African elephants were divided into two groups. Ivermectin was administered and typical grain rations were either provided or withheld for 2 hr. Blood and fecal samples were collected for 7 days following drug administration. After a 5-wk washout period, groups were switched and the procedure repeated. Plasma and fecal IVM were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography. There was no statistically significant difference detected in the pharmacokinetic data between the fed and fasted groups. Peak plasma concentration, area under the curve, and half-life for plasma ranged between 5.41-8.49 ng/ml, 17.1-20.3 ng x day/ml, and 3.12-4.47 day, respectively. High IVM concentrations were detected in feces. The peak concentration values in feces were between 264-311-fold higher than those obtained in plasma. The comparatively large area under the curve and short time to maximum concentration in feces indicate elimination prior to absorption of much of the drug. Plasma IVM concentrations were low when compared to other species. Based on these findings, administration of 0.2-0.4 mg/kg p.o. should be appropriate for eliminating many types of parasites in elephants, and could minimize development of parasite resistance

Gandolf, A.R., Lifschitz, A., Stadler, C., Watson, B., Galvanek, L., Ballent, M., Lanusse, C., 2009. The pharmacokinetics of orally administered ivermectin in African elephants (Loxodonta Africana):implications for parasite elimination. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40, 107-112.
Abstract: Loxodonta africana are susceptible to a wide variety of parasites that are often treated with the broad spectrum antiparasitic ivermectin (IVM) based on empirical knowledge. The objectives of this study were to 1) measure plasma IVM levels following administration of 0.1 mg/kg IVM p.o., 2) compare plasma IVM levels following administration with regular versus restricted feed rations, 3) measure IVM excretion in feces, kind 4) use these findings to generate dosing recommendations for this species. Using a crossover design, six African elephants were divided into two groups. Ivermectin was administered and typical grain rations were either provided or withheld for 2 hr. Blood and fecal samples were collected for 7 days following drug administration. After a 5-wk washout period, groups were switched and the procedure repeated. Plasma and fecal IVM were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography. There was no statistically significant difference detected in the pharmacokinetic data between the fed and fasted groups. Peak plasma concentration, area under the curve, and half-life for plasma ranged between 5.41-8.49 ng/ml, 17.1-20.3 ng x day/ml, and 3.12-4.47 day, respectively. High IVM concentrations were detected in feces. The peak concentration values in feces were between 264-311-fold higher than those obtained in plasma. The comparatively large area under the curve and short time to maximum concentration in feces indicate elimination prior to absorption of much of the drug. Plasma IVM concentrations were low when compared to other species. Based on these findings, administration of 0.2-0.4 mg/kg p.o. should be appropriate for eliminating many types of parasites in elephants, and could minimize development of parasite resistance.

Glaeser, S.G., Klinck, H., Mellinger, D.K., Ren, Y., 2009. A vocal repertoire of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and comparison of call classification methods. J Acoust Soc Am 125, 2710.
Abstract: This study compares classification methods applied to an acoustic repertoire of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Recordings were made of captive elephants at the Oregon Zoo in Portland, OR and of domesticated elephants in Thailand. Acoustic and behavioral data were collected in a variety of social contexts and environmental noise conditions. Calls were classified using three methods. First, calls were classified manually using perceptual aural cues plus visual inspection of spectrograms for differentiation of fundamental frequency contour, tonality, and duration. Second, a set of 29 acoustic features was measured for nonoverlapping calls using the MATLAB-based program Osprey, then principal component analysis was applied to reduce the feature set. A neural network was used for classification. Finally, hidden Markov models, commonly used for pattern recognition, were utilized to recognize call types using perceptually-weighted cepstral features as input. All manual and automated classification methods agreed on structural distinction of six basic call types (trumpets, squeaks, squeals, roars, rumbles, and barks), with two call types (squeaks and squeals) being highly variable. Given the consistency of results among the classification methods across geographically and socially disparate subject groups, we believe automated call detection could successfully be applied to acoustic monitoring of Asian elephants.

Greenwald, R., Lyashchenko, O., Esfandiari, J., Miller, M., Mikota, S., Olsen, J.H., Ball, R., Dumonceaux, G., Schmitt, D., Moller, T., Payeur, J.B., Harris, B., Sofranko, D., Waters, W.R., Lyashchenko, K.P., 2009. Highly accurate antibody assays for early and rapid detection of tuberculosis in African and Asian elephants. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 16, 605-612.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants is a reemerging zoonotic disease caused primarily by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Current methods for screening and diagnosis rely on trunk wash culture, which has serious limitations due to low test sensitivity, slow turnaround time, and variable sample quality. Innovative and more efficient diagnostic tools are urgently needed. We describe three novel serologic techniques, the ElephantTB Stat-Pak kit, multiantigen print immunoassay, and dual-path platform VetTB test, for rapid antibody detection in elephants. The study was performed with serum samples from 236 captive African and Asian elephants from 53 different locations in the United States and Europe. The elephants were divided into three groups based on disease status and history of exposure: (i) 26 animals with culture-confirmed TB due to M. tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis, (ii) 63 exposed elephants from known-infected herds that had never produced a culture-positive result from trunk wash samples, and (iii) 147 elephants without clinical symptoms suggestive of TB, with consistently negative trunk wash culture results, and with no history of potential exposure to TB in the past 5 years. Elephants with culture-confirmed TB and a proportion of exposed but trunk wash culture-negative elephants produced robust antibody responses to multiple antigens of M. tuberculosis, with seroconversions detectable years before TB-positive cultures were obtained from trunk wash specimens. ESAT-6 and CFP10 proteins were immunodominant antigens recognized by elephant antibodies during disease. The serologic assays demonstrated 100% sensitivity and 95 to 100% specificity. Rapid and accurate antibody tests to identify infected elephants will likely allow earlier and more efficient treatment, thus limiting transmission of infection to other susceptible animals and to humans

Greenwald, R., Lyashchenko, O., Esfandiari, J., Miller, M., Mikota, S., Olsen, J.H., Ball, R., Dumonceaux, G., Schmitt, D., Moller, T., Payeur, J.B., Harris, B., Sofranko, D., Waters, W.R., Lyaschenko, K.P., 2009. Highly accurate antibody assays for early and rapid detection of tuberculosis in African and Asian elephants. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 16, 605-612.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants is a reemerging zoonotic disease caused primarily by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Current methods for screening and diagnosis rely on trunk wash culture, which has serious limitations due to low test sensitivity, slow turnaround time, and variable sample quality. Innovative and more efficient diagnostic tools are urgently needed. We describe three novel serologic techniques, the ElephantTB Stat-Pak kit, multiantigen print immunoassay, and dual-path platform VetTB test, for rapid antibody detection in elephants. The study was performed with serum samples from 236 captive African and Asian elephants from 53 different locations in the United States and Europe. The elephants were divided into three groups based on disease status and history of exposure: (i) 26 animals with culture-confirmed TB due to M. tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis, (ii) 63 exposed elephants from known-infected herds that had never produced a culture-positive result from trunk wash samples, and (iii) 147 elephants without clinical symptoms suggestive of TB, with consistently negative trunk wash culture results, and with no history of potential exposure to TB in the past 5 years. Elephants with culture-confirmed TB and a proportion of exposed but trunk wash culture-negative elephants produced robust antibody responses to multiple antigens of M. tuberculosis, with seroconversions detectable years before TB-positive cultures were obtained from trunk wash specimens. ESAT-6 and CFP10 proteins were immunodominant antigens recognized by elephant antibodies during disease. The serologic assays demonstrated 100% sensitivity and 95 to 100% specificity. Rapid and accurate antibody tests to identify infected elephants will likely allow earlier and more efficient treatment, thus limiting transmission of infection to other susceptible animals and to humans.

Haakonsson, J.E., Semple, S., 2009. Lateralisation of trunk movements in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
112. Laterality. 14, 413-422.
Abstract: Behavioural lateralisation has been widely investigated in vertebrates. Most studies in this area have focused on laterality in paired organs such as hands, limbs, and eyes. Fewer studies have explored side preferences in unpaired organs such as tails or trunks. We investigated laterality of trunk use among captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), quantifying side preference in four different trunk movements: feeding, sand spraying, self-touching, and swinging. We found evidence for significant side preference in all four movement categories. Variation in the occurrence and direction of side preference was seen both within and between individuals but no overall population-level side bias was seen for any of the four trunk movements. The strength of side preference in trunk use was significantly higher for feeding than for self-touching and swinging. This study adds to the very limited data on laterality in unpaired organs generally, and elephants' trunks more specifically. In addition it provides novel information about directional lateralisation in trunk use across a range of functionally distinct contexts

Hermes, R., Behr, B., Hildebrandt, T.B., Blottner, S., Sieg, B., Frenzel, A., Knieriem, A., Saragusty, J., Rath, D., 2009. Sperm sex-sorting in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Anim Reprod. Sci. 112, 390-396.
Abstract: In captive Asian elephants, there is a strong need for production of female offspring to enhance reproduction, counter premature aging processes in female animals and reduce challenging management situations derived from husbandry of several bulls in one institution. Artificial insemination of flow cytometrically sex-sorted spermatozoa offers the possibility to predetermine the sex of offspring with high accuracy. The aims of this study were to determine a suitable semen extender and basic parameters for flow cytometrical sex-sorting of Asian elephant spermatozoa. In total 18 semen samples were collected by manual rectal stimulation from one bull. Sperm quality parameters and sex sortability of spermatozoa were evaluated after dilution in three semen extenders (MES-HEPES-skim milk, MES-HEPES, TRIS-citric acid) and DNA staining. MES-HEPES-skim milk was the only semen extender found suitable to sex Asian elephant spermatozoa. From 18 ejaculates collected, 12 were successfully sorted with a purity of 94.5+/-0.7% at an average sort rate of 1945.5+/-187.5 spermatozoa per second. Sperm integrity, progressive and total motility were 42.6+/-3.9%, 48.1+/-3.3%, 59.4+/-3.8% after DNA labelling, and 64.8+/-3.2%, 58.0+/-5.0%, 70.8+/-4.4% after sorting, respectively. After liquid storage of sorted spermatozoa for 12h at 4 degrees C, sperm integrity, progressive and total motility were 46.4+/-5.2%, 32.2+/-4.2% and 58.2+/-3.9%, respectively. The obtained results provide a promising base to inseminate Asian elephants with sexed semen

Knauf, S., Blad-Stahl, J., Lawrenz, A., Schuerer, U., Wehrend, A., 2009. Plasma preparation and storage for African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
74. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 40, 71-75.
Abstract: The use of plasma as a life-saving tool for neonatal African elephants (Loxodonta africana) that failed passive transfer of immunoglobulins is proposed. The methodology of blood sampling, plasma extraction, and plasma storage is described. Values for cellular component sedimentation and biochemical parameters of extracted plasma that was collected from 2 female elephants is presented. The proposal for a central plasma bank for elephants in European zoos is suggested

Knauf, S., Blad-Stahl, J., Lawrenz, A., Schuerer, U., Wehrend, A., 2009. Plasma preparation and storage for African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40, 71-75.
Abstract: The use of plasma as a life-saving tool for neonatal African elephants (Loxodonta africana) that failed passive transfer of immunoglobulins is proposed. The methodology of blood sampling, plasma extraction, and plasma storage is described. Values for cellular component sedimentation and biochemical parameters of extracted plasma that was collected from 2 female elephants is presented. The proposal for a central plasma bank for elephants in European zoos is suggested.

Lei, R., Brenneman, R.A., Schmitt, D.L., Louis, E.E., Jr., 2009. Detection of Cytonuclear Genomic Dissociation in the North American Captive African Elephant Collection. J. Hered.
Abstract: A total of 114 captive elephants (6 Asian; 108 African) from 43 private institutions or North American zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums were sampled and evaluated to investigate genetic status. Because previous analyses of the captive collection indicated potential cytonuclear dissociation between mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence and microsatellite nuclear DNA genotype data, we investigated this phenomenon within the captive collection with 2 X-linked genes (BGN and PHKA2) and 1 Y-linked gene (AMELY). These data reveal that individuals with forest-derived elephant mtDNA lineages carried only savannah elephant nuclear gene haplotypes. These results are concordant with a previous study of wild populations sampled across Africa, indicating that cytonuclear genomic dissociation was captured in the founders of the North American African elephant collection. These results are important for resolving questions that can potentially impact future management and breeding programs related to the collection

Leighty, K.A., Soltis, J., Savage, A., 2009. GPS assessment of the use of exhibit space and resources by African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
65. Zoo. Biol. 28, 1-11.
Abstract: In public discussions of animal rights and welfare, we as members and proponents of zoological institutions often face significant challenges addressing the concerns of our detractors due to an unfortunate deficiency in systematically collected and published data on the animals in our collections. In the case of elephants, there has been a paucity of information describing their use of space within captive environments. Here, using collar-mounted GPS recording devices, we documented the use of exhibit space and resources by a herd of five adult female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed at Disney's Animal Kingdom((R)). We found that dominant animals within the herd used a greater percentage of the available space and subordinate females avoided narrow or enclosed regions of the enclosure that we termed "restricted flow areas." In their use of other resources, dominant females demonstrated increased occupation of the watering hole over subordinate females, but all females demonstrated relatively equivalent use of the mud wallow. Overall, our results provide preliminary evidence that position within the dominancy hierarchy impacts the percentage of space occupied in a captive setting and may contribute to resource accessibility. These findings can be applied to future decisions on exhibit design and resource distribution for this species. Zoo Biol 28:1-11, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Leighty, K.A., Soltis, J., Wesolek, C.M., Savage, A., Mellen, J., Lehnhardt, J., 2009. GPS determination of walking rates in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
79. Zoo. Biol. 28, 16-28.
Abstract: The movements of elephants in captivity have been an issue of concern for animal welfare activists and zoological professionals alike in recent years. In order to fully understand how movement rates reflect animal welfare, we must first determine the exact distances these animals move in the captive environment. We outfitted seven adult female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) at Disney's Animal Kingdom with collar-mounted global positioning recording systems to document their movement rates while housed in outdoor guest viewing habitats. Further, we conducted preliminary analyses to address potential factors impacting movement rates including body size, temperature, enclosure size, and social grouping complexity. We found that our elephants moved at an average rate of 0.409+/-0.007 km/hr during the 9-hr data collection periods. This rate translates to an average of 3.68 km traveled during the observation periods, at a rate comparable to that observed in the wild. Although movement rate did not have a significant relationship with an individual's body size in this herd, the movements of four females demonstrated a significant positive correlation with temperature. Further, females in our largest social group demonstrated a significant increase in movement rates when residing in larger enclosures. We also present preliminary evidence suggesting that increased social group complexity, including the presence of infants in the herd, may be associated with increased walking rates, whereas factors such as reproductive and social status may constrain movements

Mason, G.J., Veasey, J.S., 2009. How should the psychological well-being of zoo elephants be objectively investigated?
47. Zoo. Biol.
Abstract: Animal welfare (sometimes termed "well-being") is about feelings - states such as "suffering" or "contentment" that we can infer but cannot measure directly. Welfare indices have been developed from two main sources: studies of suffering humans, and of research animals deliberately subjected to challenges known to affect emotional state. We briefly review the resulting indices here, and discuss how well they are understood for elephants, since objective welfare assessment should play a central role in evidence-based elephant management. We cover behavioral and cognitive responses (approach/avoidance; intention, redirected and displacement activities; vigilance/startle; warning signals; cognitive biases, apathy and depression-like changes; stereotypic behavior); physiological responses (sympathetic responses; corticosteroid output - often assayed non-invasively via urine, feces or even hair; other aspects of HPA function, e.g. adrenal hypertrophy); and the potential negative effects of prolonged stress on reproduction (e.g. reduced gametogenesis; low libido; elevated still-birth rates; poor maternal care) and health (e.g. poor wound-healing; enhanced disease rates; shortened lifespans). The best validated, most used welfare indices for elephants are corticosteroid outputs and stereotypic behavior. Indices suggested as valid, partially validated, and/or validated but not yet applied within zoos include: measures of preference/avoidance; displacement movements; vocal/postural signals of affective (emotional) state; startle/vigilance; apathy; salivary and urinary epinephrine; female acyclity; infant mortality rates; skin/foot infections; cardio-vascular disease; and premature adult death. Potentially useful indices that have not yet attracted any validation work in elephants include: operant responding and place preference tests; intention and vacuum movements; fear/stress pheromone release; cognitive biases; heart rate, pupil dilation and blood pressure; corticosteroid assay from hair, especially tail-hairs (to access endocrine events up to a year ago); adrenal hypertrophy; male infertility; prolactinemia; and immunological changes. Zoo Biol 28:1-19, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Miller, M., Chen, T.C., Holick, M.F., Mikota, S., Dierenfeld, E., 2009. Serum concentrations of calcium, phosphorus, and 25-hydroxyvitamin d in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
38. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 40, 302-305.
Abstract: Seventy-two serum samples were collected from 14 healthy African elephants (Loxodonta africana), including three calves, to test for 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] as well as for performing biochemical panels. Samples were collected between July 1997 and January 2008 to establish normal 25(OH)D values for the species and to examine the relationship of season and time on these values. Although the number of samples from the calves was small (n = 7), there was no statistically significant difference in the mean 25(OH)D levels between adults and calves (15.7 +/- 7.7 ng/ml versus 17.1 +/- 5.8 ng/ml, P > 0.05, respectively). The comparison of mean and individual values among seasons showed some variation, but was not statistically different; therefore, all values were combined for further analyses. The mean value of 25(OH)D for all samples was 15.8 +/- 7.5 ng/ml (n = 72), with a 95% confidence interval of 14.0-17.6 ng/ml. There did not appear to be a direct correlation between 25(OH)D levels and calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), or calcium:phosphorus ratio (Ca:P) based on regression analyses (P < 0.05). Values measured approximated normal distributions. Mean calcium value was 10.5 +/- 0.6 mg/dl (n = 61); mean phosphorus value was 5.2 +/- 0.8 mg/dl (n = 50); and mean Ca:P was 2.06 +/- 0.34. Since all animals appeared healthy during the course of sample collection, and bone density on foot radiographs was assessed as good, the results are considered to be normal for this herd. With the incidence of joint disease in older elephants, and metabolic bone disease in hand-reared calves, these values will provide a basis for further studies of calcium metabolism in elephants

Miller, M.A., Olea-Popelka, F., 2009. Serum antibody titers following routine rabies vaccination in African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 235, 978-981.
Abstract: Objective-To evaluate serum antibody titers in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana) following routine vaccination with a commercially available, inactivated rabies vaccine. Design-Seroepidemiologic study. Animals-14 captive African elephants from a single herd. Procedures-Elephants were vaccinated as part of a routine preventive health program. Initially, elephants were vaccinated annually (2 mL, IM), and blood was collected every 4 or 6 months for measurement of rabies virus-neutralizing antibody titer by means of the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test. Individual elephants were later switched to an intermittent vaccination schedule to allow duration of the antibody response to be determined. Results-All elephants had detectable antibody responses following rabies vaccination, although there was great variability among individual animals in regard to antibody titers, and antibody titers could be detected as long as 24 months after vaccine administration. Young animals were found to develop an antibody titer following administration of a single dose of the rabies vaccine. Age and time since vaccination had significant effects on measured antibody titers. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-Results indicated that African elephants developed detectable antibody titers in response to inoculation with a standard large animal dose of a commercially available, inactivated rabies vaccine. The persistence of detectable antibody titers in some animals suggested that vaccination could be performed less frequently than once a year if antibody titers were routinely monitored

Plotnik, J.M., de Waal, F.B., Moore, D., III, Reiss, D., 2009. Self-recognition in the Asian elephant and future directions for cognitive research with elephants in zoological settings
48. Zoo. Biol.
Abstract: The field of animal cognition has grown steadily for nearly four decades, but the primary focus has centered on easily kept lab animals of varying cognitive capacity, including rodents, birds and primates. Elephants (animals not easily kept in a laboratory) are generally thought of as highly social, cooperative, intelligent animals, yet few studies-with the exception of long-term behavioral field studies-have been conducted to directly support this assumption. In fact, there has been remarkably little cognitive research conducted on Asian (Elephas maximus) or African (Loxodonta africana or L. cyclotis) elephants. Here, we discuss the opportunity and rationale for conducting such research on elephants in zoological facilities, and review some of the recent developments in the field of elephant cognition, including our recent study on mirror self-recognition in E. maximus. Zoo Biol 28:1-13, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Rees, P.A., 2009. Activity budgets and the relationship between feeding and stereotypic behaviors in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Zoo
75. Zoo. Biol. 28, 79-97.
Abstract: Activity budgets were studied in eight Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Chester Zoo (UK) for 35 days, between January and November 1999. Recordings were made between 10:00 and 16:00 hr (with most behavior frequencies calculated between 10:00 and 14:00 hr). The elephants exhibited variation in activity depending on their age, sex, the time of day and the time of year. Only the five adult cows exhibited stereotypic behavior, with frequencies ranging from 3.9 to 29.4% of all observations. These elephants exhibited individual, diurnal and seasonal variation in stereotypic behavior. This has implications for studies that use short sampling periods and may make comparisons of data collected at different times of the day or year invalid. The six adult elephants spent 27.4-41.4% of the time feeding (between 10:00 and 14:00 hr), 22.9-42.0% standing still, 6.1-19.2% walking and 3.9-9.6% dusting. The hypothesis that the frequency of stereotypic behavior in adult cow elephants was negatively correlated with the frequency of feeding behavior was tested and was found to be true. Stereotypic behavior increased in frequency toward the end of the day-while waiting to return to the elephant house for food--and elephants spent more time stereotyping during the winter months than during the summer months. Elephants were inactive (i.e. exhibited behaviors other than locomotion) for between 70.1 and 93.9% of the time. Creating more opportunities for elephants to exhibit foraging behavior and the introduction of greater unpredictability into management regimes, especially feeding times, may reduce the frequency of stereotypic behavior and increase general activity levels

Rees, P.A., 2009. The sizes of elephant groups in zoos: implications for elephant welfare. J. Appl. Anim Welf. Sci. 12, 44-60.
Abstract: This study examined the distribution of 495 Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and 336 African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in 194 zoos, most of which were located in Europe (49.1%) and North America (32.6%). Cows outnumbered bulls 4 to 1 (Loxodonta) and 3 to 1 (Elephas). Groups contained 7 or fewer: mean, 4.28 (sigma = 5.73). One fifth of elephants lived alone or with one conspecific. Forty-six elephants (5.5%) had no conspecific. Many zoos ignore minimum group sizes of regional zoo association guidelines. The American Zoo and Aquarium Association recommends that breeding facilities keep herds of 6 to 12 elephants. The British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums recommends keeping together at least 4 cows over 2 years old. Over 69% Asian and 80% African cow groups-including those under 2 years-consisted of fewer than 4 individuals. Recently, Europe and North America have made progress with some zoos no longer keeping elephants and with others investing in improved facilities and forming larger herds. The welfare of individual elephants should outweigh all other considerations; zoos should urgently seek to integrate small groups into larger herds

Saragusty, J., Hildebrandt, T.B., Behr, B., Knieriem, A., Kruse, J., Hermes, R., 2009. Successful cryopreservation of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) spermatozoa. Anim Reprod. Sci. 115, 255-266.
Abstract: Reproduction in captive elephants is low and infant mortality is high, collectively leading to possible population extinction. Artificial insemination was developed a decade ago; however, it relies on fresh-chilled semen from just a handful of bulls with inconsistent sperm quality. Artificial insemination with frozen-thawed sperm has never been described, probably, in part, due to low semen quality after cryopreservation. The present study was designed with the aim of finding a reliable semen freezing protocol. Screening tests included freezing semen with varying concentrations of ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, trehalose, dimethyl sulfoxide and glycerol as cryoprotectants and assessing cushioned centrifugation, rapid chilling to suprazero temperatures, freezing extender osmolarity, egg yolk concentration, post-thaw dilution with cryoprotectant-free BC solution and the addition of 10% (v/v) of autologous seminal plasma. The resulting optimal freezing protocol uses cushioned centrifugation, two-step dilution with isothermal 285 m Osm/kg Berliner Cryomedium (BC) with final glycerol concentration of 7% and 16% egg yolk, and freezing in large volume by the directional freezing technique. After thawing, samples are diluted 1:1 with BC solution. Using this protocol, post-thaw evaluations results were: motility upon thawing: 57.2+/-5.4%, motility following 30 min incubation at 37 degrees C: 58.5+/-6.0% and following 3h incubation: 21.7+/-7.6%, intact acrosome: 57.1+/-5.2%, normal morphology: 52.0+/-5.8% and viability: 67.3+/-6.1%. With this protocol, good quality semen can be accumulated for future use in artificial inseminations when and where needed

Saragusty, J., Hermes, R., Goritz, F., Schmitt, D.L., Hildebrandt, T.B., 2009. Skewed birth sex ratio and premature mortality in elephants. Anim Reprod. Sci. 115, 247-254.
Abstract: Sex allocation theories predict equal offspring number of both sexes unless differential investment is required or some competition exists. Left undisturbed, elephants reproduce well and in approximately even numbers in the wild. We report an excess of males are born and substantial juvenile mortality occurs, perinatally, in captivity. Studbook data on captive births (CB, n=487) and premature deaths (PD, <5 years of age; n=164) in Asian and African elephants in Europe and North America were compared with data on Myanmar timber (Asian) elephants (CB, n=3070; PD, n=738). Growth in CB was found in three of the captive populations. A significant excess of male births occurred in European Asian elephants (ratio: 0.61, P=0.044) and in births following artificial insemination (0.83, P=0.003), and a numerical inclination in North American African elephants (0.6). While juvenile mortality in European African and Myanmar populations was 21-23%, it was almost double (40-45%) in all other captive populations. In zoo populations, 68-91% of PD were within 1 month of birth with stillbirth and infanticide being major causes. In Myanmar, 62% of juvenile deaths were at >6 months with maternal insufficient milk production, natural hazards and accidents being the main causes. European Asian and Myanmar elephants PD was biased towards males (0.71, P=0.024 and 0.56, P<0.001, respectively). The skewed birth sex ratio and high juvenile mortality hinder efforts to help captive populations become self-sustaining. Efforts should be invested to identify the mechanism behind these trends and seek solutions for them.

Shyan-Norwalt, M.R., Peterson, J., Milankow, K.B., Staggs, T.E., Dale, R.H., 2009. Initial findings on visual acuity thresholds in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Zoo. Biol. 28, 1-6.
Abstract: There are only a few published examinations of elephant visual acuity. All involved Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and found visual acuity to be between 8' and 11' of arc for a stimulus near the tip of the trunk, equivalent to a 0.50 cm gap, at a distance of about 2 m from the eyes. We predicted that African elephants (Loxodonta africana) would have similarly high visual acuity, necessary to facilitate eye-trunk coordination for feeding, drinking and social interactions. When tested on a discrimination task using Landolt-C stimuli, one African elephant cow demonstrated a visual acuity of 48' of arc. This represents the ability to discriminate a gap as small as 2.75 cm in a stimulus 196 cm from the eye. This single-subject study provides a preliminary estimate of the visual acuity of African elephants. Zoo Biol 28:1-6, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Soltis, J., 2009. Vocal communication in African Elephants (Loxodonta africana)
61. Zoo. Biol. 28, 1-18.
Abstract: Research on vocal communication in African elephants has increased in recent years, both in the wild and in captivity, providing an opportunity to present a comprehensive review of research related to their vocal behavior. Current data indicate that the vocal repertoire consists of perhaps nine acoustically distinct call types, "rumbles" being the most common and acoustically variable. Large vocal production anatomy is responsible for the low-frequency nature of rumbles, with fundamental frequencies in the infrasonic range. Additionally, resonant frequencies of rumbles implicate the trunk in addition to the oral cavity in shaping the acoustic structure of rumbles. Long-distance communication is thought possible because low-frequency sounds propagate more faithfully than high-frequency sounds, and elephants respond to rumbles at distances of up to 2.5 km. Elephant ear anatomy appears designed for detecting low frequencies, and experiments demonstrate that elephants can detect infrasonic tones and discriminate small frequency differences. Two vocal communication functions in the African elephant now have reasonable empirical support. First, closely bonded but spatially separated females engage in rumble exchanges, or "contact calls," that function to coordinate movement or reunite animals. Second, both males and females produce "mate attraction" rumbles that may advertise reproductive states to the opposite sex. Additionally, there is evidence that the structural variation in rumbles reflects the individual identity, reproductive state, and emotional state of callers. Growth in knowledge about the communication system of the African elephant has occurred from a rich combination of research on wild elephants in national parks and captive elephants in zoological parks. Zoo Biol 28:1-18, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Steinetz, B., Lasano, S., de Haas van, D.F., Glickman, S., Bergfelt, D., Santymire, R., Songsassen, N., Swanson, W., 2009. Relaxin concentrations in serum and urine of endangered and crazy mixed-up species
66. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1160, 179-185.
Abstract: The human population explosion has pushed many mammalian wildlife species to the brink of extinction. Conservationists are increasingly turning to captive breeding as a means of preserving the gene pool. We previously reported that serum immunoactive relaxin provided a reliable means of distinguishing between true and pseudopregnancy in domestic dogs, and this method has since been found to be a reliable indicator of true pregnancy in endangered Asian and African elephants and Sumatran rhinoceroses. Our canine relaxin radioimmunoassay (RIA) has now been adapted and validated to measure relaxin in the serum and urine of felids, including domestic and wild species. Moreover, a commercially available canine serum relaxin kit (Witness) Relaxin Kit; Synbiotics, San Diego, CA), has been adapted for reliable detection of relaxin in urine of some felid species. Our porcine relaxin RIA has also been utilized to investigate the role of relaxin in reproductive processes of the spotted hyena, a species in which the female fetuses are severely masculinized in utero. Indeed, this species might well now be extinct were it not for the timely secretion of relaxin to enable copulation and birth of young through the clitoris. Additional studies have suggested relaxin may be a useful marker of pregnancy in the northern fur seal and the maned wolf (the former species has been designated as "depleted" and the latter as "near threatened"). Given appropriate immunoassay reagents, relaxin determination in body fluids thus provides a powerful tool for conservationists and biologists investigating reproduction in a wide variety of endangered and exotic species

Thitaram, C., Pongsopawijit, P., Chansitthiwet, S., Brown, J.L., Nimtragul, K., Boonprasert, K., Homkong, P., Mahasawangkul, S., Rojanasthien, S., Colenbrander, B., van der Weijden, G.C., van Eerdenburg, F.J., 2009. Induction of the ovulatory LH surge in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): a novel aid in captive breeding management of an endangered species
49. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 21, 672-678.
Abstract: A unique feature of the reproductive physiology of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is the occurrence of two LH surges before ovulation, instead of one. An anovulatory LH (anLH) surge, the function of which is unknown, occurs consistently 3 weeks before the ovulatory LH (ovLH) surge that induces ovulation. Thus, the ability to induce an ovLH surge would be useful for scheduling natural mating or artificial insemination. The present study tested the efficacy of a gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRH-Ag) to induce LH surges during the follicular phase of the oestrous cycle, which resulted in varied LH responses, but generally none were as high as previously documented natural surges. Thus, for the ovulation-induction trials, nine females were administered 80 microg GnRH-Ag intravenously at three time periods during the oestrous cycle, namely the anovulatory follicular phase, the ovulatory follicular phase and the luteal phase. During the late anovulatory follicular phase, nine of 10 females (90%) responded with an immediate LH surge followed 15-22 days later by an ovLH surge or a post-ovulatory increase in progestagens. In contrast, despite responding to the GnRH-Ag with an immediate increase in LH, none of the females treated during other periods of the oestrous cycle exhibited subsequent ovLH surges. One cow got pregnant from natural mating following the induced ovLH surge. In conclusion, ovLH induction is possible using a GnRH-Ag, but only during a specific time of the anovulatory follicular phase

Thitaram, C., Chansitthiwet, S., Pongsopawijit, P., Brown, J.L., Wongkalasin, W., Daram, P., Roongsri, R., Kalmapijit, A., Mahasawangkul, S., Rojanasthien, S., Colenbrander, B., van der Weijden, G.C., van Eerdenburg, F.J., 2009. Use of genital inspection and female urine tests to detect oestrus in captive Asian elephants
116. Anim Reprod. Sci. 115, 267-278.
Abstract: Captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations are decreasing due to low birth rates compared to wild elephants. Improving oestrous detection in female elephants is required to ensure successful mating in captive and semi-captive herds. Responsive behaviours of eight semi-captive bull elephants to the uro-genital area (genital inspection test) or urinary pheromones (urine test) of 14 female elephants throughout the oestrous cycle were evaluated. Weekly blood samples were collected for 27 consecutive months (14 months for the genital inspection test and 13 months for the urine test) from female elephants to characterize the patterns of circulating progestagen. Responsive behaviours of bulls were compared between females in the follicular versus the luteal phase of the cycle. The sensitivity and specificity of the genital inspection test were 65% and 68%, while those of the urine test were 52% and 61%, respectively. The bulls showed significantly higher "genital inspection", "flehmen from genital area" and "trunk on back" behaviours during the genital inspection test, and "flehmen" behaviours during the urine test in oestrous than in non-oestrous females. In sum, this study showed that monitoring sexual behaviours of Asian elephant bulls towards females or their urine can be used to detect the oestrous period. Although the sensitivity and specificity of both tests were not as high as expected, still, these methods appear to be more efficient at detecting oestrous than traditional methods based on mahout estimations of female receptivity. The use of genital inspection and urine tests may lead to more successful matings and thus to creating self-sustaining populations of captive elephants in range countries

Tripp, K.M., Dubois, M., Delahaut, P., Verstegen, J.P., 2009. Detection and identification of plasma progesterone metabolites in the female Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) using GC/MS/MS
54. Theriogenology 72, 365-371.
Abstract: Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) have relatively low peripheral concentrations of progesterone (P4). The objective of this study was to determine if these relatively low P4 concentrations are associated with a high ratio of progestin metabolites and to document metabolite concentrations from individual blood samples obtained from manatees during diestrus or pregnancy. Metabolites known to exist in elephants-terrestrial manatee relatives-were targeted. These included 5alpha-reduced progestins (5alpha-pregnane-3,20-dione [5alpha-DHP] and 3alpha-hydroxy-5alpha-pregnan-20-one [5alpha-P3-OH]) and 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone (17alpha-OHP), which occurs in Asian elephants. An additional, inactive metabolite, 20alpha-hydroxyprogesterone (20alpha-OHP), indicative of P4 overproduction, was also targeted. Progesterone itself was the predominant progestin detected in pregnant and nonpregnant manatee plasma (n = 10) using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with tandem quadrupole detectors (GC/MS/MS). Progesterone concentrations in pregnant females varied from early (moderate to high) through mid and late (low) pregnancy. Progesterone concentrations ranged from low to high in nonpregnant, nonlactating females. The most commonly detected metabolite was 5alpha-P3-OH (n = 7), which occurred in pregnant (lower limit of detection [LLOD] to high) and nonpregnant (trace to high) females. The 5alpha-DHP metabolite was also detected in pregnant (LLOD to moderate) and nonpregnant (low) females. The 17alpha-OHP metabolite was not detected in any tested female. The 20alpha-OHP metabolite was detected in one nonpregnant, nonlactating, captive female (LLOD). Metabolites were most prevalent during early pregnancy, concurrent with maximum P4 concentrations. Based on their concentrations in peripheral circulation, we inferred that these metabolites may have, opposite to elephants, a limited physiologic role during luteal, pregnant, and nonpregnant phases in the manatee

Weissenbock, N.M., Schwammer, H.M., Ruf, T., 2009. Estrous synchrony in a group of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) under human care. Anim Reprod. Sci. 113, 322-327.
Abstract: Synchrony of estrous, and consequently of conception and birth of young, may be of adaptive significance for certain mammals. Among the species in which estrous synchrony has been suspected several times are elephants, but clear evidence is still missing. We determined estrous cycles of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) (n=4) at the Vienna Zoo, Austria, between June 2003 and January 2006 by measuring serum progesterone levels from weekly blood samples. Except for the dominant female when she was intensively lactating, all animals showed clear cycles or progesterone release with a mean period of 105.3+/-15.37 days. For most of the study period, estrous cycles were asynchronous between females. However, after re-occurrence of the progesterone cycle in the dominant female following the first period of lactation, all four females showed high synchrony of progesterone release over the two subsequent cycles. Large changes in individual period lengths indicated that synchronization was due to the adjustment of cycle length in subdominants to that of the dominant female. We used a bootstrap procedure, based on resampling measured times of progesterone peaks, to determine if this apparent synchrony could have been caused by chance alone. This statistical analysis indicated that between-individual variances of the timing of progesterone peaks were much smaller that to be expected by chance (P=0.009). This finding represents the first evidence for estrous synchrony between elephants. We discuss various hypotheses to explain the biological function of cycle synchrony in elephants

Bechert, U., Southern, S., Chase, M. Minimally invasive molecular health analysis in elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  88. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: This paper describes the application of a new assay platform called Stress Response Profiling (SRP) to the analysis of health status in elephants. SRP assays use a large biomarker panel as an indicator of chronically perturbed physiologic homeostasis ("chronic stress"),1,2 which is a known predictor of increased morbidity, infertility and mortality rates.3-8 SRP assays have a broad-based sensitivity to diverse types of stressors in multiple species of vertebrates.2 A minimally invasive SRP assay is based on skin microsamples obtained using routine biopsy procedures.9 The skin SRP assay was applied to captive African elephants with clinically diagnosed gastrointestinal infections and to healthy wild elephants.10 The elephant health status was classified using a reference database of SR biomarker profiles corresponding to eight species of normal and stressed animals. The biomarker profiles were converted into pathway profiles indicating that the molecular mechanism of the elephant gastrointestinal infections preferentially involved responses to misfolded proteins and DNA lesions. To rapidly and economically screen samples from 70 free-ranging African elephants sampled in Northern Botswana, we used a multiplexed SRP assay called multi-SRP.1,2 Statistical analysis of the multi-SRP scores showed correlations with population density, movements, and human-elephant conflict reports. In
summary, this paper documents that SRP and multi-SRP assays are suitable for the elephant skin and relevant to both symptomatic diseases and asymptomatic effects of environmental and anthropogenic stressors. We anticipate that the SRP technology might have a wide range of potential applications in veterinary medicine and ecosystem conservation.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Southern, S.O., A.C. Allen, and N. Kellar. 2002. Molecular signature of physiological stress in dolphins based on protein expression profiling of skin. Administrative Report LJ-02-27, National Marine Fisheries Service, SW Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, California.
2. Southern, S.O., and G.W. Lilienthal. 2008. New technology for early detection of health threats. Proc. SPIE 69450F.
3. Camougrand, N., and M. Rigoulet. 2001. Aging and oxidative stress: studies of some genes involved both in aging and in response to oxidative stress. Respir. Physiol. 128:393-40.
4. Epel, E.S., J. Lin, F.H. Wilhelm, O.M. Wolkowitz, R. Cawthon, N.E. Adler, C. Dolbier, W.B. Mendes, and E.H. Blackburn. 2006. Cell aging in relation to stress arousal and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 31:277-87.
5. Feder, M.E., and G.E. Hofmann. 1999. Heat-shock proteins, molecular chaperones, and the stress response: evolutionary and ecological physiology. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 61:243-82.
6. Kapahi, P., M.E. Boulton, and T.B.L. Kirkwood. 1999. Positive correlation between mammalian life span and cellular resistance to stress. Free Radical Biol. Med. 26:495-500.
7. Selye, H.A. 1936. Syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents. Nature 138:32.
8. Wilson, J.F., and E.J. Kopitzke 2002. Stress and infertility Curr. Womens Health Rep. 2: 194

Clubb, R., Rowcliffe, M., Lee, P., Mar, K.U., Moss, C., Mason, G.J., 2008. Compromised survivorship in zoo elephants. Science 322, 1649.
Abstract: We analyzed data from over 4500 elephants to show that animals in European zoos have about half the median life span of conspecifics in protected populations in range countries. This discrepancy is clearest in Asian elephants; unlike African elephants in zoos, this species' infant mortality is very high (for example, twice that seen in Burmese timber camps), and its adult survivorship in zoos has not improved significantly in recent years. One risk factor for Asian zoo elephants is being moved between institutions, with early removal from the mother tending to have additional adverse effects. Another risk factor is being born into a zoo rather than being imported from the wild, with poor adult survivorship in zoo-born Asians apparently being conferred prenatally or in early infancy. We suggest stress and/or obesity as likely causes of zoo elephants' compromised survivorship

Doherty, T., 2008. More on AVMA policy on elephant guides and tethers. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 233, 1061.

Drews, B., Hermes, R., Goritz, F., Gray, C., Kurz, J., Lueders, I., Hildebrandt, T.B., 2008. Early embryo development in the elephant assessed by serial ultrasound examinations. Theriogenology 69, 1120-1128.
Abstract: The elephant has an extraordinary long pregnancy, lasting 21 months. However, knowledge on embryo development is limited. To date, only single morphological observations of elephant embryo development associated with placentation are available, all lacking correlation to gestational age. The present study describes morphological characteristics of early embryo development in the elephant with exact biometric staging. Six pregnancies in five Asian and one African elephants with known conception dates were followed by 2D and 3D ultrasound, covering the embryonic period from ovulation to day 116 post-ovulation. The embryonic vesicle was earliest observed was on day 50 p.o. The proper embryo was not detected until day 62 p.o. Embryonic heartbeat was first observed on day 71 p.o. The allantois, which became visible as a single sacculation on day 71 p.o. was subdivided in four compartments on day 76 p.o. By day 95 p.o., head, rump, front and hind legs were clearly distinguished. Between days 95 and 103 p.o. the choriovitelline placenta was replaced by the chorioallantoic placenta. A physiological midgut herniation was transiently present between days 95 and 116 p.o. On the basis of the late appearance of the embryonic vesicle, delayed implantation in the elephant is discussed. The study provides a coherent description of elephant embryonic development, formation of the extraembryonic organs and their role in placenta formation, all of which are of interest for both comparative evolutionary studies and the improvement of assisted reproduction techniques

Hermes, R., Saragusty, J., Schaftenaar, W., Goritz, F., Schmitt, D.L., Hildebrandt, T.B., 2008. Obstetrics in elephants. Theriogenology 70, 131-144.
Abstract: Obstetrics, one of the oldest fields in veterinary medicine, is well described and practiced in domestic and exotic animals. However, when providing care during elephant birth or dystocia, veterinary intervention options differ greatly from any domestic species, and are far more limited due to the dimensions and specific anatomy of the elephant reproductive tract. In addition, aging of captive elephant populations and advanced age of primiparous females make active birth management increasingly important. Intrauterine infection, uterine inertia and urogenital tract pathologies are emerging as major causes for dystocia, often leading to foetal and dam death. This paper reviews the current knowledge on elephant birth and the factors associated with dystocia. It then summarises recommendations for birth and dystocia management. As Caesarean section, the most common ultima ratio in domestic animal obstetrics, is lethal and therefore not an option in the elephant, non-invasive medical treatment, induction of the Fergusson reflex or the conscious decision to leave a retained foetus until it is expelled voluntarily, are key elements in elephant obstetrics. Surgical strategies such as episiotomy and foetotomy are sometimes inevitable in order to try to save the life of the dam, however, these interventions result in chronic post-surgical complications or even fatal outcome. Limited reliable data on serum calcium concentrations, and pharmacokinetics and effect of exogenous oestrogen, oxytocin, and prostaglandins during birth provide the scope of future research, necessary to advance scientific knowledge on obstetrics in elephants

Hollister-Smith, J.A., Alberts, S.C., Rasmussen, L.E.L., 2008. Do male African elephants, Loxodonta africana, signal musth via urine dribbling? Animal Behavior 76, 1829-1841.
Abstract: The phenomenon of musth in male elephants involves increased sexual activity, heightened aggression and nearly continuous dribbling of pungent smelling urine. Urine chemistry during musth is altered, suggesting that urine may signal the musth status of the individual. Signalling musth remotely may benefit individuals if it reduces the likelihood of physical confrontation between males, which can lead to injury and even death. Few studies, however, have asked whether and how male elephants respond to urine of other males. We tested two predictions of the hypothesis that urine signals musth status to male conspecifics: (1) that male African elephants differentiate musth and nonmusth urine, and (2) that males differentiate between urine dribbled during early and late musth. The second prediction stems from the observation that males lose weight and presumably body condition during musth. We conducted two related bioassays with 26 captive nonmusth males ranging from 13 to 52 years of age. In each assay, subjects were simultaneously presented with three urine samples (nonmusth, early musth, late musth), each from a different donor male, and a control. We found that subjects differentiated between musth and nonmusth samples using their vomeronasal organ system, but did not discriminate between the samples using their main olfactory system. Males did not differentiate early from late musth. In addition, we found that subject contextual factors, specifically age, dominance status and social grouping, significantly predicted response. We discuss these results within the framework of male elephant longevity and social relationships and their importance to reproductive success.

Hynes, J.G., 2008. Discussion on treatment of captive elephants continues. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 233, 1396.

Kislak, P., 2008. Thoughts on AVMA policy on elephant guides and tethers. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 233, 550-551.

Menargues, A., Urios, V., Mauri, M., 2008. Welfare assessment of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) using salivary cortisol measurement. Animal Welfare 17, 305-312.
Abstract: The measurement of salivary cortisol allows non-invasive assessment of welfare in captive animals. We utilised this technique to test the effect of zoo opening on six Asian elephants and two Indian rhinoceros at the Terra Natura Zoological Park, Alicante, Spain, during pre-opening, opening and post-opening periods. Salivary cortisol concentrations were found to be significantly higher during the opening period than during pre- and post-opening periods for both species. This method could prove a useful tool in monitoring the success of decisions taken to improve the welfare of captive animals.

Meyers, D.A., Isaza, R., MacNeill, A. Evaluation of acute phase proteins for diagnosis of inflammation in Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus). Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  128. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: In many domestic species, routine hematology assays are useful diagnostic tools to diagnose inflammatory conditions. Unlike other species, these hematologic tests apparently are insensitive indicators of inflammation in elephants.1 We studied a novel group of blood proteins, called acute phase proteins, which increase during inflammatory conditions, for their usefulness in diagnosing elephants with inflammatory diseases. Although these proteins currently are useful in humans and domestic animals, each species has a different set of important proteins that must be individually investigated.2 We tested several acute phase proteins (C-reactive protein, alpha-1 glycoprotein, alpha-1 antitrypsin, serum amyloid A, haptoglobin, fibrinogen, ceruloplasmin, and albumin) as well as complete blood counts, chemistry panels, serum protein electrophoresis, and 3-D gel electrophoresis to determine their usefulness for diagnosing different types of inflammatory conditions in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Animals with inflammatory conditions were classified as those individuals with known illnesses such as mycobacteriosis, arthritis, nail bed abscesses, and malignant tumors. Control animals were thoseanimals that were suspected to not have any inflammation and be healthy at the time of testing as determined by physical examination and obtaining a thorough medical history.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Lyashchenko, K., R. Greenwald, J. Esfandiari, J. Olsen, R. Ball, G. Dumonceaux, F. Dunker, C. Buckley, M.
Richard, S. Murray, J.B. Payeur, P. Anderson, J.M. Pollock, S. Mikota, M. Miller, D. Sofranko, and W.R.
Waters. 2006. Tuberculosis in Elephants: Antibody responses to defined antigens of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, potential for early diagnosis, and monitoring of treatment. Clin. Vacc. Immunol. 13: 722-732.
2. Murata H., N. Shimada, M. Yoshioka. 2004. Current research on acute phase proteins in veterinary diagnosis:
an overview. Vet J. 168: 28-40.

Mikota, S.K., 2008. Tuberculosis in elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Current Therapy 6th edition. Saunders/Elsevier, St. Louis, pp. 355-364.

Miller, J., McClean, M. Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) after a single rectal dose. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  224-225. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Captive African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) are susceptible to many types of gram negative bacterial infections such as Escherichia coli, Mycoplasma  spp., Salmonella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. Enrofloxacin (Baytril®, Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee Mission, KS 66201) is a potentially effective antibiotic for
treatment of these bacterial infections in elephants. Very limited data exists on the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in elephants2 and most of the dosage regimes for gastrointestinal absorption are based on horse dosages since they share a similar  gastrointestinal tract. Three African elephants from Wildlife Safari in Winston, Oregon, two females both 37-yr-old and one male 26-yr-old, were used to determine whether therapeutic levels of enrofloxacin could be achieved thru rectal administration of liquid injectable enrofloxacin (Baytril 100®, 100 mg/ml, Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee Mission, KS 66201) at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg. A pretreatment baseline blood sample was collected. Following administration, blood samples were collected at 45 min, 1.5hr, 2.5hr, 5hr, 9hr, 23hr, 36hr to determine plasma enrofloxacin levels. Plasma enrofloxacin levels were measured at North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Plasma ciprofloxacin levels were measured concurrently. Results indicate plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin did not reach adequate bacteriocidal levels for any of the the following common bacterial isolates in captive elephants: Mycoplasma
spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. The study determined that a rectally administered dosage of 2.5 mg/kg of liquid injectable enrofloxacin was insufficient to obtain therapeutic levels in African elephants. The low plasma levels of enrofloxacin in all three elephants may be a result of poor absorption in the distal large intestine. A future study will determine if oral administration will provide a more efficient mode of drug delivery and absorption in African elephants. It is also possible that the current dosage of 2.5 mg/kg is too low to achieve adequate therapeutic levels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the elephant and veterinary staff at Wildlife Safari for their participation in conducting this study. Thanks to Doctors: Modesto McClean, Jason Bennett, Andi Chariffe, Tessa Lohe, Benji Alacantar. Also thanks to Dinah Wilson, Carol Matthews, Anthony Karels, Mary Iida, Shawn Finnell, Patches Stroud, Katie Alayan.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Haines, G.R., et. al. 2000. Serum concentrations and pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after intravenous and intragastric administration to mares. Can. J.Vet. Res. 64(3):171-177.
2. Sanchez, C.R., et. al. 2005. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of enrofloxacin administered orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Am. J. Vet. Res. 66:1948-1953.

Ramanathan, A., Mallapur, A., 2008. A visual health assessment of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) housed in India. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 39, 148-154.
Abstract: A visual health assessment and survey questionnaire was conducted on 81 Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) housed in 10 animal facilities throughout India between November 2004 and February 2005. The survey questionnaire consisted of 10 questions that evaluated the health of the elephants, and they were completed after visually assessing each individual elephant. The information collected was ranked on a scale that was used to statistically compare the health among the study subjects. This study documented that 43.21% of the captive elephants surveyed exhibited hyperkeratosis. A significant proportion of the elephants owned by tourist camps had poor skin condition when compared with elephants from zoos and at a forest camp. Similarly, captive-born individuals were found to have better skin condition than animals that were caught from the wild. Sixty (74.1%) of the captive elephants that were observed during this study had fissures in their footpads, 20% of which were severe. The prevalence of foot fissures was significantly higher in females. A greater proportion of elephants owned by tourist camps displayed vertical and horizontal toenail cracks in comparison with the forest camp and zoo elephants. It was noted that 76.9% of the wounded animals and 80% of those having abscesses were housed at temples and tourist camps. Also, approximately 8.5% of the captive elephant population observed during this study had eye-related problems, and they were all housed at temples and tourist camps. In conclusion, it was evident that elephants housed at temples or tourist camps exhibited poor skin condition with wounds and abscesses. These findings suggest that the overall condition of the elephants housed at tourist camps was poor compared with elephants housed at zoos and at the forest camp

Schmitt, D., Charmason, S., Wiedner, E. Use of luteinizing hormone ELISAs  in breeding elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  120-121. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Successful artificial insemination (AI) of elephants depends heavily on determining the unique luteinizing hormone (LH) surges that occur during the follicular phase of the elephant's estrous cycle. Natural breeding of elephants also can benefit from a rapid and accurate determination of the two LH surges found in elephants. There are three ELISAs available for determining the LH
surge; two are commercially-available assays and one is a laboratory in-house assay. Each vary in their cost, time to complete the assay, and ease of performing the procedures. Detection of the initial non-ovulatory peak in luteinizing hormone (LH1) is best accomplished by use of an in house LH assay, or use of the LH assay available from Dr. Nancy Dahl (UC-Davis, Davis, CA
95616 USA), both of which are quantitative assays for detection of LH. For cow-side use during estrus, the qualitative ELISA Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit (Symbiotics Corporation, Kansas City, MO 64163 USA) detects LH in elephants within 20 min. This assay requires a minimum of laboratory precision to detect the ovulatory LH peak (LH2).
Introduction
Elephants are the only species known to exhibit a double LH peak during a single estrous cycle.2,4 Increased success of artificial insemination in elephants occurred partly in response to the ability to detect the LH1 surge about 21 days prior to the ovulatory LH2 surge that occurs at the end of a two to three day estrus.1 The first reports regarding detection of the double LH
surges were performed in laboratories using custom ELISA technology that require exacting procedures and two days to complete the quantitative assays.2,4 A semi-quantitative elephant LH ELISA that can be performed in the field in about 2.5 hr was developed at UC-Davis.3 A qualitative LH assay was developed for use in dogs and cats that uses a latex strip ELISA. The time for development of the test is 20 min and detects a LH surge greater than 1 ng/ml using serum. Elephants have LH1 and LH2 surges in the 4-16 ng/ml range,2,4 well within the detectable range for all of the assays described. The detection of the LH1 peak usually is from daily samples submitted weekly; this allows some efficiency of assay resources and provides at least a two-wk notice of LH2. However, accurate and timely detection of LH2 is needed at least daily and at times twice daily during estrus. The use of an LH assay which can be performed 'cow-side' and accurately detect LH2 is essential for successful AI and can be helpful in determining estrus status for natural breeding. The Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit from Symbiotics was developed for use in dogs and cats, but is effective in other species, including elephants, and meets these requirements.
Discussion
Detection of LH1 provides information for predicting the LH2 surge and performance of assays that require more laboratory time and precision are useful since detection of LH1 is not as timesensitive as LH2 detection. Both of the quantitative assays have unique advantages. An inhouse assay can be set up, but requires greater preparation time, precision of laboratory procedures is more demanding, often takes two days to perform, and is more susceptible to environmental variables. The assay developed by UC-Davis costs about $5.00 per well, takes about 2.5 hr to perform and is more stable. However, for quantitative results the overhead costs of the standard curve requires about 16 wells ($90), plus two wells for each unknown sample. The UC-Davis assay can be set up as a qualitative test with high and low controls and no standard curve. This requires from three to six wells for a single sample. The Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit has a control built into each test strip and costs about $25.00 per sample. Because 'cow-side' testing possible using the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit, I recommend its use for detection of LH2, although the UC-Davis Elephant ELISA is competitively priced and can be performed in a nearby temporary laboratory. Because timing is
critical in detecting LH2 and performing subsequent AI, I recommend using the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit at the time of estrus, preceded by either one of the other assays for detecting LH1, depending on availability of laboratory labor and equipment.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Brown, J. L., F. Goritz, N. Pratt-Hawkes, R. Hermes, M. Galloway, L. H. Graham, C. Gray, S. L. Walker, A. Gomez, R. Moreland, S. Murray, D. L. Schmitt, J. G. Howard, J. Lehnhardt, B. Beck, A. Bellem, R. Montali, and T. B. Hildebrandt. 2004. Successful artificial insemination of an Asian elephant at the National Zoological Park. Zoo Biol. 23: 45-63.
2. Brown, J. L., D. L. Schmitt, A. Bellem, L. H. Graham, and J. Lehnhardt. 1999. Hormone secretion in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus): Characterization of ovulatory and anovulatory luteinizing hormone surges. Biol. Reprod. 61: 1294-1299.
3. Dahl, N. J., D. Olson, D. L. Schmitt, D. R. Blasko, R. S. Kristipati, and J. F. Roser. 2004. Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the elephant (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus). Zoo Biol. 23: 65-78.
4. Kapustin, N., J. K. Critser, D. Olson, and P. V. Malven. 1996. Nonluteal estrous cycles of 3-week duration are initiated by anovulatory luteinizing hormone peaks in African elephants. Biol. Reprod. 55:1147-1154.

Siegal-Willott, J., Isaza, R., Johnson, R., Blaik, M., 2008. Distal limb radiography, ossification, and growth plate closure in the juvenile Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 39, 320-334.
Abstract: Eleven juvenile Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were evaluated radiographically to determine the relative times of growth plate closure and phalangeal ossification in the bones of the distal forelimb. Specifically, the first, second, and third phalanges of the third digit (D3) were evaluated, as well as the third phalanx of digits 1, 2, 4, and 5. All elephants were healthy at the time of examination. A retrospective evaluation of radiographs from six of the 11 juvenile elephants was also completed to augment the data set. This study reports the methods used to obtain high-quality radiographs of the distal juvenile elephant limb, ossification characteristics of the phalanges, relative times of growth plate closure within the proximal phalanges of D3, and a method for age estimation based on radiographic findings. This study will help clinicians in conducting elephant foot radiography, in evaluating foot radiographs in juvenile elephants, in recognizing normal versus pathologic change, and in estimating juvenile elephant age based on radiographic ossification characteristics and growth plate closure times. Consistent use of the proposed foot radiograph technique is recommended to facilitate foot disease recognition and as part of the annual examination of captive Asian elephants

Slade-Cain, B.E., Rasmussen, L.E., Schulte, B.A., 2008. Estrous state influences on investigative, aggressive, and tail flicking behavior in captive female Asian elephants
78. Zoo. Biol. 27, 167-180.
Abstract: Females of species that live in matrilineal hierarchies may compete for temporally limited resources, yet maintain social harmony to facilitate cohesion. The relative degree of aggressive and nonaggressive interactions may depend on the reproductive condition of sender and receiver. Individuals can benefit by clearly signaling and detecting reproductive condition. Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) live in social matrilineal herds. Females have long estrous cycles (14-16 weeks) composed of luteal (8-12 weeks) and follicular (4-8 weeks) phases. In this study, we observed the behavior of four captive Asian elephant females during multiple estrous cycles over 2 years. We evaluated whether investigative, aggressive, and tail flicking behaviors were related to reproductive condition. Investigative trunk tip contacts showed no distinct pattern by senders, but were more prevalent toward female elephants that were in their follicular compared with their luteal phase. The genital area was the most frequently contacted region and may release reproductively related chemosignals. Aggression did not differ significantly with estrus; however, rates of aggression were elevated when senders were approaching ovulation and receivers were in the luteal phase. Females in the follicular phase may honestly advertise their condition. Contacts by conspecifics may serve to assess condition and reduce aggression. A behavior termed "tail flicking" was performed mainly during the mid-follicular phase when estrogen and luteinizing hormone levels are known to spike. Tail flicking may disperse chemical signals in urine or mucus as well as act as a tonic signal that could provide a means of anticipating forthcoming ovulation by elephants and also for human observers and caretakers. Zoo Biol 27:167-180, 2008. (c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Steenkamp, G., Ferguson, W.H., Boy, S.C., Ferreira, S.M., Bester, M.N., 2008. Estimating exposed pulp lengths of tusks in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana). J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 79, 25-30.
Abstract: Captive and wild African elephants frequently suffer tusk fractures. Several institutions shorten the tusks of captive elephants to reduce fractures and injury as a result of behaviour within enclosures. Fracturing or coronal amputations that expose pulp lead to pain for the elephant. Estimating coronal pulp lengths may thus help to minimise the risk of pulp exposure during amputations. We aimed to determine the length of the pulp beyond the lip margin from an external tusk characteristic. Tusks collected from elephants in Namibia and the Kruger National Park had similar morphological relationships. This statistical property allowed us to correct for missing data in our data sets. Pulp volume and pulp length correlated with tusk circumference at the lip. Even so, the circumference at the lip could not predict the length of the pulp in the crown external to the lip. Our findings suggest that tusks, irrespective of sex or age, amputated further than 300 mm from the lip should not expose pulp

Steinmetz, H.W., Eulenberger, U., Hatt, J.M. Daily clinical examinations in a herd of captive asian elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  124. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The captive population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is not self-sustaining.2 Poor reproduction and high juvenile mortality are key factors in the decreasing population. Infection with endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV) is one of the major causes of death in the captive population, and has resulted in the loss of at least 40 captive animals.1 EEHV has been
responsible for the peracute death of two juvenile males at Zurich Zoo, Switzerland. Mortality due to peracute infection with EEHV mainly is seen in juveniles. Early detection of characteristic clinical signs of EEHV and immediate initiation of therapy are of crucial
importance due to its rapid progression. Based on past fatal EEHV experiences, Zurich Zoo modified its daily clinical health monitoring program to increase staff awareness of EEHV infection. Examinations have been incorporated into the daily routine and include daily evaluation of behaviour, appetite, colour of mucosal membranes and the measurement of body temperature; these examinations are performed by keepers. In our experiences, characteristic signs of acute EEHV infection are lethargy, anorexia, mild
colic, and cyanosis of the mucosal membranes. Results of temperature measurements have shown that best estimations of body temperature are done by measurement of the temperature in the centre of a fecal ball 5-9 min after defecation. Mean values of 36.5°C (± 0.2°C SD) are within published reference values, although adult elephants have shown significantly lower body temperature than juveniles. Establishment of individual reference values for each elephant is essential to detect unusual temperature peaks that may indicate possible EEHV viremia. The present study has shown that daily health examinations increase the awareness of keepers for
early signs of EEHV infection (e.g., peaks in body temperature and cyanotic mucosal membranes).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank B. Aeschbach and all elephant keepers for taking special care of our elephants. The work and organization of Ms. G. Hürlimann is gratefully appreciated.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S. 2007. Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV). http://www.elephantcare.org/herpes.htm. cited: 10.04.2008:
2. Wiese, R. J. 2000. Asian elephants are not self-sustaining in North America. Zoo Biol. 19: 299-309.

van der Kolk, J.H., van Leeuwen, J.P., van den Belt, A.J., van Schaik, R.H., Schaftenaar, W., 2008. Subclinical hypocalcaemia in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 162, 475-479.
Abstract: The hypothesis that hypocalcaemia may play a role in dystocia in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) was investigated. The objectives of the study were to measure the total calcium concentration in elephant plasma; assess the changes in parameters of calcium metabolism during a feeding trial; investigate a possible relationship between calcium metabolism and dystocia; and assess bone mineralisation in captive Asian elephants in vivo. The following parameters were measured: total and ionised calcium, inorganic phosphorous and magnesium, the fractional excretions of these minerals, intact parathyroid hormone, 25-OH-D(3) and 1,25-OH-D(3). Radiographs were taken from tail vertebrae for assessment of bone mineralisation. The mean (sd) heparinised plasma total calcium concentration was 2.7 (0.33) mmol/l (n=43) ranging from 0.84 to 3.08 mmol/l in 11 Asian elephants. There was no significant correlation between plasma total calcium concentration and age. Following feeding of a calcium rich ration to four captive Asian elephant cows, plasma total and ionised calcium peaked at 3.6 (0.24) mmol/l (range 3.4 to 3.9 mmol/l) and 1.25 (0.07) mmol/l (range 1.17 to 1.32 mmol/l), respectively. Plasma ionised calcium concentrations around parturition in four Asian elephant cows ranged from 0.37 to 1.1 mmol/l only. The present study indicates that captive Asian elephants might be hypocalcaemic, and that, in captive Asian elephants, the normal plasma concentration of total calcium should actually be around 3.6 mmol/l and normal plasma concentration of ionised calcium around 1.25 mmol/l. Given the fact that elephants absorb dietary calcium mainly from the intestine, it could be concluded that elephants should be fed calcium-rich diets at all times, and particularly around parturition. In addition, normal values for ionised calcium in captive Asian elephants should be reassessed

Aroch, I., King, R., Baneth, G., 2007. Hematology and serum biochemistry values of trapped, healthy, free-ranging rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) and their association with age, sex, and gestational status. Vet. Clin. Pathol. 36, 40-48.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: The rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) is an herbivore prevalent from South Africa to Turkey, and a most common zoo animal. Although many studies of hyrax diseases and physiology are available, clinicopathologic data are limited. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to establish comprehensive hematologic and biochemical reference intervals for trapped, apparently healthy, free-ranging rock hyraxes using modern laboratory methods and to assess differences related to sex, gestation, and age. METHODS: Blood samples were obtained from 27 healthy, free-ranging hyraxes under anesthesia. Gender, body weight, and gestational status were recorded. Hematologic (n = 25) and serum biochemical (n = 22) analyses were performed using standard automated methodology. Data for male vs female, adult vs juvenile, and pregnant vs nonpregnant female hyraxes were compared using the Mann-Whitney U-test. Associations between variables were assessed using Pearson's or Spearman rank correlation tests. RESULTS: Significant age- and sex-related, but not gestation-related differences were observed in several variables. Serum alkaline phosphatase activity and phosphorus concentration were significantly higher in juveniles compared with adults. A unique type of monocyte comprised 1-3% of leukocytes in 4 hyraxes. Markedly high serum creatine kinase (CK) activity was observed in most hyraxes. CONCLUSIONS: The large number of animals and the availability of sex, age, and gestational data in this study will be useful to zoo and wildlife veterinarians working with rock hyraxes. High serum concentrations of betahydroxybutyric acid in the rock hyrax, compared with dogs, cats, and ruminants, may be related to its unique digestive system. High CK activity may have been the result of a capture myopathy-like syndrome. The unique monocytes in hyraxes resemble those of elephants and are a novel finding in this species

Bechert, U., Christensen, J.M., 2007. Pharmacokinetics of orally administered ibuprofen in African and Asian elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus). Zoo Wildl Med 38, 258-268.
Abstract: The pharmacokinetic parameters of S(+) and R(-) ibuprofen were determined in 20 elephants after oral administration of preliminary 4-, 5-, and 6-mg/kg doses of racemic ibuprofen. Following administration of 4 mg/kg ibuprofen, serum concentrations of ibuprofen peaked at 5 hr at 3.9 +/- 2.07 microg/ml R(-) and 10.65 +/- 5.64 microg/ml S(+) (mean +/- SD) in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and at 3 hr at 5.14 +/- 1.39 microg/ml R(-) and 13.77 +/- 3.75 microg/ml S(+) in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), respectively. Six-milligram/kilogram dosages resulted in peak serum concentrations of 5.91 +/- 2.17 microg/ml R(-) and 14.82 +/- 9.71 microg/ml S(+) in African elephants, and 5.72 +/- 1.60 microg/ml R(-) and 18.32 +/- 10.35 microg/ml S(+) in Asian elephants. Ibuprofen was eliminated with first-order kinetics characteristic of a single-compartment model with a half-life of 2.2-2.4 hr R(-) and 4.5-5.1 hr S(+) in African elephants and 2.4-2.9 hr R(-) and 5.9-7.7 hr S(+) in Asian elephants. Serum concentrations of R(-) ibuprofen were undetectable at 24 hr, whereas S(+) ibuprofen decreased to below 5 microg/ml 24 hr postadministration in all elephants. The volume of distribution was estimated to be between 322 and 356 ml/kg R(-) and 133 and 173 ml/kg S(+) in Asian elephants and 360-431 ml/kg R(-) and 179-207 ml/kg S(+) in African elephants. Steady-state serum concentrations of ibuprofen ranged from 2.2 to 10.5 microg/ml R(-) and 5.5 to 32.0 microg/ml S(+)
(mean: 5.17 +/- 0.7 R(-) and 13.95 +/- 0.9 S(+) microg/ml in African elephants and 5.0 +/- 1.09 microg/ml R(-) and 14.1 +/- 2.8 microg/ml S(+) in Asian elephants). Racemic ibuprofen administered at 6 mg/kg/12 hr for Asian elephants and at 7 mg/kg/12 hr for African elephants results in therapeutic serum concentrations of this antiinflammatory agent.

Brown, J.L., Somerville, M., Riddle, H.S., Keele, M., Duer, C.K., Freeman, E.W., 2007. Comparative endocrinology of testicular, adrenal and thyroid function in captive Asian and African elephant bulls. Gen. Comp Endocrinol. 151, 153-162.
Abstract: Concentrations of serum testosterone, cortisol, thyroxine (free and total T4), triiodothyronine (free and total T3) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) were measured to assess adrenal and thyroid function as they relate to testicular activity and musth in captive elephants. Blood samples were collected approximately weekly from Asian (n=8) and African (n=12) bulls at seven facilities for periods of 4 months to 9.5 years. Age ranges at study onset were 8-50 years for Asian and 10-21 years for African elephants. Based on keeper logs, seven Asian and three African bulls exhibited behavioral and/or physical (temporal gland secretion, TGS, or urine dribbling, UD) signs of musth, which lasted 2.8+/-2.5 months in duration. Serum testosterone was elevated during musth, with concentrations often exceeding 100 ng/ml. Patterns of testosterone secretion and musth varied among bulls with no evidence of seasonality (P>0.05). Only three bulls at one facility exhibited classic, well-defined yearly musth cycles. Others exhibited more irregular cycles, with musth symptoms often occurring more than once a year. A number of bulls (1 Asian, 9 African) had consistently low testosterone (<10 ng/ml) and never exhibited significant TGS or UD. At facilities with multiple bulls (n=3), testosterone concentrations were highest in the oldest, most dominant male. There were positive correlations between testosterone and cortisol for six of seven Asian and all three African males that exhibited musth (range, r=0.23-0.52; P<0.05), but no significant correlations for bulls that did not (P>0.05). For the three bulls that exhibited yearly musth cycles, TSH was positively correlated (range, r=0.22-0.28; P<0.05) and thyroid hormones (T3, T4) were negatively correlated (range, r=-0.25 to -0.47; P<0.05) to testosterone secretion. In the remaining bulls, there were no clear relationships between thyroid activity and musth status. Overall mean testosterone and cortisol concentrations increased with age for all bulls combined, whereas thyroid activity declined. In summary, a number of bulls did not exhibit musth despite being of adequate physical maturity. Cortisol and testosterone were correlated in most bulls exhibiting musth, indicating a possible role for the adrenal gland in modulating or facilitating downstream responses. Data were generally inconclusive as to a role for thyroid hormones in male reproduction, but the finding of discrete patterns in bulls showing clear testosterone cycles suggests they may facilitate expression or control of musth in some individuals

Brown, J.L., Somerville, M., Riddle, H.S., Keele, M., Duer, C.K., Freeman, E.W., 2007. Comparative endocrinology of testicular, adrenal and thyroid function in captive Asian and African elephant bulls. General and Comparative Endocrinology 151, 153-162.
Abstract: Concentrations of serum testosterone, cortisol, thyroxine (free and total T4), triiodothyronine (free and total T3) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) were measured to assess adrenal and thyroid function as they relate to testicular activity and musth in captive elephants. Blood samples were collected approximately weekly from Asian (n = 8) and African (n = 12) bulls at seven facilities for periods of 4 months to 9.5 years. Age ranges at study onset were 8-50 years for Asian and 10-21 years for African elephants. Based on keeper logs, seven Asian and three African bulls exhibited behavioral and/or physical (temporal gland secretion, TGS, or urine dribbling, UD) signs of musth, which lasted 2.8 +/- 2.5 months in duration. Serum testosterone was elevated during musth, with concentrations often exceeding 100 ng/ml. Patterns of testosterone secretion and musth varied among bulls with no evidence of seasonality (P > 0.05). Only three bulls at one facility exhibited classic, well-defined yearly musth cycles. Others exhibited more irregular cycles, with musth symptoms often occurring more than once a year. A number of bulls (I Asian, 9 African) had consistently low testosterone (< 10 ng/ml) and never exhibited significant TGS or UD. At facilities with multiple bulls (n = 3), testosterone concentrations were highest in the oldest, most dominant male. There were positive correlations between testosterone and cortisol for six of seven Asian and all three African males that exhibited musth (range, r = 0.23-0.52; P < 0.05), but no significant correlations for bulls that did not (P > 0.05). For the three bulls that exhibited yearly musth cycles, TSH was positively correlated (range, r = 0.22-0.28; P < 0.05) and thyroid hormones (T3, T4) were negatively correlated (range, r = -0.25 to -0.47; P < 0.05) to testosterone secretion. In the remaining bulls, there were no clear relationships between thyroid activity and musth status. Overall mean testosterone and cortisol concentrations increased with age for all bulls combined, whereas thyroid activity declined. In summary, a number of bulls did not exhibit musth despite being of adequate physical maturity. Cortisol and testosterone were correlated in most bulls exhibiting musth, indicating a possible role for the adrenal gland in modulating or facilitating downstream responses. Data were generally inconclusive as to a role for thyroid hormones in male reproduction, but the finding of discrete patterns in bulls showing clear testosterone cycles suggests they may facilitate expression or control of musth in some individuals.

Dehnhard, M., 2007. Characterisation of the sympathetic nervous system of Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants based on urinary catecholamine analyses. Gen. Comp Endocrinol. 151, 274-284.
Abstract: Assessing the welfare status of captive animals using non-invasive measurements of hormones is of growing interest because this can serve as an effective tool to facilitate the optimization of environmental and husbandry conditions. Both the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) exhibit extremely low breeding success in captivity, and because elevated levels of stress may negatively influence reproductive functions, this study sought to establish a method for assessing sympathoadrenal activity in captive female elephants. We found a circadian variation in urinary noradrenaline (norepinephrine, NE), adrenaline (epinephrine, Epi) and dopamine (DA) under short day length. Peak activity of noradrenaline and dopamine was noted at 3 a.m. Adrenaline showed a biphasic pattern with a minor peak recorded at 3 a.m. and a major peak 9 a.m. Under long-day photoperiodic conditions, simultaneous peaks of noradrenaline and adrenaline were again noted at 3 a.m. whereas dopamine does not appear to have a distinct circadian pattern under long-day length. A transfer of two elephant cows resulted in a marked increase in urinary adrenaline and noradrenaline levels, confirming that the transfer represented a stressful event. During the peripartal period, noradrenaline concentrations increased and maximum concentrations were obtained at delivery. Daily measurements of urinary dopamine throughout the follicular phase revealed an increase in dopamine secretion close to ovulation. This increase might indicate a role of dopamine in the ovulatory mechanisms. These results suggest that changes in urinary catecholamine excretion reflect fluctuations in sympathoadrenal activity and may be a useful indicator of stress

Duer, C., Carden, M., Tomasi, T., 2007. Detection of fetal gender differences in maternal serum progesterone concentrations of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
486. Anim Reprod. Sci. 97, 278-283.
Abstract: Previous studies have analyzed total testosterone concentrations in maternal serum for a reliable method of fetal gender determination in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). The present study investigated the possibility that progesterone concentrations in maternal serum may reflect these testosterone patterns. Weekly serum samples were collected from 17 pregnancies in captive Asian elephants and analyzed via radioimmunoassay (RIA) for progesterone concentrations. Nine and eight cows carried male and female calves, respectively. Mean progesterone concentrations in maternal serum of elephants carrying male calves were greater than in those carrying female calves (P<0.01). Mean progesterone concentrations (based on 5-week means) in maternal serum were greater at weeks 20-55 (P<0.01) and 60-65 (P<0.05) for elephants carrying male calves

Hildebrandt, T., Drews, B., Gaeth, A.P., Goeritz, F., Hermes, R., Schmitt, D., Gray, C., Rich, P., Streich, W.J., Short, R.V., Renfree, M.B., 2007. Foetal age determination and development in elephants. Proc. Biol. Sci. 274, 323-331.
Abstract: Elephants have the longest pregnancy of all mammals, with an average gestation of around 660 days, so their embryonic and foetal development have always been of special interest. Hitherto, it has only been possible to estimate foetal ages from theoretical calculations based on foetal mass. The recent development of sophisticated ultrasound procedures for elephants has now made it possible to monitor the growth and development of foetuses of known gestational age conceived in captivity from natural matings or artificial insemination. We have studied the early stages of pregnancy in 10 captive Asian and 9 African elephants by transrectal ultrasound. Measurements of foetal crown-rump lengths have provided the first accurate growth curves, which differ significantly from the previous theoretical estimates based on the cube root of foetal mass. We have used these to age 22 African elephant foetuses collected during culling operations. Pregnancy can be first recognized ultrasonographically by day 50, the presumptive yolk sac by about day 75 and the zonary placenta by about day 85. The trunk is first recognizable by days 85-90 and is distinct by day 104, while the first heartbeats are evident from around day 80. By combining ultrasonography and morphology, we have been able to produce the first reliable criteria for estimating gestational age and ontological development of Asian and African elephant foetuses during the first third of gestation.

Kirkpatrick, J.F., 2007. Measuring the effects of wildlife contraception: the argument for comparing apples with oranges. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 19, 548-552.
Abstract: There are few wildlife populations existing today that can be supported without some form of management. Wildlife fertility control, as one option, has moved from the research stage to actual application with a number of species, including wild horses, urban deer, captive exotic species and even African elephants, but this approach remains controversial in many quarters. Strident debate has arisen over the possible effects of contraception on behaviour, genetics, stress and even management economics, among other parameters. Part of the debate arises from the fact that critics often fail to recognise that some form of alternative management will be applied, and a second problem arises when critics fail to identify and demand the same concern for the consequences of the alternative management approaches. Thus, any rational debate on the merits or possible effects of contraceptive management of wildlife must also recognise all alternative management approaches and apply the same concern and questions to these alternative approaches--including 'no management'--as are currently being applied to fertility control. Only then will the stewards of wildlife be in a position to make wise and informed decisions about management options

Lacasse, C., Terio, K., Kinsel, M.J., Farina, L.L., Travis, D.A., Greenwald, R., Lyashchenko, K.P., Miller, M., Gamble, K.C., 2007. Two cases of atypical mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium szulgai associated with mortality in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 38, 101-107.
Abstract: Mycobacterium szulgai was associated with mortality in two captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed at Lincoln Park Zoo. The first elephant presented with severe, acute lameness of the left rear limb. Despite extensive treatments, the animal collapsed and died 13 mo after initial presentation. Necropsy revealed osteomyelitis with loss of the femoral head and acetabulum and pulmonary granulomas with intralesional M. szulgai. The second elephant collapsed during transport to another institution with no premonitory clinical signs. This animal was euthanized because of prolonged recumbency. Granulomatous pneumonia with intralesional M. szulgai was found at necropsy. Two novel immunoassays performed on banked serum samples detected antibody responses to mycobacterial antigens in both infected elephants. It was not possible to determine when the infection was established or how the elephants were infected. When reviewing the epidemiology of this organism in humans, however, transmission between elephants seemed unlikely because human-to-human transmission of this organism has never been reported and a third elephant in the herd was not affected. In addition to Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterial organisms need to be considered potentially pathogenic in elephants

Mahmood, I., 2007. Application of allometric principles for the prediction of pharmacokinetics in human and veterinary drug development. Adv Drug Deliv Rev  2007 Aug 16; [Epub ahead of print].
Abstract: The concept of correlating pharmacokinetic parameters with body weight (termed as pharmacokinetic interspecies scaling) from different animal species has become a useful tool in drug development. Interspecies scaling is based on the power function, where the body weight of the species is plotted against the pharmacokinetic parameter of interest. Clearance, volume of distribution, and elimination half-life are the three most frequently extrapolated pharmacokinetic parameters. The predicted pharmacokinetic parameter clearance can be used for estimating a first-in-human dose. Over the years, many approaches have been suggested to improve the prediction of aforementioned pharmacokinetic parameters in humans from animal data. A literature review indicates that there are different degrees of success with different methods for different drugs. Interspecies scaling is also a very useful tool in veterinary medicine. The knowledge of pharmacokinetics in veterinary medicine is important for dosage selection, particularly in the treatment of large animals such as horses, camels, elephants, or other large zoo animals. Despite the potential for extrapolation error, the reality is that interspecies scaling is needed across many veterinary practice situations, and therefore will be used. For this reason, it is importantto consider mechanisms for reducing the risk of extrapolation errors that can seriously affect animal safety and therapeutic response. Overall, although interspecies scaling requires continuous refinement and better understanding, the rationale approach of interspecies scaling has a lot of potential during the drug development process.

Maple, T.L., 2007. Toward a science of welfare for animals in the zoo. J Appl Anim Welf Sci 10, 63-70.
Abstract: Although the accredited institutions of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums have all committed to enhancing the welfare of nonhuman animals, acceptable standards and best practices are still under debate. Currently, experts from zoos and the field hold widely divergent opinions about exhibition and management standards for elephants. Standards and practices for managing nonhuman primates provide a model for other nonhuman creatures exhibited in zoos and aquariums. Examining the key issues for primates demonstrates the value of applying scientific data before promulgating standards. The field of applied behavior analysis provides a wealth of information to frame the debate. Animal behaviorists have contributed to an emerging science of animal welfare, which may provide a foundation for empirical zoo management, standards, and practices.

Maple, T.L., 2007. Toward a science of welfare for animals in the zoo. J. Appl. Anim Welf. Sci. 10, 63-70.
Abstract: Although the accredited institutions of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums have all committed to enhancing the welfare of nonhuman animals, acceptable standards and best practices are still under debate. Currently, experts from zoos and the field hold widely divergent opinions about exhibition and management standards for elephants. Standards and practices for managing nonhuman primates provide a model for other nonhuman creatures exhibited in zoos and aquariums. Examining the key issues for primates demonstrates the value of applying scientific data before promulgating standards. The field of applied behavior analysis provides a wealth of information to frame the debate. Animal behaviorists have contributed to an emerging science of animal welfare, which may provide a foundation for empirical zoo management, standards, and practices

Meller, C.L., Croney, C.C., Shepherdson, D., 2007. Effects of rubberized flooring on Asian elephant behavior in captivity. Zoo. Biol. 26, 51-61.
Abstract: Six Asian elephants at the Oregon Zoo were observed to determine the effects of a poured rubber flooring substrate on captive Asian elephant behavior. Room utilization also was evaluated in seven rooms used for indoor housing, including Front and Back observation areas. Data were collected in three phases. Phase I (Baseline Phase) examined elephant behavior on old concrete floors. In Phase II (Choice Phase), elephant behavior was observed in the Back observation area where room sizes were comparable and when a choice of flooring substrates was available. Phase III (Final Phase) examined elephant behavior when all rooms in both observation areas, Front and Back, were converted to rubberized flooring. Room use in both observation areas remained stable throughout the study, suggesting that flooring substrate did not affect room use choice. However, there was a clear pattern of decreased discomfort behaviors on the new rubber flooring. Normal locomotion as well as stereotypic locomotion increased on the new rubber flooring. In addition, resting behavior changed to more closely reflect the resting behavior of wild elephants, which typically sleep standing up, and spend very little time in lateral recumbence. Overall, these findings suggest that the rubber flooring may have provided a more comfortable surface for locomotion as well as standing resting behavior. It is suggested that poured rubber flooring may be a beneficial addition to similar animal facilities. Zoo Biol 0:1-11, 2007. (c) 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Millspaugh, J.J., Burke, T., van Dyk, G., Slotow, R., Washburn, B.E., Woods, R.J., 2007. Stress Response of Working African Elephants to Transportation and   Safari Adventures. Journal of Wildlife Management 71, 1257-1260.
Abstract: African elephants (/Loxodonta africana/) are intensively managed in southern Africa and are routinely translocated between reserves. Domesticated elephants are used for elephant-back safaris and interactions with guests. Understanding how elephants respond to such activities is critical because of welfare issues associated with both humans and elephants. We investigated the stress response (i.e., fecal glucocorticoid metabolite secretion [FGM]) of working elephants in Letsatsing Game Reserve, South Africa, over 1 year to evaluate their response to transportation and ecotourism activities. We used free-ranging elephants in adjacent Pilanesburg National Park as controls. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites were greatest prior to and during translocation and declined over the year. Within 1–2 months of transportation, FGM levels in working elephants became indistinguishable from those in wild elephants. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels were higher during human interaction days than days without interaction. The highest observed FGM levels were associated with transportation and episodic loud noises. Transportation is a stressful activity for elephants, and ?3 months should be provided to translocated elephants to acclimate to their new surroundings. Although stress levels of elephants increased slightly when interacting with humans in the contexts we studied, evaluating interactions under a wider range of contexts is necessary to minimize danger to elephants and humans.

Portas, T., Bryant, B., Goritz, F., Hermes, R., Keeley, T., Evans, G., Maxwell, M., Hildebrand, T., 2007. Semen collection in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) under combined physical and chemical restraint. Aust Vet J 85, 425-427.

Schulte, B.A., Freeman, E.W., Goodwin, T.E., Hollister-Smith, J., Rasmussen, L.E.L., 2007. Honest signalling through chemicals by elephants with applications for care and conservation. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 102, 344-363.
Abstract: Chemical signals are difficult to fake because they are often directly associated with phenotype and physiological condition, and hence likely to be honest signals for intraspecific communication. Chemical signals may be modified after release by the sender or by the environment. The proximate and ultimate signal meanings are dependent not only on the condition of the sender, but also on the physiological status of the receiver. Understanding the relationships and linkage among signal modality, signal function and receiver response is an essential first step before using natural signals for animal care and conservation. Our studies on chemical communication in Asian and African elephants combine observational and experimental work in captive and wild settings to further this understanding. Recent discoveries of pheromones in Asian elephants and the biochemistry of these compounds provide strong evidence that such chemical signals are honest indicators of reproductive status. Chemically identifying the signals and verifying their functional context with statistically robust behavioural studies are essential aspects for understanding the communication system. Additionally, the investigative process of discovering, identifying and verifying the function of chemical signals among captive elephants offers safe and stimulating enrichments. The knowledge garnered from such studies has potential conservation benefits for managing wild elephant populations. A firm foundation of scientific information is required for successful behavioural investigations and applied conservation and enrichment components.

Sreekumar, E., Janki, M.B., Arathy, D.S., Hariharan, R., Premraj, C.A., Rasool, T.J., 2007. Molecular characterization and expression of interferon-gamma of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 118, 75-83.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterial organisms has emerged as one of the major diseases in captive elephants. In vitro Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) assay is being used as an ancillary test for early detection of TB in domestic and captive wild animals. In the present study, basic sequence information and immunological cross-reactivity of this major cytokine of Asian elephants were explored. At predicted amino acid level, IFN-gamma of Asian elephant showed maximum identity to that of horse (73%). Other IFN-gamma amino acid sequences that showed high level identity were that of giant panda (72%), dog (71%), nine-banded armadillo (69%), cattle (63%) and human (62%). IFN-gamma promoter sequences of Asian elephant, human, cattle and mouse showed high level conservation of the putative transcription factor binding sites, TATA box and transcriptional start site. The functionally important human IFN-gamma promoter elements, such as AP-2IRE-BE, YY1-gammaIFN-BED, ATFCS and AP-1gammaINF binding sites, were absolutely conserved in the corresponding elephant sequence. There was only a single nucleotide variation in the other two important elements, NFAT-gammaINF and IFN-gammaPE, indicating the highly conserved regulation of IFN-gamma expression across different species. Phylogenetic analysis based on IFN-gamma protein sequences revealed a closer relation of Asian elephants and nine-banded armadillo. This shows a closer evolution of these members of Afrotheria and Xenarthra, respectively; and supports the previous reports based on mitochondrial DNA studies. In Western blot analysis, IFN-gamma of Asian elephant expressed in Escherichia coli was detected using an anti-bovine IFN-gamma monoclonal antibody, indicating immunological cross-reactivity

Stoeger-Horwath, A.S., Stoeger, S., Schwammer, H.M., Kratochvil, H., 2007. Call repertoire of infant African elephants: first insights into the early vocal ontogeny. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 121, 3922-3931.
Abstract: African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) have a complex acoustic communication system, but very little is known about their vocal ontogeny. A first approach in ontogenetic studies is to define the call repertoire of specific age groups. Twelve hundred calls of 11 infant elephants from neonatal to 18 months of age recorded at the Vienna Zoo in Austria and at the Daphne Sheldrick's orphanage at the Nairobi National Park, Kenya were analyzed. Six call types were structurally distinguished: the rumble, the bark, the grunt, the roar (subdivided into a noisy-, tonal-, and mixed-roar), the snort, and the trumpet. Generally, within-call-type variation was high in all individuals. In contrast to adult elephants, the infants showed no gender-dependent variation in the structure or in the number of call types produced. Male infants, however, were more vocally adamant in their suckle behavior than females. These results give a first insight to the early vocal ontogeny and should promote further ontogenetic studies on elephants. Due to their vocal learning ability in combination with the complex fission-fusion society, elephants could be an interesting model to study the role of imitation in the vocal ontogeny of a nonprimate terrestrial mammal

Une, Y., Mori, T., 2007. Tuberculosis as a zoonosis from a veterinary perspective. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis Aug 13; [Epub ahead of print].
Abstract: Tuberculosis is an important disease among many zoonoses, because both Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis, which are the major causes of tuberculosis, are highly pathogenic, infect many animal species and thus are likely to be the source of infection in humans. In particular, monkeys are highly susceptible to these bacteria and are important spreaders. Recently, two outbreaks of M. tuberculosis occurred in four different kinds of monkeys and humans were also infected with the disease in Japan. In zoos, tuberculosis was reported not only in monkeys, but also in several different kinds of animals, including elephants. Pets such as dogs and cats are believed to be generally less susceptible to M. tuberculosis, but in this article we introduce a case of infection from man to dog by close contact. Japan is one of the few countries that have been able to control M. bovis infection. In other countries, however, cases of bovine tuberculosis and human M. bovis infection have been reported, and thus further attention is still required in the future.

Aspegran, S. Future keeping of elephants at Heidelberg Zoo. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  241. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Bagley, K.R., Goodwin, T.E., Rasmussen, L.E.L., Schulte, B.A., 2006. Male African elephants, Loxodonta africana, can distinguish oestrous status via urinary signals. Animal Behaviour 71, 1445.
Abstract: African elephants are a polygynous species that raise offspring in a matriarchal society. Unlike females, males disperse, spend time in mate groups and search for mates when mature. Urinary chemical signals aid males in detecting reproductively active females. A preovulatory pheromone has been identified in Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, but has not yet been experimentally identified in African elephants. In this study, the goal was to determine whether adult captive male African elephants can distinguish between urine from conspecific females in luteal and periovulatory oestrous stages as an indication that a preovulatory pheromone is released in the urine. Urine was collected from seven different female African elephants during their luteal and periovulatory periods of oestrus. Bioassays were conducted with nine adult male elephants housed at six different facilities. Males were presented with the two urine types and a control sample once a day over 3 days to reduce sample novelty, which can result in misleadingly high responses. All mates showed greater chemosensory responses to the periovulatory urine by trial 3 with the ability to distinguish the urines increasing over the 3 days. This is the first experimental behavioural evidence that African elephants release an oestrous pheromone in the urine. The ability of the captive male elephants to discern between the two urine types bolsters the hypothesis that there is a preovulatory pheromone in African elephants and encourages efforts to identify it.

Ball, R., Dumonceaux, G., Olsen, J., Burton, M.S., 2006. Comparison of trunk wash results matched to Multiantigen Print Immunoassay (MAPIA) in a group of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Proceedings International Elephant Conservation and Research Symposium 242-243.

Ball, R.L., Dumonceaux, G., Olsen, J.H., Burton, M.S., Lyashchenko, K. Comparison of trunk wash results matched to multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA) in a group of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  303-304. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Introduction: Between 1994 and June 2005, there were 34 confirmed cases of tuberculosis in elephants in the U.S. population. Thirty-one Asian (Elephas maximus) and three African (Loxodonta africana) elephants were affected. Mycobacterium tuberculosis was the etiologic agent in 33 cases and M. bovis in one case. Cases of tuberculosis caused by an unusual nontuberculous mycobacteria, M. szulgai have recently occurred as well.  Currently, TB in elephants remains a diagnostic dilemma. The sensitivity of trunk wash culture, the currently recommended test for diagnosis, is unknown. False negatives have been documented (trunk wash negative elephants that were subsequently found to be culture positive at necropsy).  Other non-culture techniques for TB diagnosis include ELISA, and PCR. A novel technology, MultiAntigen Print ImmunoAssay (MAPIA) and lateral-flow technology (Rapid Test)  has been evaluated and used to diagnose tuberculosis in captive elephants with encouraging results.  One concern with this serologic testing is the possibility of Mycobacterium other than tuberculosis (MOTT) cross-reacting with the antigen used in the Rapid Test or the MAPIA and leading to a false positive.  With numerous MOTT routinely cultured from trunk washes, this is a valid concern. Methods and Materials: A retrospective analysis was done at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay and Chembio, Inc. that matched trunk wash results to serum samples.  All serum was collected within 7 days of the trunk wash and analyzed with the Rapid Test and MAPIA. Four Asian elephants with a total of 18 samples met this criteria and had serum submitted for testing. Results and Discussion: Table 1 lists the results and the organisms cultured. While the sampling is limited in this pilot project, it appears that MOTT does not evoke a response when assayed with the Rapid Test or MAPIA. The recent cases of M. szulgai do demonstrate the potential usefulness for this test when a disease develops from MOTT.  The usefulness of this new technology, taken in conjunction with other clinical data including trunk washes when indicated, is a valuable tool in the healthcare of captive elephants.

LITERATURE CITED
1 Lacasse, C., K.C. Gamble, K. Terio, L.L. Farina, D.A. Travis, and M.Miller. 2005. Mycobacterium szulgai osteroarthritis and pneumonia in an African elephant (Loxdonta africana). Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Ann. Meet. Pp. 170-172.
2 Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J. Triantis.  2000.  Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in captive elephants.  J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31:291-302.
3 Lyashchenko, K., et al.  2000. A multiantigen print immunoassay for the serological diagnosis of infectious diseases.  J. Immunol. Methods  242:91-100
4 Lyashchenko, K., M. Miller, and  W.R. Waters. 2005. Application of multiple antigen print immunoassay and rapid lateral flow technology for tuberculosis testing of elephants. Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Ann. Meet.  Pp. 64-65

Ball, R.L., Fad, O. Serum cortisols in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in different management systems at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  244-247. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Baskaran, N., Das, S., Sukumar, R. Status and management of captive Asian elephants in northern West Bengal, northeastern India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  29-37. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Benz, A., Zenker, W., Hildebrandt, T.B., Weissengruber, G., Geyer, H. Recent findings about the macroscopic and microscopic morphology of the elephants hooves (Elephantidae). Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  38-41. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Bojesen, A.M., Olsen, K.E., Bertelsen, M.F., 2006. Fatal enterocolitis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile. Vet Microbiol Epub ahead of print.
Abstract: Two cases of fatal enteritis caused by Clostridium difficile in captive Asian elephants are reported from an outbreak affecting five females in the same zoo. Post mortem examination including histopathology demonstrated fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis. C. difficile was isolated by selective cultivation from two dead and a third severely affected elephant. Four isolates were obtained and found positive for toxin A and B by PCR. All isolates were positive in a toxigenic culture assay and toxin was demonstrated in the intestinal content from one of the fatal cases and in a surviving but severely affected elephant. PCR ribotyping demonstrated that the C. difficile isolates shared an identical profile, which was different from an epidemiologically unrelated strain, indicating that the outbreak was caused by the same C. difficile clone. It is speculated that the feeding of large quantities of broccoli, a rich source of sulforaphane, which has been shown to inhibit the growth of many intestinal microorganisms may have triggered a subsequent overgrowth by C. difficile. This is the first report of C. difficile as the main cause of fatal enterocolitis in elephants. The findings emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially dangerous for elephants and caution is recommended concerning antibiotic treatment and feeding with diets containing antimicrobials, which may trigger an expansion of a C. difficile population in the gut.

Bojesen, A.M., Olsen, K.E., Bertelsen, M.F., 2006. Fatal enterocolitis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile
456. Vet. Microbiol. 116, 329-335.
Abstract: Two cases of fatal enteritis caused by Clostridium difficile in captive Asian elephants are reported from an outbreak affecting five females in the same zoo. Post mortem examination including histopathology demonstrated fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis. C. difficile was isolated by selective cultivation from two dead and a third severely affected elephant. Four isolates were obtained and found positive for toxin A and B by PCR. All isolates were positive in a toxigenic culture assay and toxin was demonstrated in the intestinal content from one of the fatal cases and in a surviving but severely affected elephant. PCR ribotyping demonstrated that the C. difficile isolates shared an identical profile, which was different from an epidemiologically unrelated strain, indicating that the outbreak was caused by the same C. difficile clone. It is speculated that the feeding of large quantities of broccoli, a rich source of sulforaphane, which has been shown to inhibit the growth of many intestinal microorganisms may have triggered a subsequent overgrowth by C. difficile. This is the first report of C. difficile as the main cause of fatal enterocolitis in elephants. The findings emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially dangerous for elephants and caution is recommended concerning antibiotic treatment and feeding with diets containing antimicrobials, which may trigger an expansion of a C. difficile population in the gut

Brown, J.L., Somerville, M., Riddle, H.S., Keele, M., Duer, C. Comparative endocrinology of testicular and thyroid function in captive Asian and African elephant bulls. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  58-75. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Brown, J.L., Freeman, E., Duce, C. Update on the reproductive status of female Asian and African elephants in the SSP population of North America. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  48-57. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Clemins, P.J., Johnson, M.T., 2006. Generalized perceptual linear prediction features for animal vocalization analysis
431. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 120, 527-534.
Abstract: A new feature extraction model, generalized perceptual linear prediction (gPLP), is developed to calculate a set of perceptually relevant features for digital signal analysis of animal vocalizations. The gPLP model is a generalized adaptation of the perceptual linear prediction model, popular in human speech processing, which incorporates perceptual information such as frequency warping and equal loudness normalization into the feature extraction process. Since such perceptual information is available for a number of animal species, this new approach integrates that information into a generalized model to extract perceptually relevant features for a particular species. To illustrate, qualitative and quantitative comparisons are made between the species-specific model, generalized perceptual linear prediction (gPLP), and the original PLP model using a set of vocalizations collected from captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and wild beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas). The models that incorporate perceptional information outperform the original human-based models in both visualization and classification tasks

Dangolla, A., Ekanayake, D.K., Rajapakse, R.P., Dubey, J.P., Silva, I.D., 2006. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in captive elephants (Elephaus maximus maximus) in Sri Lanka
516. Veterinary Parasitology 137, 172-174.
Abstract: Serum samples collected during August 2003-June 2004 from 45 privately owned captive and 8 elephants from the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage were tested for the presence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii using the direct modified agglutination test (MAT). Antibodies were found in sera of 14 of 45 (32%) privately owned elephants with titers of 1:25 in three, 1:50 in three, 1:100 in three, 1:200 in three, and 1:400 in three elephants. The elephants from Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage were seronegative. This is the first report of T. gondii seroprevalence in elephants in Sri Lanka

Elzanowski, A., Sergiel, A., 2006. Stereotypic behavior of a female Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) in a zoo
381. J. Appl. Anim Welf. Sci. 9, 223-232.
Abstract: This study recorded daytime behavior of a female Asiatic elephant at the Municipal Zoo, Wroclaw, Poland, in both an indoor pen and an outdoor paddock as continuous scan sampling for 140 hr, over 35 days in 1 year. Stereotypic sequences involved bouts of highly repetitive stereotypic movements and much more variable interbout behavior. The study found both stereotypic movements, nodding and body (corpus) swaying, were asymmetric, accompanied by protraction of the right hind leg and to-and-fro swinging of the trunk. The elephant spent 52% of the daytime in stereotypic movements, 3.5 times the level reported for females in other zoos' groups. The share of time devoted to stereotypic behavior was lowest in the summer when the elephant was regularly released to the paddock and highest in the late fall after she had stayed in the pen after months of days outside. This suggests that changes in the management routine enhance stereotypies. Comparing the summer and winter stable management periods, stereotypies were much more frequent in the indoor pen than the outdoor paddock, suggesting that the confinement to a barren pen contributed to the observed levels of stereotypies

Ganguly, S., Rao, S., Varma, S. The crisis in captive elephant welfare and management in India: Report from an all-India survey. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  251. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Hildebrandt, T., Goeritz, F., Hermes, R., Schaftenaar, W., Drews, B. Dystocia - an increasing problem in captive breeding programs: Causes and treatment. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  92. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Hutchins, M., 2006. Death at the Zoo: The Media, Science, and Reality. Zoo Biology 25, 101-115.
Abstract: Media characterizations of zoo and aquarium animal deaths were randomly monitored on the internet for a 20-month period (September 2003-May 2005). Based on 148 samples collected, it was possible to classify articles into one of four categories, which were operationally defined: 1) dispassionate observers; 2) accusers; 3) sympathizers; and 4) balancers. In addition, with the notable exception of seven cases, all of the articles examined focused on large, charismatic mammals, such as gorillas, dolphins, lions, and elephants. Although a majority
of the articles examined (70.4%) were either dispassionate and objective or sympathetic, nearly a third (29.6%) were either accusatory or attempted to balance the accusatory statements of animal rights activists with sympathetic statements from zoo professionals. Recommendations are offered for how zoos should deal with the increasing media and public interest in zoo animal deaths, including: 1) a greater commitment to studying the reasons for mortality in a wide variety of species; and 2) an increased investment in record keeping and analysis,
which should allow zoos to calculate average life spans in animal populations and to monitor and assess the risk of certain lethal diseases on a real-time basis. Comparisons are drawn between zoo veterinary practices and human medicine, which are both inexact sciences. Suggestions are made for how the public and key decision-makers can distinguish between media reports on zoo animal deaths that are legitimate cause for concern vs. those that are sensationalist and meant to generate controversy and sell papers. A greater focus on the science of zoo animal death is necessary for accredited zoos to maintain the public's confidence in their animal care practices.

Hutchinson, J.R., Schwerda, D., Famini, D.J., Dale, R.H., Fischer, M.S., Kram, R., 2006. The locomotor kinematics of Asian and African elephants: changes with speed and size
410. J. Exp. Biol. 209, 3812-3827.
Abstract: For centuries, elephant locomotion has been a contentious and confusing challenge for locomotion scientists to understand, not only because of technical difficulties but also because elephant locomotion is in some ways atypical of more familiar quadrupedal gaits. We analyzed the locomotor kinematics of over 2400 strides from 14 African and 48 Asian elephant individuals (body mass 116-4632 kg) freely moving over ground at a 17-fold range of speeds, from slow walking at 0.40 m s(-1) to the fastest reliably recorded speed for elephants, 6.8 m s(-1). These data reveal that African and Asian elephants have some subtle differences in how size-independent kinematic parameters change with speed. Although elephants use a lateral sequence footfall pattern, like many other quadrupeds, they maintain this footfall pattern at all speeds, shifting toward a 25% phase offset between limbs (singlefoot) as they increase speed. The duty factors of elephants are greater for the forelimbs than for the hindlimbs, so an aerial phase for the hindquarters is reached at slower speeds than for the forequarters. This aerial phase occurs at a Froude number of around 1, matching theoretical predictions. At faster speeds, stance and swing phase durations approach asymptotes, with the duty factor beginning to level off, concurrent with an increase in limb compliance that likely keeps peak forces relatively low. This increase of limb compliance is reflected by increased compression of the hindlimbs. Like other tetrapods, smaller elephants are relatively more athletic than larger ones, but still move very similarly to adults even at <500 kg. At any particular speed they adopt greater relative stride frequencies and relative stride lengths compared to larger elephants. This extends to near-maximal locomotor performance as well - smaller elephants reach greater Froude numbers and smaller duty factors, hence likely reach relatively greater peak loads on their limbs and produce this force more rapidly. A variety of lines of kinematic evidence support the inference that elephants change their mechanics near a Froude number of 1 (if not at slower speeds), at least to using more compliant limbs, if not spring-like whole-body kinetics. In some ways, elephants move similarly to many other quadrupeds, such as increasing speed mainly by increasing stride frequency (except at fast speeds), and they match scaling predictions for many stride parameters. The main difference from most other animals is that elephants never change their footfall pattern to a gait that uses a whole-body aerial phase. Our large dataset establishes what the normal kinematics of elephant locomotion are, and can also be applied to identify gait abnormalities that may signal musculoskeletal pathologies, a matter of great importance to keepers of captive elephants

Isaza, R., Davis, R.D., Moore, S.M., Briggs, D.J., 2006. Results of vaccination of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) with monovalent inactivated rabies vaccine. American Journal of Veterinary Research 67, 1934-1936.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the humoral immune response of Asian elephants to a primary IM vaccination with either 1 or 2 doses of a commercially available inactivated rabies virus vaccine and evaluate the anamnestic response to a 1-dose booster vaccination. ANIMALS: 16 captive Asian elephants. PROCEDURES: Elephants with no known prior rabies vaccinations were assigned into 2 treatment groups of 8 elephants; 1 group received 1 dose of vaccine, and the other group received 2 doses of vaccine 9 days apart. All elephants received one or two 4-mL IM injections of a monovalent inactivated rabies virus vaccine. Blood was collected prior to vaccination (day 0) and on days 9, 35, 112, and 344. All elephants received 1 booster dose of vaccine on day 344, and a final blood sample was taken 40 days later (day 384). Serum was tested for rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies by use of the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test. RESULTS: All elephants were seronegative prior to vaccination. There were significant differences in the rabies geometric mean titers between the 2 elephant groups at days 35, 112, and 202. Both groups had a strong anamnestic response 40 days after the booster given at day 344. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results confirmed the ability of Asian elephants to develop a humoral immune response after vaccination with a commercially available monovalent inactivated rabies virus vaccine and the feasibility of instituting a rabies virus vaccination program for elephants that are in frequent contact with humans. A 2-dose series of rabies virus vaccine should provide an adequate antibody response in elephants, and annual boosters should maintain the antibody response in this species

Langbauer, W., Philp, K., Frydman, G., Galvanek, J. The effect of human contact on African elephant heart rate. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  253-255. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Mahmood, I., Martinez, M., Hunter, R.P., 2006. Interspecies allometric scaling. Part I: prediction of clearance in large animals
415. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 29, 415-423.
Abstract: Interspecies scaling is a useful tool for the prediction of pharmacokinetic parameters from animals to humans, and it is often used for estimating a first-time in human dose. The knowledge of pharmacokinetics in veterinary species is important for dosage selection, particularly in the treatment of large zoo animal species, such as elephants, giant cats and camels, for which pharmacokinetic data are scant. Therefore, the accuracy in clearance predictions in large animal species, with and without the use of correction factors (rule of exponents), and the impact of species selection in the prediction of clearance in large animal species was examined. Based upon this analysis, it was determined that there is a much larger risk of inaccuracies in the clearance estimates in large animal species when compared with that observed for humans. Unlike in humans, for large animal species, correction factors could not be applied because there was no trend between the exponents of simple allometry and the appropriate correction factor for improving our predictions. Nevertheless, we did see an indication that the exponents of simple allometry may alert us as to when the predicted clearance in the large animal may be underestimated or overpredicted. For example, if a large animal is included in the scaling, the predicted clearance in a large animal should be considered overestimated if the exponent of simple allometry is >1.3. Despite the potential for extrapolation error, the reality is that allometric scaling is needed across many veterinary practice situations, and therefore will be used. For this reason, it is important to consider mechanisms for reducing the risk of extrapolation errors that can seriously affect target animal safety, therapeutic response, or the accuracy of withdrawal time predictions

Martinez, M., Mahmood, I., Hunter, R.P., 2006. Interspecies allometric scaling: prediction of clearance in large animal species: part II: mathematical considerations
414. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 29, 425-432.
Abstract: Interspecies scaling is a useful tool for the prediction of pharmacokinetic parameters from animals to humans, and it is often used for estimating a first-time in human dose. However, it is important to appreciate the mathematical underpinnings of this scaling procedure when using it to predict pharmacokinetic parameter values across animal species. When cautiously applied, allometry can be a tool for estimating clearance in veterinary species for the purpose of dosage selection. It is particularly valuable during the selection of dosages in large zoo animal species, such as elephants, large cats and camels, for which pharmacokinetic data are scant. In Part I, allometric predictions of clearance in large animal species were found to pose substantially greater risks of inaccuracies when compared with that observed for humans. In this report, we examine the factors influencing the accuracy of our clearance estimates from the perspective of the relationship between prediction error and such variables as the distribution of body weight values used in the regression analysis, the influence of a particular observation on the clearance estimate, and the 'goodness of fit' (R(2)) of the regression line. Ultimately, these considerations are used to generate recommendations regarding the data to be included in the allometric prediction of clearance in large animal species

Mikota, S.K., Miller, M., Dumonceaux, G., Giri, K., Gairhe, K., Hamilton, K., Paudel, S., Vincent, B. Elephant tuberculosis diagnosis: implications for elephant management in Asian range countries. 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  142-143. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Serologic tests including the ELISA, MAPIA (Multi-Antigen Print Immunoassay), and a rapid test, VetTB StatPak® (Chembio Diagnostic Systems, Inc., Medford, New York 11763 USA) have recently been developed and show great promise for the diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) in elephants. These serologic tests detect antibodies to antigens of  Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organisms and in some cases have detected infection years in advance of active disease and mycobacterial shedding. The diagnosis of active TB (by culture) or serologic conversion presents management challenges for captive elephants in Asian range countries.  Of the 2 billion humans world-wide infected with TB, fewer than 10% will develop active disease. This figure is unknown for elephants. The identification and management of infected elephants has ramifications for elephants and humans alike and issues such as public health and tourism may be impacted. TB is endemic among humans in Asia and where there is intermingling of elephants and humans, both species may act as reservoirs for disease transmission.  The various situations in which elephants are kept in Asia (government-owned, privately-owned, festivals, temples, zoos, etc.) make it difficult to develop a management strategy that will address all circumstances.  Other concerns are the cost of treatment for an elephant (~ $50,000 USD) and appropriate monitoring in resource-poor countries. The authors have recently undertaken the screening of 120 elephants in Nepal to further evaluate the above-mentioned (and other) diagnostic tests.  To our knowledge, this is the first organized, large-scale initiative to screen Asian elephants within a range country.  Preliminary discussions regarding the management of both culture and serologically positive government-owned and privately-owned elephants in Nepal have been initiated and may serve as a starting point for other countries as more elephants are screened within Asia.  Basic options for active (culturepositive) cases include (1) treatment, (2) segregation or (3) euthanasia.  Options for latent disease (culture-negative, serologically positive) cases include (1) treatment, (2) segregation and monitoring for active disease and (3) euthanasia.  The particular ownership/husbandry system, available resources and cultural constraints may dictate final management choices in range countries.

Norgaard, C. Towards 24 hours of enrichment. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  260. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Oerke, A.-K., Heistermann, M.A., Hodges, K. Duration of pregnancy and its relation to sex of calf and age of cow in the European population of Asian and African elephants. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  125-131. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Rajeev, T.S., Rajkamal, P.J., Saseendran, P.C., Ajthkumar, G. Comparative knowledge of elephant diseases to the first and second mahouts and its relative effect on the health management of captive elephants in Kerala, India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  132-134. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Reid, C.E., Hildebrandt, T.B., Marx, N., Hunt, M., Thy, N., Reynes, J.M., Schaftenaar, W., Fickel, J., 2006. Endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV) infection. The first PCR-confirmed fatal case in Asia
436. Vet. Q. 28, 61-64.
Abstract: Since 1995, 4 suspected cases of Endotheliotropic Elephant Herpes Virus (EEHV) infection, i.e. based on clinical presentation, have occurred in Asia without resulting in epidemic outbreaks as expected. In order to confirm the presence of EEHV on the continent of Asia, viral DNA particles from liver samples of a wild-caught 3-year-old elephant found dead at a Cambodian elephant sanctuary and clinically diagnosed with EEHV, were PCR processed using known EEHV strain primers. The presence of EEHV viral nucleic acids was confirmed and the nucleic acids had a 99% sequence similarity to the U.S.A strain (gene bank locus: AF117265) and 97% sequence similarity to the European strain (gene bank locus: AF354746) assigning this case to the EEHV-1 cluster. More than the confirmation of EEHV on the continent of Asia, is the phylogenic relationship to the USA and European strains with no corresponding contact or transport of USA or European elephants to Asia. Thus, this brings many of the traditional theories into question. Although almost forgotten, this disease is still ramped in captive elephant populations worldwide and continues to devastate particularly the neonatal and weaning-age population. Special attention and continued research are needed specifically in the area of basic virology and epidemiology

Rode, K.D., Chiyo, P.I., Chapman, C.A., McDowell, L.R., 2006. Nutritional ecology of elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda, and its relationship with crop-raiding behaviour. Journal of Tropical Ecology.
Abstract: This study investigated the nutritional ecology of forest elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda relative to crop-raiding behaviour, and examined nutritional differences between crops and food consumed by wild elephants. An index of dietary nutrient concentration was determined by quantifying the species and parts of plants consumed along feeding trails. collecting food items, and analysing foods for energy, fibre, protein, minerals and secondary compounds. Frequency of crop raiding was quantified over 13 mo. Energy and protein concentration was within suggested levels. but concentrations of several minerals, particularly sodium, were low relative to requirements based on captive elephants and values reported for other wild populations. The very low sodium concentrations of Kibale elephant diets and low availability of alternative sodium sources, such as soil or water, suggest that sodium drive is very likely in this population. Crops consumed by Kibale elephants had higher Na concentrations and lower concentrations of fibre and secondary compounds than wild diets. The known attraction of elephants to mineral sources throughout their range and the low mineral concentration of leaves, fruits, bark, and stems consumed by forest elephant in this study suggest that mineral nutrition is likely to be an important factor driving elephant behaviour and patterns of habitat use.

Sarma, K.K., Thomas, S. Foot diseases in the working elephants in eastern India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  262-270. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Sarma, K.K. Occupational injuries and work related diseases in the working elephants in India´s north east. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  164-169. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Stremme, C., Lubis, A., Wahyu, M. Implementation of regular veterinary care for captive Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) throughout north Sumatra and Aceh. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  182-188. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Thongtip, N., Mahasawangkul, S., Thitaram, C., Pongsopavijitr, P., Kornkaewrat, K., Saikhun, J., Angkawanish, T., Jansittiwate, S., Rungsri, R., Boonprasert, K., Somkird, C., Wongkalasinh, W., Wajjwalku, W., Songsasen, N., Pinyopummintr, T., Pinyopummin, A. First report of pregnancy by artificial insemination with chilled semen of an Asian elephant in Thailand. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  273. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Tresz, H., 2006. Behavioral management at the Phoenix Zoo: New strategies and perspectives. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 9, 65-70.
Abstract: It all started with a seemingly simple decision to re-evaluate and document the Phoenix Zoo's behavioral management protocol. The purpose of this project was to present proactive standards for the care and psychological well-being of our living collection, while meeting or exceeding the guidelines of the Animal Welfare Act. Preparing the protocol was a catalyst to re-evaluate the zoo's philosophy and application of behavioral management. It suggested a restructuring of collection management and the rethinking of future goals and practices. Gradually, the process became more focused and organized. Behavioral enrichment, training, animal behavior issues, and exhibit architecture were embraced as essential components for providing quality of life. Staff from all levels worked side-by-side on assignments. Our way of thinking and working was changing.

Vanitha, V., Thiyagesan, K., Baskaran, N. Population demography and viability of Asian elephants in timber camps of Tamil Nadu, southern India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  213. 2006. 2007.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Weissengruber, G.E., Egger, G.F., Hutchinson, J.R., Groenewald, H.B., Elsasser, L., Famini, D., Forstenpointner, G., 2006. The structure of the cushions in the feet of African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
380. Journal of Anatomy 209, 781-792.
Abstract: The uniquely designed limbs of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana, support the weight of the largest terrestrial animal. Besides other morphological peculiarities, the feet are equipped with large subcutaneous cushions which play an important role in distributing forces during weight bearing and in storing or absorbing mechanical forces. Although the cushions have been discussed in the literature and captive elephants, in particular, are frequently affected by foot disorders, precise morphological data are sparse. The cushions in the feet of African elephants were examined by means of standard anatomical and histological techniques, computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In both the forelimb and the hindlimb a 6th ray, the prepollex or prehallux, is present. These cartilaginous rods support the metacarpal or metatarsal compartment of the cushions. None of the rays touches the ground directly. The cushions consist of sheets or strands of fibrous connective tissue forming larger metacarpal/metatarsal and digital compartments and smaller chambers which were filled with adipose tissue. The compartments are situated between tarsal, metatarsal, metacarpal bones, proximal phalanges or other structures of the locomotor apparatus covering the bones palmarly/plantarly and the thick sole skin. Within the cushions, collagen, reticulin and elastic fibres are found. In the main parts, vascular supply is good and numerous nerves course within the entire cushion. Vater-Pacinian corpuscles are embedded within the collagenous tissue of the cushions and within the dermis. Meissner corpuscles are found in the dermal papillae of the foot skin. The micromorphology of elephant feet cushions resembles that of digital cushions in cattle or of the foot pads in humans but not that of digital cushions in horses. Besides their important mechanical properties, foot cushions in elephants seem to be very sensitive structures

Wiese, R.J., Willis, K., 2006. Population management of zoo elephants. Int. Zoo Yb. 40, 80-87.
Abstract: In Europe and North America the majority of Asian elephant Elephas maximus populations are not selfsustaining nor is the African elephant Loxodonta africana population in North America. About 75% of Asian elephants in North America are wild-caught or from semi-wild logging camps and are presumed to be unrelated to the other Asian elephants in captivity. The genetic potential of these populations is healthy and will remain so if the demographic constraints impinging on them can be resolved. In order to become self-sustaining the primary goal is to
increase birth rates in the population, with a secondary goal of reducing infant-mortality rate. As populations of elephants in zoos metamorphose from those maintained by importation to self-sustaining groups maintained by captive breeding, there will be an increase in the number of bull elephants to be managed. This will require a significant change in elephant-management practices.

Agnew, D.W., Hagey, L., Shoshani, J., 2005. The elephants of Zoba Gash Barka, Eritrea: part 4. Cholelithiasis in a wild African elephant (Loxodonta africana). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36, 677-683.
Abstract: A 4.0-kg cholelith was found within the abdominal cavity of a dead wild African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Eritrea. Analysis of this cholelith by histochemistry, electron microscopy, electrospray mass spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy revealed it was composed of bile alcohols but no calcium, bilirubin, or cholesterol. Bacteria were also found in the cholelith. Similar, but smaller, bile stones have been identified previously in other wild African elephants and an excavated mammoth (Mammuthus columbi). Choleliths have been reported only once in a captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Elephants, along with hyraxes (Procavia capensis) and manatees (Trichechus manatus), are unique among mammals in producing only bile alcohols and no bile acids, which may predispose them to cholelithiasis, particularly in association with bacterial infection. Dietary factors may also play an important role in cholelith formation.

Andrews, J., Mecklenborg, A., Bercovitch, F.B., 2005. Milk intake and development in a newborn captive African elephant  (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24, 275-281.
Abstract: In August 2003 the San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park (WAP) and the Lowry Park Zoo, under the auspices of the AZA's Elephant SSP and a USFWS permit, imported 3.8 African elephants (Loxodonta africana ) from the Kingdom of Swaziland. When they were captured, transrectal ultrasound examinations revealed that one nulliparous cow was approximately 10 months pregnant.  At the time of their arrival (August 2003), all of the animals were estimated to be approximately 13 years old and were thought to be nulliparous.  Based on the ultrasound examination results and the average African elephant gestation period, parturition was predicted to be 20 February 2004. In this report, we provide the first detailed data about nursing activity around the clock and newborn calf development, describe maternal and neonatal nighttime activity budgets, and explore maternal weight changes during suckling and lactation. The newborn calf suckled significantly more at night than during the day, but suckled for only about 2 hr per 24-hr period. Regression analysis revealed that through the first 3 months of life the calf gained 0.385 kg/day while it suckled on a regular basis. We compare our findings with published information on wild elephants, and conclude that although the growth rate is reduced compared to hand-reared elephant calves, the suckling patterns are almost identical to those reported for wild calves.

Benz, A. The elephant's hoof: macroscopic and microscopic morphology of defined locations under consideration of pathological changes.  2005.  Vetsuisse-Fakultät Universität Zürich.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation

Bertelsen, M.F., Bojesen, M., Olsen, K.E.P. Fatal enterocolitis in two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile. 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group.  66-67. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Altered behavior, anorexia and listlessness were observed in four of five adult captive female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Two animals recovered, while two died after 2 days. The dead elephants were subjected to post mortem examination including histopathology, demonstrating fibrinonecrotic enteritis and colitis. Clostridium difficile was isolated from both dead elephants and from the feces of the two surviving affected animals, and identified by selective cultivation and PCR identification. All isolates had the tcdA and tcdB toxin genes and were positive in a toxigenic culture assay. C. difficile toxin from the intestinal content of one of the fatal cases was demonstrated using cell-culture based cytotoxin assays. Clostridium perfringens type A and Clostridium septicum were also isolated from both dead animals. Although C. perfringens has been associated with ulcerative enteritis in an elephant,¹ in this case these isolates likely are incidental, as C. perfringens enterotoxin was not demonstrated, and as C. septicum is well known for producing rapid post mortem overgrowth.  Amplified fragment length polymorphism typing, showed that the C. difficile isolates recovered from the outbreak, all had the same fingerprint profile, indicating that all four elephants were affected by the same bacterial clone. These findings appear to be the first to demonstrate that C. difficile may cause enterocolitis in elephants. The results emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially dangerous for elephants. Although there was no prior exposure to antibiotic agents in this case, caution is recommended when treating elephants with antibiotics, as this may trigger C. difficile induced enterocolitis in other species, most notably humans and horses.²
LITERATURE CITED
1 Bacciarini, L.N., O. Pagan, J. Frey, and A. Grone. 2001. Clostridium perfringens beta2-toxin in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) with ulcerative enteritis. Vet. Rec. 149: 618-20.
2 Songer, J.G. 1996. Clostridial enteric diseases of domestic animals. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 9: 216-234.

Bonar, C.J., Lewandowski, A.H., Arafah, B., Capen, C.C., 2005. Pheochromocytoma in an aged female African elephant (Loxodonta africana). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36, 719-723.
Abstract: A 43 yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) collapsed acutely and died. Necropsy revealed an enlarged right adrenal medulla. Histologic appearance was typical of pheochromocytoma. Special stains and electron microscopy demonstrated chromaffin granules, suggesting that the tumor was derived from catecholamine secreting cells of the adrenal medulla, and may have been functionally secretory. Serum levels of both norepinephrine and epinephrine were elevated at time of death, supporting the functional nature of the tumor. Histologic findings of arteriolar sclerosis and smooth muscle hyperplasia suggested that the animal may have suffered from chronic systemic hypertension. Pheochromocytoma should be considered as a differential diagnosis in cases of suspected hypertension and acute death in elephants

Clemins, P.J., Johnson, M.T., Leong, K.M., Savage, A., 2005. Automatic classification and speaker identification of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) vocalizations. J Acoust Soc Am. 117, 956-963.
Abstract: A hidden Markov model (HMM) system is presented for automatically classifying African elephant vocalizations. The development of the system is motivated by
successful models from human speech analysis and recognition. Classification features include frequency-shifted Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs)
and log energy, spectrally motivated features which are commonly used in human speech processing. Experiments, including vocalization type classification and
speaker identification, are performed on vocalizations collected from captive elephants in a naturalistic environment. The system classified vocalizations with accuracies of 94.3% and 82.5% for type classification and speaker identification classification experiments, respectively. Classification accuracy, statistical significance tests on the model parameters, and qualitative analysis support the effectiveness and robustness of this approach for vocalization analysis in nonhuman species.
Speech and Signal Processing Laboratory, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233-1881, USA. patrick.clemins@marquette.edu

Clemins, P.J., Johnson, M.T., Leong, K.M., Savage, A., 2005. Automatic classification and speaker identification of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) vocalizations
633. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 117, 956-963.
Abstract: A hidden Markov model (HMM) system is presented for automatically classifying African elephant vocalizations. The development of the system is motivated by successful models from human speech analysis and recognition. Classification features include frequency-shifted Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) and log energy, spectrally motivated features which are commonly used in human speech processing. Experiments, including vocalization type classification and speaker identification, are performed on vocalizations collected from captive elephants in a naturalistic environment. The system classified vocalizations with accuracies of 94.3% and 82.5% for type classification and speaker identification classification experiments, respectively. Classification accuracy, statistical significance tests on the model parameters, and qualitative analysis support the effectiveness and robustness of this approach for vocalization analysis in nonhuman species

Deem, S.L., Brown, J.L., Eggert, L., Wemmer, C., Htun, W., Nyunt, T., Murray, S., Leimgruber, P. Health and management of working elephants in Myanmar (Burma). Procedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  228-231. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Myanmar has approximately 6,000 working elephants.  Remaining wild elephants are declining, partly because of live-capture for captivity.  Through health and reproductive assessments, genetic analyses and GPS tracking of captive and wild elephants, we are exploring linkages between the two populations and conducting studies to reduce morbidity and mortality of captive elephants. Captive elephants live and work in Myanmar's forests in close proximity and contact to the remaining wild herds. We propose that reducing morbidity and mortality in the captive elephants will decrease the need for live-capture, and the risk of disease transmission, to wild elephants.
Introduction
There are an estimated 6,000 working elephants in Myanmar - half owned by the government operated Myanmar Timber Enterprise (MTE) and half owned privately^.5 This may be one of the largest captive elephant populations in the world and its management will have a significant impact on remaining wild herds in Myanmar.^4,6,8  With mortality rates higher than birth rates, the working population is probably maintained by supplementing it with elephants captured from the wild.⁵ There is evidence that continued harvest of wild elephants may have reduced the remaining wild populations of Myanmar.  Recent surveys of wild populations in two of Myanmar's protected elephant ranges revealed extremely low dung counts, indicative of small and declining herds. Constant contact with captive elephants in Myanmar's forests may exacerbate the threat to Myanmar wild elephants by increasing the transmission of disease between these two groups. For both the above reasons, we believe that the conservation of wild elephants in Myanmar will require significant improvements in the care and management of currently existing captive populations.  
Elephants owned by MTE receive veterinary care from the Burmese veterinarians that work for the timber company and travel extensively throughout the country to sites were the elephants are located.¹ There is a dire need for veterinary supplies and laboratory capabilities in the country. Currently, veterinary practices are based on the extensive field experience of lead MTE veterinarians. However, MTE veterinarians frequently rely on older published work ^3,7 and would benefit significantly from training that incorporates new insights into elephant health and new veterinary techniques. Similarly, because of their close-up experience of elephant health problems in the forests, MTE veterinarians may be able to make important new contributions to the care and management of elephants elsewhere.     
The overall objective of our study is to work jointly with MTE veterinarians to develop long-term captive population management strategies to reduce mortality and increase births in the working timber elephants and stop the continued off-take of animals from the wild to supplement captive herds.
Methods
The health component of this study has five major objectives.  These are to:
1              Conduct a training workshop, in conjunction with MTE veterinarians, on elephant management and veterinary care. 
2              Develop protocols so that the MTE veterinarians can collect samples for reproductive, genetic, and health status assessments.
3              Analyze samples and provide data to MTE veterinarians to improve husbandry, preventive care and disease treatment of working elephants.
4              Develop a comprehensive bibliography of all published information on the health and management of Myanmar elephants.
5              Perform an epidemiologic evaluation of records available on the historic and current working elephant population.
Specific steps to achieve these objectives include: 
1              Determine causes and rates of morbidity and mortality of captive MTE elephants.
2              Determine causes of low rates of reproduction in captivity.
3              Develop a genetic profile of the captive herds.
4              Develop a protocol to assess oozies-Burmese mahout-expertise in parallel with endocrine and health assessments to determine quality of care and potentially related stress.
5              Develop small population viability models to assess how current mortality effects long-term survival of the captive population and what supplementation from the wild is needed for short- and long-term sustainability.
6              Use population viability models to demonstrate how supplementation from the wild will negatively affect that population.
7              Get baseline health parameter data on free-ranging elephants.
8              Quantify habitat/space use using GPS and satellite tracking of captive and wild elephants. 
Results and Discussion
During an initial exploratory visit in November 2004, we learned that the annual mortality rate for MTE working elephants was 2.4% (66) in 2003.  Deaths occurred in all age groups (>18 yr, n = 40; 4 - 17 yr, n = 11; <4 yr, n = 15) and included preventable diseases (i.e., poor nutrition, heat stroke, diarrhea, dystocia, infectious and parasitic agents).  Additionally, we collected samples for performing health, genetic and endocrine analyses of 22 elephants maintained in one of the working camps (results to be presented). A relationship also was established with the veterinary staff at the Yangon Zoo, including follow up donations of veterinary literature and journals to the zoo. We provided medical advice for the care of an orphaned elephant calf and other animals housed at the zoo during our brief visit. We are seeking funds for a training course to be conducted in late 2005 and hope to perform health evaluations on a larger number of zoo and working elephants during that visit.
The National Zoo already has an extensive conservation program for wild elephants in Myanmar.^4,6,8  This program has focused on assessing wild elephant populations in protected areas and satellite-tracking of four wild elephants to learn more about their conservation status and ecology in Myanmar.  Currently this work is being extended to a national elephant survey. Part of this work included collecting fecal samples for genetic and health assessments.
The Smithsonian team of researchers involved in this project includes a veterinarian, reproduction physiologist, geneticist, conservation biologist, and landscape ecologist.  All members of this multidisciplinary team have extensive experience working with elephants and together provide the necessary expertise to study and understand the numerous factors affecting Myanmar's captive elephants and the long-term survival of elephants in Myanmar.  These challenges range from human land use and elephant population fragmentation, human-elephant conflict, poor reproduction and health care of captive elephants and lack of information on the health status of the wild elephants.  A viable conservation initiative for the elephants of Myanmar requires that health issues be addressed as one component of a comprehensive program to address the anthropogenic pressures on both working and wild elephants.²
The elephants of Myanmar are an excellent example of the fine line that exists between captive and wild animals, especially as it relates to health.  Captive and wild elephants are regularly in direct and indirect contact.  The working elephants live with their oozies who may expose them to diseases, such as tuberculosis.  The working elephants in turn may encounter wild elephants at night in the forests where they forage and live during non-working hours. In fact, the majority of captive born calves are said to be sired by wild bulls.  Potentially, the use of working elephants in selectively extracting valuable timber provides new strategies for the conservation of elephants and forests. Most likely, "elephant-logging" is less damaging than machine-operated timbering projects that tend to clear-cut areas and also damage the soil and streams.  However, decreasing the negative impact of such practices (i.e., minimizing off-take of elephants from the wild, decreasing disease risks to the wild elephants) is imperative.  
LITERATURE CITED
1 Aung, T., and T. Nyunt.  2002.  The care and management of the domesticated Asian elephant in Myanmar.  In: Baker, I., and M. Kashio (eds.): Giants on our hands. Proc. Int. Workshop Domesticated Asian Elephant. Dharmasarn Co., Ltd. Bangkok, Thailand. Pp. 89 - 102.
2 Deem, S.L., W.B. Karesh, and W. Weisman.  2001.  Putting theory into practice: wildlife health in conservation.  Conserv. Biol. 5: 1224-1233.
3 Evans, G.H. 1910.  Elephants and Their Diseases.  Government Printing. Rangoon. 323 
4 Kelly, D.S. 2005.  Habitat selection in declining elephant populations of Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park. Masters Thesis.  George Mason University.
5 Lair, R.C. 1997.  Myanmar. In: Gone Astray: The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Thailand.  RAP Publication. Pp. 99-131
6 Leimgruber, P., and C. Wemmer.  2004.  National elephant symposium and workshop. Report to the USFWS and the Myanmar Forest Department.
7 Pfaff, G. 1930.  Reports on Diseases of Elephants.  Government Printing. Rangoon. 91
8 Wemmer, C., P. Leimgruber and D. S. Kelly.  2005.  Managing wild elephants in Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park and Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary.  Report to the USFWS and the Myanmar Forest Department.

Dumonceaux, G., Isaza, R., Koch, D.E., Hunter, R.P., 2005. Pharmacokinetics and i.m. bioavailability of ceftiofur in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
563. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 28, 441-446.
Abstract: Captive elephants are prone to infections of the feet, lungs, and skin. Often treatment regimens are established with no pharmacokinetic data on the agents being used for treatment in these species. A pharmacokinetic study using ceftiofur (1.1 mg/kg) was conducted in four adult female captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Busch Gardens in Tampa, Florida. Elephants were given both i.v. and i.m. administrations in a complete crossover design with a 3-week washout period between treatments. Blood samples were collected prior to drug administration and at 0.33, 0.67, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h postadministration. Ceftiofur analysis was performed using a validated liquid chromatography/mass spectrophotometric (LC/MS) assay. Plasma concentrations for the i.m. samples were lower than expected. The mean C(max) following i.m. administration was 1.63 microg/mL with a corresponding T(max) of 0.55 h. Following i.v. administration, the median V(d(ss)) was 0.51 L/kg and a median Cl(p) of 0.069 L/kg/h. Mean i.m. bioavailability was 19%. The results indicate that ceftiofur used at 1.1 mg/kg i.m. could be useful in elephants when given two to three times a day or alternatively, 1.1 mg/kg i.v. once daily, depending upon the MIC of the pathogen

Ganswindt, A., Heistermann, M., Hodges, K., 2005. Physical, physiological, and behavioral correlates of musth in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
594. Physiol Biochem. Zool. 78, 505-514.
Abstract: Although musth in male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) is known to be associated with increased aggressiveness, urine dribbling (UD), temporal gland secretion (TGS), and elevated androgens, the temporal relationship between these changes has not been examined. Here, we describe the pattern of musth-related characteristics in 14 captive elephant bulls by combining long-term observations of physical and behavioral changes with physiological data on testicular and adrenal function. The length of musth periods was highly variable but according to our data set not related to age. Our data also confirm that musth is associated with elevated androgens and, in this respect, show that TGS and UD are downstream effects of this elevation, with TGS responding earlier and to lower androgen levels than UD. Because the majority of musth periods were associated with a decrease in glucocorticoid levels, our data also indicate that musth does not represent a physiological stress mediated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the occurrence of musth is associated with increased aggression and that this is presumably androgen mediated because aggressive males had higher androgen levels. Collectively, the information generated contributes to a better understanding of what characterizes and initiates musth in captive African elephants and provides a basis for further studies designed to examine in more detail the factors regulating the intensity and duration of musth

Hildebrandt, T.B., Hermes, R., Ratanakorn, P., Rietschel, W., Fickel, J., Frey, R., Wibbelt, G., Reid, C., Goritz, F., 2005. Ultrasonographic assessment and ultrasound-guided biopsy of the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
552. Veterinary Record 157, 544-548.
Abstract: Endotheliotropic herpesvirus causes a fatal disease in young Asian elephants, but there are no methods for identifying latent carriers of the virus. During the postmortem study of one female African elephant and three male and two female Asian elephants, a lymph node located bilaterally caudoventral to the parotid gland, approximately 1.5 to 5 cm below the skin, was identified as suitable for transcutaneous ultrasound-guided biopsy. An ultrasonographic assessment and two biopsies were performed on 39 Asian elephants, and these lymph nodes were classified ultrasonographically as active, inactive or chronically active. The calculated mean (se) volume of 10 active lymph nodes was 17.4 (6.9) cm(3), and that of three chronically active lymph nodes was 10.6 (1.0) cm(3), whereas the mean volume of 17 inactive lymph nodes was 3.1 (0.6) cm(3). The presence of lymph node tissue in samples obtained by ultrasound-guided biopsy from three animals that were maintained under conditions that allowed for additional sampling was confirmed histologically. The dna extracted from the lymphoid tissue and the whole blood of all the elephants was negative for endotheliotropic herpesvirus by PCR.

Ingram, L.M., Isaza, R., Koch, D.E., Hunter, R.P. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous and intramuscular butorphanol in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group.  70-71. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are susceptible to lameness resulting from foot and joint pain.¹ In the past, opioid analgesics, such as the agonist-antagonist butorphanol, have been used clinically for pain management. However, dosages used in treating elephants were often extrapolated from data in horses, with the risk of administering either a sub-efficacious dose or an overdose, both of which are undesirable. In this study, six adult captive Asian elephants (five female, one male) were administered butorphanol intravenously (i.v.) and intramuscularly (i.m.) in a cross over design. The dose was 0.015 mg/kg for both routes with at least 21 days between administrations. Serial blood samples were collected immediately prior to butorphanol administration and at 5, 10, 20, 40 min, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, and 24 hr after injection.  The samples were collected into Li heparin vacutainer tubes and centrifuged to obtain plasma.  The plasma was separated into cryovials and frozen at -70°C until analyzed using a validated LC/MS assay with a LOQ of 0.025 ng/ml. The dosage selected for this pharmacologic study in elephants is within the recommended analgesic butorphanol dose range for horses.2  Following i.v. administration the median pharmacokinetic values that were calculated include: Vdarea, Vdss, Clp, MRT, and half life (t½). After i.m. injection the median Cmax, Tmax, and bioavailability (F) were calculated. The Vd data used for extrapolation from published literature on five domestic mammalian species correlated with the values found for elephants. Thus, Vd may be useful to extrapolate an efficacious dose in Asian elephants. Our preliminary results suggest a dosage of 0.015 mg/kg may provide analgesia without evidence of severe sedation. Further studies are necessary to determine the quality and duration of analgesia from the administration of butorphanol in elephants at this recommended dose.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S.K., E. Sargent, and L. Georgeian. 1994. Medical Management of the Elephant. Endura Publishing House.
2. Plumb, D.C. 2005. Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa. Pp. 102-105.

Lacasse, C., Gamble, K.C., Terio, K., Farina, L.L., Travis, D.A., Miller, M. Mycobacterium szulgai osteoarthritis and pneumonia in an African elephant (Loxodonta Africana). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group.  170-172. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Tuberculosis, particularly Mycobacterium bovis and M. tuberculosis, is an important health issue in zoological collections.  Zoos are a particular public health concern because of the close contact between tuberculosis-susceptible animals and humans, specifically animal handlers and visitors.¹⁶ Evidence of M. tuberculosis transmission between humans and elephants, confirmed by DNA fingerprinting, has been reported.¹³ Between 1994 and 2001, M. tuberculosis was isolated from trunk washes of captive elephants from 11 herds in the United States.¹⁷  To date, most reported cases of tuberculosis have occurred in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).¹⁴ In 1997, the National Tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species partnered with the USDA to formulate the "Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants." ¹⁵ This document outlines criteria for the testing, surveillance, and treatment of tuberculosis in elephants. The guidelines recommend annual monitoring of elephants by mycobacterial culture of three direct trunk washes collected over 1 wk.  Isolation of Mycobacterium avium and non-tuberculous mycobacteria from elephant trunk wash samples is common, but these organisms have not been associated with clinical disease.^14,18 This case report details clinical disease with fatal complications of an atypical mycobacterial infection in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). In September 2003, an African elephant presented with acute, severe lameness of the left rear limb with subsequent swelling of the stifle.  Diagnostic procedures included aspiration cytology of the swelling, radiographs, and thermographic imaging.  The exact location of the injury could not be detected, but a lesion to the stifle or coxofemoral articulation was suspected.  After 13 mo of treatment, including pulse therapy with a variety of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), weekly to biweekly injections of polysulfated glycosaminoglycan, and intensive foot care efforts to treat secondary pedal lesions of both rearlimbs, the animal died acutely.  Gross necropsy revealed granulomatous osteomyelitis with necrosis/loss of the femoral head and acetabulum and pulmonary granulomas.  Both of these lesions contained acid-fast bacteria on cytology. While awaiting confirmatory culture results, quarantine procedures were established for the elephant facility and a program was established to screen all zoo personnel in close contact with the elephant or who participated in the necropsy.  All personnel were tested by the Chicago Department of Public Health without documented conversion. Mycobacterium szulgai was ultimately cultured from both coxofemoral and pulmonary lesions. Mycobacterium szulgai is an uncommon nontuberculous mycobacterium that is usually isolated from pathologic lesions in humans.²¹ This bacterial species was first identified in 1972.¹¹ The lungs are the main locality for pathologic manifestation in humans and several cases have been in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.^9,20,21 Infection due to M. szulgai most frequently produces thin-walled cavities in lungs resembling tuberculosis.⁴ Other documented sites of infection include the skin, bone, and tendon sheath (causing a carpal tunnel syndrome).^{2,9,10,12,19,20}  Intra-operative contamination from ice water has led to M. szulgai keratitis after laser-assisted ophthalmic surgeries^.6 A case of disseminated disease in a previously healthy young human has been reported.⁵  No evidence of human-to-human transmission of this organism has been documented and human cases are believed to originate from environmental sources.¹²  The natural habitat of the organism is unknown, but previous reports suggest an association of the bacteria with water of swimming pools and fish tanks.^1,21 The organism has been cultured from a snail and tropical fish.^1,3 No standard recommendation for the treatment of M. szulgai infection currently exists.  In general, triple antibiotic therapies used in standard mycobacterial treatments are reported with a low rate of relapses and sterilization of sputum cultures within a mean of 3 mo.³ Pulmonary lesions in this elephant were chronic; it was not possible to determine when initial infection occurred. Infection could have occurred in captivity or in the wild prior to captivity. Three trunk washes over the past year had been negative for mycobacterial culture. Osteomyelitis in the hip may have developed secondary to hematogenous spread from the lungs with the acute lameness resulting from a pathologic fracture associated with this infection. Alternatively, though considered less likely, a traumatic fracture of the hip could have occurred, with bacterial inoculation and secondary osteomyelitis as a result of increased blood flow to the site. The source of infection for this elephant remains unknown.  Prevalence of this organism in the natural habitat or captive environment of the elephants has not been previously documented.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Abalain-Colloc, M.L., D. Guillerm, M. Salaun, S. Gouriou, V. Vincent, and B. Picard.  2003.  Mycobacterium szulgai isolated from a patient, a tropical fish, and aquarium water.  Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.  22: 768-769.
2.Cross, G.M., M. Guill, and J.K. Aton.  1985.  Cutaneous Mycobacterium szulgai infection. Arch. Dermatol. 121: 247-249.
3. Davidson, P.T. 1976. Mycobacterium szulgai: a new pathogen causing infection of the lung.  Chest 69: 799- 801.
4. Dylewski, J.S., H.M. Zackon, A.H. Latour, and G.R. Berry.  1987.  Mycobacterium szulgai: an unusual pathogen.  Rev. Infect. Dis.  9: 578-580.
5. Gur, H., S. Porat, H. Haas, Y. Naparstek, and M. Eliakim.  1984.  Disseminated mycobacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium szulgai. Arch. Intern. Med. 144: 1861-1863.
6.Holmes, G.P., G. Bond, R.C. Fader, and S.F. Fulcher.  2002. A cluster of cases of Mycobacterium szulgai keratitis that occurred after laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis.  Clin. Infect. Dis. 34: 1039-1046.
7.Horusitzky, A., X. Puechal, D. Dumont, T. Begue, M. Robineau, and M. Boissier.  2000.  Carpal tunnel syndrome caused by Mycobacterium szulgai. J. Rheumatol 27: 1299-1302.
8.Hurr, H., and T. Sorg.  1998.  Mycobacterium szulgai osteomyelitis.  J. Infect.  37: 191-192.
9.Luque, A.E., D. Kaminski, R. Reichman, and D. Hardy. 1998.  Mycobacterium szulgai osteomyelitis in an AIDS patient. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 30: 88-91.
10.Maloney, J.M., C.R. Gregg, D.S. Stephens, F.A. Manian, and D. Rimland.  1987.  Infections caused by Mycobacterium szulgai in humans.  Rev. Infect. Dis.  9: 1120-1126.
11.Marks, J., P.A. Jenkins, and M. Tsukamura.  1972.  Mycobacterium szulgai: a new pathogen.  Tubercle 53: 210.
12.Merlet, C., S. Aberrane, F. Chilot, and J. Laroche.  2000.  Carpal tunnel syndrome complicating hand flexor tenosynovitis due to Mycobacterium szulgai. Joint Bone Spine 67: 247-248.
13.Michalak, K., C. Austin, S. Diesel, J.M. Bacon, P. Zimmerman, and J. N. Maslow.  1998. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection as a zoonotic disease: transmission between humans and elephants. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 4: 283-287.
14.Mikota, S.K., R.S. Larsen, and R.J. Montali.  2000.  Tuberculosis in elephants in North America.  Zoo Biol. 19: 393-403.
15.National Tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species. 2000. Guidelines for the control of tuberculosis in elephants.  USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services.
16.Oh, P., R. Granich, J. Scott, B. Sun, M. Joseph, C. Stringfield, S. Thisdell, J. Staley, D. Workman-Malcolm, L. Borenstein, E. Lehnkering, P. Ryan, J. Soukup, A. Nitta, and J. Flood.  2002.  Human exposure following  Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a metropolitan zoo.  Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8: 1290-1293.
17.Payeur, J.B., J.L. Jarnagin, J.G. Marquardt, and D.L. Whipple.  2002.  Mycobacterial isolations in captive elephants in the United States.  Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 969: 256-258.
18.Shojaei, H., J.G. Magee, R. Freeman, M. Yates, N.U. Horadagoda, and M. Goodfellow.  2000. Mycobacterium elephantis sp. nov., a rapidly growing non-chromogenic Mycobacterium isolated from an elephant.  Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol.  50: 1817-1820.
19.Stratton, C.W., D.B. Phelps, and L.B. Reller.  1978.  Tuberculoid tenosynovitis and carpal tunnel syndrome caused by Mycobacterium szulgai.  Am. J. Med.  65: 349-351.
20.Tappe, D., P. Langmann, M. Zilly, H. Klinker, B. Schmausser, and M. Frosch.  2004.  Osteomyelitis and skin ulcers caused by Mycobacterium szulgai in an AIDS patient.  Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 36: 883-885.
21.Tortoli, E., G. Besozzi, C. Lacchini, V. Penati, M.T. Simonetti, and S. Emler.  1998.  Pulmonary infection due to Mycobacterium szulgai, case report and review of the literature.  Eur. Respir. J.  11: 975-977.

Larsen, R.S., Kay, M., Triantis, J., Salman, M.D. Update on serological detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in Asian elephants. 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group.  62-63. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Tuberculosis has become an important disease in captive elephants, particularly Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Diagnosing tuberculosis in elephants has been problematic as many tests have inadequate sensitivity or specificity.2-4 A multiple-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was previously investigated for detecting infection in Asian elephants and African elephants (Loxodonta africana); this test had excellent sensitivity and specificity, but needed further evaluation.1 Modifications to the multiple-antigen ELISA panel have since been made. Valuable antigens were retained, other antigens were removed, and new ones were added.  This modified ELISA was re-evaluated, using serum from 68 Asian elephants. Sixteen had M. tuberculosis -positive trunk cultures, while 52 were either culture negative at necropsy or had a history of negative trunk cultures and no contact with infected elephants. Seven elephants were evaluated over time. The test was 100% (95% CI; 95-100%) specific and 94% (95% CI; 79-100%) sensitive using two of the six antigens (M. bovis strain AN5 culture filtrate and M. tuberculosis early secretory antigenic target 6). "Effectively-treated" elephants had decreasing seroreactivity, but those that were culture-positive post-treatment were more consistently seroreactive.  Although "effectivelytreated" elephants had declining seroreactivity, they still usually had higher values than animals that had never been infected. Serology continues to show great promise in detecting tuberculosis in elephants, often detecting infection months-to-years sooner than trunk wash culture.  Advances in techniques may soon make serology even more practical.  While serology should not replace trunk-wash culture, it is a useful adjunct for early detection of infection in elephants and for monitoring treatment.
ACKNOLWEDGMENTS We thank the many veterinarians, owners, caretakers, and managers of elephant-owning institutions that participated in this investigation, as well as Drs. Michele Miller and Susan Mikota for helping to coordinate sample collection. We also thank Kimberly Deines and other laboratory personnel who processed ELISA samples.  The study was partially funded by a grant from USDA, CSREES to Colorado State University Program of Economically Important Infectious Animal Diseases.
LITERATURE CITED
1.Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J. Triantis. 2000.  Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in captive elephants.  J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31: 291-302.
2. Mikota, S.K., L. Peddie, J. Peddie, R. Isaza, F. Dunker, G. West, W. Lindsay, R.S. Larsen, M.D. Salman, D. Chatterjee, J. Payeur, D. Whipple, C. Thoen, D.S. Davis, R.J. Montali and J. Maslow.  2001. Epidemiology and diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in six groups of elephants.  J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 32: 1-16.
3. Mikota, S.K., R.S. Larsen, and R.J. Montali.  2000.  Tuberculosis in elephants in North America.  Zoo Biol. 19: 393-403.
4. U.S. Department of Agriculture.  2003.  Guidelines for the control of tuberculosis in elephants.  Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; Animal Care. Washington, D.C. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf.

Leong, K.M., Burks, K., Rizkalla, C.E., Savage, A., 2005. Effects of reproductive and social context on vocal communication in captive female African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24, 331-347.
Abstract: Female African elephants advertise changes in reproductive condition to males through a variety of modalities, including an increase in low-frequency vocalizations, presumed to travel long distances.  Although males respond to these vocalizations, it has been suggested that their proximate function may be to signal to nearby females rather than to distant males. Because elephants live in a female-bonded society, it is likely  that  changes in female reproductive condition also affect close-range  interactions between high- and low-ranking females and that  vocalizations  may mediate these interactions. To examine female-female interactions related to vocal production and the ovulatory cycle, this year-long study monitored behavior, vocalizations and hormonal cycles for a group of six female captive African elephants at Disney's Animal Kingdom. Rates of several types of close-range interactions were observed to change over the phases of the estrous cycle, and rank seemed to affect whether or not low-frequency vocalizations were given in association with these interactions. Results of this study suggest that a female African  elephant's  immediate social context and rank in the social hierarchy interact with  the  hormonal cycle in the production of low-frequency vocalizations, thus  many  of these vocalizations may not function proximately as signals to  distant  males, but may be a result of the changing dynamics among females.

Lewerin, S.S., Olsson, S.L., Eld, K., Roken, B., Ghebremichael, S., Koivula, T., Kallenius, G., Bolske, G., 2005. Outbreak of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection among captive Asian elephants in a Swedish zoo
637. Veterinary Record 156, 171-175.
Abstract: Between 2001 and 2003, there was an outbreak of tuberculosis in a Swedish zoo which involved elephants, giraffes, rhinoceroses and buffaloes. Cultures of trunk lavages were used to detect infected elephants, tuberculin testing was used in the giraffes and buffaloes, and tracheal lavage and tuberculin testing were used in the rhinoceroses. The bacteria isolated were investigated by spoligotyping and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Five elephants and one giraffe were found to have been infected by four different strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Lyashchenko, K., Miller, M., Waters, W.R. Application of MAPIA (Multiple antigen print immunoassay) and rapid lateral flow technology for tuberculosis testing of elephants. 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group.  64-65. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a serious re-emerging disease in wildlife and zoo animals. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been isolated from 30 captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus within 14 herds in the United States (1994-2004) and Mycobacterium bovis has been isolated from one African elephant (Loxodonta africana) (Mikota, pers. comm.).3 There are several challenges with elephant TB diagnosis. Culture of trunk wash has relatively poor sensitivity and is subject to contamination.  Skin test is not validated in elephants and there is little reliability in these results.4   Serologic tests are appealing because  samples can be stored for future analysis, archived samples can be analyzed, various assay platforms can be directly compared, and these assays are amenable to serial analysis (e.g., to monitor therapy).  There is currently a multiple antigen ELISA test available for experimental use in elephants.1

To improve tuberculosis control, new diagnostic tools should be rapid, accurate, and host species-independent. Two novel serologic methods, MultiAntigen Print ImmunoAssay (MAPIA) and lateral-flow technology (Rapid Test), have been adapted for use in white-tailed deer, European badger, cattle, and Asian and African elephants for the detection of TB-specific antibody. Serologic markers of diagnostic importance have been identified for each host tested so far. With MAPIA, a machine prints specific antigens horizontally on a nitrocellulose membrane which can be cut into strips and used in Western blot.2   Strips are incubated with test serum samples, then an anti-Ig conjugate and color developer.  Using this assay, an antibody response to multiple mycobacterial antigens has been observed in sera from M. tb-infected elephants. No antibody response was detected to any antigens in non-infected elephant sera.  Additionally, the kinetics of antibody responses by elephants undergoing antibiotic therapy indicates that the MAPIA could be used for monitoring treatment and to determine recrudescence of infection. 

Using selected antigens, a lateral-flow test was developed for rapid antibody detection that can be used in multiple species. The Rapid Test can use serum, plasma, or whole blood and provides results within 15 min.  These tests are similar to in-clinic tests for FIV/FeLV detection (snap test, IDDEX). If a band is present in the test strip, it indicates a positive reaction (antibody present).
A panel of sera from healthy and TB infected elephants showed good correlation between the MAPIA and the rapid test (Table 1).

In summary, it appears that TB-infected elephants produce a robust antibody response that can be detected in serologic assays.  Of special significance is the kinetics of the response, which may permit earlier detection of infection than current diagnostic methods.  While initial results are promising, additional studies are required to validate these two assays.  A relatively small set of serum samples from documented infected and non-infected elephants was used, and more samples are needed to further validate the tests. MAPIA has been used to optimize antigen selection in order to make the most sensitive and specific Rapid Test. This strategy may also allow for identification of "treatment-sensitive" antigens that could be used in the MAPIA format to monitor TB therapy.  While elephants will be used as an initial "proof of concept" species for test development, additional samples from other species will also be evaluated to determine applicability to other species (i.e., a host species-independent test), thus benefiting other groups such as primates, rhinos, cervids, etc.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the zoos and individuals that have provided samples and assistance with this research, including Ray Ball, Carol Buckley, Jenifer Chatfield, Genny Dumonceaux, Javan Esfandiary, Rena Greenwald, Scott Larsen, Susan Mikota, Torsten Moller, Dick Montali, Mike Richards, Heidi Riddle, Mo Salman, Scott Terrell, and many others.  This research was supported by Chembio Diagnostics, Inc.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J. Triantis. 2000.  Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis  
  infection in captive elephants.  J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31:291-302.
2 Lyashchenko, K., et al.  2000. A multiantigen print immunoassay for the serological diagnosis of infectious diseases.  J. Immunol. Methods  242:91-100. 
3 Mikota, S.K., and J. Maslow.  2002.  Epidemiology and treatment of tuberculosis in elephants:  2002.  Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Annu. Meet.  Pp. 384-387.

Murwira, A., Skidmore, A.K., 2005. The response of elephants to the spatial heterogeneity of vegetation in a Southern African agricultural landscape. Landscape Ecology 20, 217-234.
Abstract: Based on the agricultural landscape of the Sebungwe in Zimbabwe, we investigated whether and how the spatial distribution of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) responded to spatial heterogeneity of vegetation cover based on data of the early 1980s and early 1990s. We also investigated whether and how elephant distribution responded to changes in spatial heterogeneity between the early 1980s and early 1990s.  Vegetation cover was estimated from a normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI).  Spatial heterogeneity was estimated from a new approach based on the intensity (i.e., the maximum variance exhibited when a spatially distributed landscape property such as vegetation cover is measured with a successively increasing window size or scale) and dominant scale (i.e., the scale or window size at which the intensity is displayed). We used a variogram to quantify the dominant scale (i.e., range) and intensity (i.e., sill) of NDVI based congruent windows (i.e., 3.84 km x 3.84 km in a 61 km x 61 km landscape). The results indicated that elephants consistently responded to the dominant scale of spatial heterogeneity in a unimodal fashion with the peak elephant presence occurring in environments with dominant scales of spatial heterogeneity of around 457-734 m. Both the intensity and dominant scale of spatial heterogeneity predicted 65 and 68% of the variance in elephant presence in the early 1980s and in the early 1990s respectively.  Also, changes in the intensity and dominant scale of spatial heterogeneity predicted 61% of the variance in the change in elephant distribution. The results imply that management decisions must take into consideration the influence of the levels of spatial heterogeneity on elephants in order to ensure elephant persistence in agricultural landscapes.

Naz, R.K., Gupta, S.K., Gupta, J.C., Vyas, H.K., Talwar, A.G., 2005. Recent advances in contraceptive vaccine development: a mini-review
577. Hum. Reprod. 20, 3271-3283.
Abstract: Contraceptive vaccines (CV) may provide viable and valuable alternatives to the presently available methods of contraception. The molecules that are being explored for CV development either target gamete production [luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH)/GnRH, FSH], gamete function [sperm antigens and oocyte zona pellucida (ZP)], and gamete outcome (HCG). CV targeting gamete production have shown varied degrees of efficacy; however, they either affect sex steroids causing impotency and/or show only a partial rather than a complete effect in inhibiting gametogenesis. However, vaccines based on LHRH/GnRH are being developed by several pharmaceutical companies as substitutes for castration of domestic pets, farm and wild animals, and for therapeutic anticancer purposes such as in prostatic hypertrophy and carcinoma. These vaccines may also find applications in clinical situations that require the inhibition of increased secretions of sex steroids, such as in uterine fibroids, polycystic ovary syndrome, endometriosis and precocious puberty. CV targeting molecules involved in gamete function such as sperm antigens and ZP proteins are exciting choices. Sperm constitute the most promising and exciting target for CV. Several sperm-specific antigens have been delineated in several laboratories and are being actively explored for CV development. Studies are focused on delineating appropriate sperm-specific epitopes, and increasing the immunogenicity (specifically in the local genital tract) and efficacy on the vaccines. Anti-sperm antibody (ASA)-mediated immunoinfertility provides a naturally occurring model to indicate how a vaccine might work in humans. Vaccines based on ZP proteins are quite efficacious in producing contraceptive effects, but may induce oophoritis, affecting sex steroids. They are being successfully tested to control feral populations of dogs, deer, horses and elephants, and populations of several species of zoo animals. The current research for human applicability is focused on delineating infertility-related epitopes (B-cell epitopes) from oophoritis-inducing epitopes (T-cell epitopes). Vaccines targeting gamete outcome primarily focus on the HCG molecule. The HCG vaccine is the first vaccine to undergo Phase I and II clinical trials in humans. Both efficacy and lack of immunopathology have been reasonably well demonstrated for this vaccine. At the present time, studies are focused on increasing the immunogenicity and efficacy of the birth control vaccine, and examining its clinical applications in various HCG-producing cancers. The present article will focus on the current status of the anti-sperm, anti-ZP, anti-LHRH/GnRH and anti-HCG vaccines

Ortolani, A., Leong, K., Graham, L., Savage, A., 2005. Behavioral indices of estrus in a group of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24, 311-329.
Abstract: This study investigated behavioral signals of estrus by systematically monitoring the interactions of one male with four female African elephants housed in a naturalistic outdoor enclosure at Disney's Animal Kingdom over a period of 11 months. We measured changes in five spatial behaviors and 22 tactile-contact behaviors, as well as changes in serum progestagen and LH concentrations, across three ovarian cycles for each female. Two females did not cycle during the study. Three different phases of the ovarian cycle were identified: mid luteal, anovulatory follicular, ovulatory follicular.  The male followed more and carried out more genital inspections, flehmen, and trunk-to-mouth behaviors toward cycling females during their ovulatory phase. Genital inspections by the male peaked above baseline levels on  the  day of an LH surge, and up to 9 days before, in both cycling females  and,  thus, might be a useful behavioral index of estrus. The male also carried out more genital inspections, flehmen, and trunk touches to the back leg toward ovulatory cycling than noncycling females. Overall, our results  indicated that: 1) a single subadult African elephant male could  discriminate two females in the ovulatory phase of their cycle (i.e.,  during  the 3 weeks preceding ovulation) from the mid luteal phase; 2) the male  also  discriminated two cycling females in the ovulatory and anovulatory  follicular phases from two noncycling females; 3) two females in the  ovulatory phase of the cycle displayed a greater variety of  tactile-contact  behavior toward the male compared to the other cycle phases.

Pendlebury, C., Odongo, N.E., Renjifo, A., Naelitz, J., Valdez, E.V., McBride, B.W., 2005. Acid-insoluble ash as a measure of dry matter digestibility in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24, 261-265.
Abstract: There are limited data on the diet dry matter digestibility (DMD) of captive African elephants. Although the total fecal collection method is the standard for determining DMD, it is labor-intensive, time-consuming, and expensive. The acid-insoluble ash (AIA) marker technique has been used successfully to determine DMD in ruminants and monogastrics. The objective of this study was to assess how accurately the AIA marker technique could estimate the DMD of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana).  Three mature male African elephants at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida were used in this study. The animals were offered a Bermuda grass hay-based ration, and the total dry matter intake (DMI) and total fecal output were measured daily over a 7-day period to determine the total collection DMD.  The feed ingredients and fecal samples were also analyzed for AIA.  Although there were differences (P < 0.05) in total DMI and total fecal outputs, the DMD values did not (P > 0.05) differ (35.1 +/- 0.72 vs. 37.1 +/- 0.72 for total collection and AIA, respectively). There was a linear (y=0.9461x; R-2 = 0.74) relationship between the total collection and AIA marker technique DMD values. These results suggest that AIA can be used to accurately   estimate the DMD of captive African elephants.

Rahman, S.A., Walker, L., Ricketts, W., 2005. Global perspectives on animal welfare: Asia, the Far East, and Oceania
536. Rev. Sci. Tech. 24, 597-612.
Abstract: In Asia and the Far East, livestock undergo major suffering due to malnutrition, overloading, and ill-treatment. At slaughter animals are handled roughly and watch other animals being killed; stunning is not practised. Cruelty to other animals such as elephants, horses, donkeys, bears, dogs, and circus animals has largely been prevented through the efforts of animal welfare organisations. Governments have taken initiatives to establish Animal Welfare Boards and enact laws for the prevention of cruelty to animals, but their efforts are far too limited to be of any significance and financial constraints and lack of personnel inhibit the implementation of the laws that do exist. In New Zealand and Australia, legislation and strong consultation procedures at governmental and community level strive to regulate and improve the welfare of animals in all spheres, but in other Oceanic countries there is a need for both an update in, or establishment of, legislation covering animal welfare. Limited progress has been made due to the status of the Veterinary Services and a lack of resources. Although some public and educational awareness programmes are carried out, increasing exposure to international media and attitudes of visiting tourists suggest that further awareness work needs to be undertaken. To address the problems of animal welfare in developing countries, it would be inappropriate to adopt the international standards that are implemented in the developed countries. Each developing country should evolve its own standards based on its own individual priorities

Rasmussen, L.E.L., Krishamurthy, V., Sakumar, R., 2005. Behavioural and chemical confirmation of the preovulatory pheromone, (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate, in wild Asian elephants: its relationship to musth. Behaviour 142, 351-396.
Abstract: Mammalian breeding strategies vary depending on particular social contexts and sensory systems emphasized in various species. Among sexually dimorphic non-territorial Asian elephants,  Elephas maximus, a multiplex olfactory chemical signaling system has been implicated in ensuring effective reproduction. This study explores how, using chemosensory mechanisms, widely roaming, wild male elephants locate periovulatory females in matriarchal-led female family units and precisely assess their ovulatory status. In this species, the dual obstacles of separately living sexes and infrequent oestrus are overcome by lengthy female cycles. During an extended preovulatory period captive females release increasing concentrations of the urinary pheromone (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate, timed to reach a maximum just before ovulation. The current field studies combined chemical identification and quantification of female urinary (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate with behavioural observations, monitoring the frequencies of chemosensory responses and premating  behaviours by various categories of males. The results suggest the temporal extension of the preovulatory period effectively provides a synchrony between sexes for successful reproduction. Male elephants undergo a two-decade-long maturation process that involves physical, sexual, social, and physiological maturation. Males older than 30 years are generally large, sexually active, socially adept and capable of sustaining long periods of musth, during which they release secretions distinctive of adult musth.  These older adult males in musth demonstrated significantly more chemosensory responses and premating behaviours than their younger or nonmusth counterparts; they apparently are more skilled at detecting the precise ovulatory status of females. Male-male interactions are affected by size, age, and musth; the winners gain greater access to females, as indicated by the high incidence of mate guarding.  The Asian elephant shares some breeding tactics common to other mammals including some primates (e.g. orangutans) and whales, while the musth parameter adds a unique feature. Fusion-fission events are influenced by elephant reproductive strategies, as roving males join female groups while tracking preovulatory pheromone concentrations.

Sanchez, C.R., Murray, S.Z., Isaza, R., Papich, M.G., 2005. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of enrofloxacin administered orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Am J Vet Res 66, 1948-1953.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To determine the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after oral administration to captive elephants. ANIMALS: 6 clinically normal adult Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). PROCEDURE: Each elephant received a single dose of enrofloxacin (2.5 mg/kg, PO). Three elephants received their complete diet (pellets and grain) within 2 hours after enrofloxacin administration, whereas the other 3 elephants received only hay within 6 hours after enrofloxacin administration. Serum concentrations of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin were measured by use of high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: Harmonic mean half-life after oral administration was 18.4 hours for all elephants. Mean +/- SD peak serum concentration of enrofloxacin was 1.31 +/- 0.40 microg/mL at 5.0 +/- 4.2 hours after administration. Mean area under the curve was 20.72 +/- 4.25 (microg x h)/mL. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Oral administration of enrofloxacin to Asian elephants has a prolonged elimination half-life, compared with the elimination half-life for adult horses. In addition, potentially therapeutic concentrations in elephants were obtained when enrofloxacin was administered orally at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg. Analysis of these results suggests that enrofloxacin administered with feed in the manner described in this study could be a potentially useful antimicrobial for use in treatment of captive Asian elephants with infections attributable to organisms, such as Bordetella spp, Escherichia coli, Mycoplasma spp, Pasteurella spp, Haemophilus spp, Salmonella spp, and Staphylococcus spp.

Soltis, J., Leong, K., Savage, A., 2005. African elephant vocal communication II: Rumble variation reflects the individual identity and emotional state of callers. Animal Behaviour 70, 589-599.
Abstract: The most common vocalization of the African elephant, Loxodonta  africana, is the rumble, but there is no consensus as to how many rumble subtypes exist. From the standpoint of social function, many types of rumble have been proposed. From a structural standpoint, however, few studies have examined detailed acoustic measurements of a large number of calls. We analysed 270 rumbles from six adult female African elephants housed at Disney's Animal Kingdom (Lake Buena Vista, Florida, U.S.A.). Subjects wore collars outfitted with microphones and radiotransmitters that allowed recording of vocalizations from identified individuals. Rumble vocalizations were digitized and both source and filter features were measured for each call. Behavioural and endocrine data were collected so that acoustical data could be placed into the context of ongoing social behaviour and reproductive state. Multidimensional scaling analysis revealed that, from a structural standpoint, rumbles from this captive setting could not be divided into distinct subtypes, but there was extensive acoustic variation across rumbles. Discriminant function analysis and MANOVA were employed to further explore this variation. First, acoustic characteristics varied according to the individual identity of the caller. Second, rumbles varied as a function of negative emotional arousal. When associating with dominant animals, subordinate females produced rumbles with lower cepstral coefficients, suggesting low tonality and unstable pitch in the voice, compared to rumbles produced outside of the presence of dominant animals. Rumbles as a whole did not cluster into distinct acoustic types, but structural variation in rumbles reflected the individual identity and emotional state of callers.

Steinetz, B.G., Brown, J.L., Roth, T.L., Czekala, N., 2005. Relaxin concentrations in serum and urine of endangered species: correlations with physiologic events and use as a marker of pregnancy
596. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1041, 367-378.
Abstract: Many mammalian species are facing extinction due to problems created by human encroachment, agriculture, pollution, and willful slaughter. Among those at risk are the Asian and African elephant, Sumatran rhinoceros, and giant panda. Conservation groups try to save species in the wild by preserving habitat and limiting animal-human conflicts, often with limited success. Another alternative is to preserve the extant gene pool through captive breeding as a hedge against extinction. Measurement of circulating reproductive hormones is impractical for most wildlife species; determination of urinary or fecal hormone metabolites provides a more viable approach. To aid breeding management, one important tool is the ability to diagnose and monitor pregnancy, especially in species with long gestations (e.g., rhinos over 15 mo and elephants over 20 mo). Unfortunately, measuring progestins often is not useful diagnostically, because concentrations are similar during at least part of the pregnancy and the nonpregnant luteal phase in some species (e.g., elephants, rhinoceroses, and giant pandas). As serum relaxin reliably distinguishes between pregnancy and pseudopregnancy in bitches, relaxin measurement might also provide a method for detecting a successful pregnancy in endangered species. Appropriate immunoassay reagents have enabled the estimation of relaxin concentrations in the serum of elephants and rhinos and the determination of pregnancy establishment and the outcome. Relaxin was also detected in panda serum and urine. However, the extreme variability of the time between observed mating and parturition and the confounding factors of delayed implantation, pseudopregnancy, and frequent fetal resorptions made it impossible to use the panda relaxin data as a specific marker of pregnancy

Suedmeyer, W.K., Oosterhuis, J., Kollias, G., Fagan, D., Hornoff, B., Dodam, J., Shafford, H. Elephant restraint device assisted anesthesia in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group.  189-191. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Modern elephant management programs often include the use of protected contact. This allows improved safety for the elephant staff but may limit access to medical conditions occurring in elephants.
A 27-yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) weighing an estimated 3,700 kg was anesthetized for evaluation of a chronic, progressive, fistulous tract of the left ventral mandible. The mandible was routinely cultured, flushed with diluted peroxide, chlorhexidine, betadine solution, or alternating antibiotics, based on microbial sensitivities. To properly assess the left mandible, the elephant had to be placed in right lateral recumbency, which was accomplished with the use of a commercially available rotational elephant restraint device (ERD). Because of the protected contact management program, right lateral recumbency could not be guaranteed at the time of immobilization. Malpositioning, tusk fracture and/or related injury could occur upon recumbency without the additional control afforded by the ERD. The ERD is a hydraulically operated unit that comfortably restrains an elephant, minimizing safety risks to the animal and staff. The ERD consists of one solid wall, three side panels, and hinged floor. The ends of the restraint are closed with moveable shift doors. The three side panels can be moved independently depending upon the size of the animal and are further subdivided with moveable "subpanels" to allow direct access to various areas of the animal. In addition, support straps help gently stabilize limbs when performing medical procedures. The unit is positioned within the elephant holding facility at the Kansas City Zoo. The unit was installed in 1994 during renovation of the elephant exhibit, whereupon the elephant management program was changed from free-contact to protected contact. The ERD is utilized for reproductive assessments, semen collection, transabdominal ultrasound, evaluation of integumentary wounds, ophthalmic and aural examination, and administration of injectable medications. However, no elephant had been anesthetized and rotated in the restraint. The affected animal could not be guaranteed to re-enter the ERD once rotated, but would enter and station in the ERD on a daily basis. Because of this, a conspecific was conditioned to allow rotation without the use of sedatives or tranquilizers, to prepare for the actual immobilization. Adjustments in strap placement, cushioning, critical evaluation of mechanical stability, and placement of hydraulic panels allowed staff to prepare for the actual immobilization, minimizing complications. The elephant was conditioned to enter and station in the ERD. After strapping the distal limbs, thorax and caudal abdomen for support, the elephant was immobilized with a combination of 3,000 IU of hyaluronidase (O'Brien Pharmacy, Kansas City, MO USA), 10 mg acepromazine maleate, and 7 mg etorphine hydrochloride (Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins, CO USA) via pole syringe. Close monitoring of induction was performed and when stage III anesthetic plane was achieved, the elephant was rotated into right lateral recumbency, elevating the elephant 6 feet above the floor. No voluntary movement of the animal was noted while the restraint was in motion. Direct arterial blood pressure, indirect oscillometric blood pressure, blood gases, respiratory rate, excursion characteristics, cardiac rate and rhythm, and pulse oximetry was routinely monitored during the procedure. Anesthesia was maintained with intermittent boluses of etorphine hydrochloride. Intravenous physiologic fluids (lactated Ringers solution) were maintained via an i.v. aural catheter, and insufflation with oxygen was provided on a continual basis. Oral examination and palpation demonstrated an incomplete transverse fissure of the left mandibular molar, intact gingival, and proper dental occlusion with the upper arcade.  Digital radiographs of the left mandible were performed based on exposures obtained with a set of skeletonized jaws. Advantages of this diagnostic modality are the immediate imaging results, portability, and digital imaging and storage, and does not require a developer or fixative. Adjustments in radiographic angle and technique were made to obtain the best diagnostic image. Radiographic imaging demonstrated a sequestrum consisting of a fractured enamel plate  ²of the mandibular molar with a fistulous tract that coursed ventrally to communicate through the skin. The elephant was elevated 6 feet above the ground, which presented unique challenges. Because of the relatively small operating space, intubation was not possible, but insufflation was readily achieved and successful based on pulse oximetry trends. A commercial lift was utilized to elevate two large-animal circle anesthetic units to the level of the elephant's head. During immobilization the legs were cushioned and restraint straps removed to lessen the potential for occlusive damage to the tissues. The ERD allows an elephant to be positioned in either right or left lateral recumbency.
Upon completion of diagnostic procedures, the narcotic agent was reversed with 1,400 mg naltrexone hydrochloride (Zoopharm, Laramie, WY USA) administered 25% intravenously and 75% subcutaneously. The elephant awoke within 90 sec and was rotated to a standing position within the restraint. Thereafter, the elephant was confined in the restraint for approximately 45 min, until no untoward effects were likely to occur. The elephant was released from the restraint and resumed normal eating and drinking within 8 hr, and voluntarily entered the restraint within 2 wk following the procedure. The elephant was stable throughout the procedure; however, a predetermined objective for mean arterial blood pressures (<200 MAP) was not achieved. Hyaluronidase was utilized to promote rapid absorption of the narcotic and neuroleptic agents.³ Acetylpromazine was used to maintain peripheral perfusion by reducing the hypertensive effects of etorphine,¹ which has been documented in previous immobilizations of African elephants.^3-5 Etorphine hydrochloride, a powerful narcotic agent, has been successfully used as an immobilizing agent in both wild and captive African elephants.^3-5 Use of an ERD allowed full control of the immobilization, increasing safety for personnel, preventing injury to the elephant, and positioning the left mandible on the dorsal plane. Disadvantages are the elevated height of the elephant, relatively small operating space, and disrupted line of sight communication. A second procedure will be performed in the near future to address the fracture and subsequent sequestrum diagnosed during the first immobilization. The elephant is currently being conditioned to allow restraint in a holding stall that will allow greater access to the oral cavity and surgical manipulation of the affected mandible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the staff of the Kansas City Zoological Park for their care, concern, and expertise in helping make this procedure a success.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Booth, N.H. Psychotropic agents. In: Booth, N.H., and R.E. McDonald (eds.). Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics.  W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA. P. 329.
2 Fagan, V.D.A., J.E. Oosterhuis, and A. Roocraft. 2001. Captivity disorders in elephants: impacted molars and broken tusks. Der Zoologische Garten 71:281-303.
3 Honeymoon, V.L., G.R. Pettifer, and D.H. Dyson. 1992. Arterial blood pressure and blood gas values in normal standing and laterally recumbent African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus)    elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 23:205-210.
4. Kock, R.A., P. Morkel, and M.D. Kock. 1993. Current immobilization procedures used in elephants. In: Fowler,
M.E. (ed.).  Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA.  Pp. 436-441.
5 Raath, J.P. 1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., and R.E. Miller (eds.). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA.  Pp. 525-533.

Windberger, U., Plasenzotti, R., Voracek, T., 2005. The fluidity of blood in African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
543. Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc. 33, 321-326.
Abstract: The large cellular volume of erythrocytes and the increased plasma concentration of proteins in elephants are factors which potentially affect blood rheology adversely. To verify blood rheology, routine hemorheologic variables were analyzed in four African elephants (Loxodonta africana), housed in the zoo of Vienna. Whole blood viscosity at three different shear rates (WBV at low shear rate: WBV 0.7 s(-1) and WBV 2.4 s(-1); WBV at high shear rate: WBV 94 s(-1) done by LS30, Contraves) and erythrocyte aggregation (aggregation indices AI by LS30; aggregation indices M0, M1 by Myrenne aggregometer) were high (WBV 94 s(-1): 5.368 (5.246/5.648); WBV 2.4 s(-1): 16.291 (15.605/17.629); WBV 0.7 s(-1): 28.28 (25.537/32.173) mPa s; AI 2.4 s(-1): 0.25 (0.23/0.30); AI 0.7 s(-1): 0.24 (0.23/0.28); M0: 7.8 (6.4/8.4); M1: 30.2 (25/31)). Plasma viscosity (PV) was increased as well (1.865 (1.857/1.912) mPa s) compared to other mammalian species. These parameters would indicate a decrease in blood fluidity in elephants. However, erythrocyte rigidity (LORCA, Mechatronics) was decreased, which in contrast, has a promotive effect on peripheral perfusion. Blood rheology of the elephants was determined by a high whole blood and plasma viscosity as the result of pronounced erythrocyte aggregation and high plasma protein concentration. Thus, in the terminal vessels the resistance to flow will be increased. The large erythrocytes, which might impede blood flow further due to geometrical reasons, however, had a pronounced flexibility. We conclude that the effect of the increased inner resistance to peripheral blood flow was counteracted by the decreased rigidity of the erythrocytes to enable an adequate blood flow in African elephants

Wooding, F.B., Stewart, F., Mathias, S., Allen, W.R., 2005. Placentation in the African elephant, Loxodonta africanus: III. Ultrastructural and functional features of the placenta
598. Placenta 26, 449-470.
Abstract: Successful transfer of nutrients to the elephant fetus during pregnancy relies on a variety of placental modifications. Our light and electron microscopical investigations show that the structure is endotheliochorial from implantation to term, with unicellular, never syncytial trophoblast. Light and electron microscope immunocytochemistry shows the restriction of the glucose transporter 1 isoform to the basolateral surfaces of the trophoblast, with the glucose transporter 3 restricted to the apical plasmalemma of the trophoblast. Glucose transport to the fetus therefore requires a sequential use of both isoforms. Light and electron microscope cytochemistry indicate the presence of iron deposits only in the haemophagous zones confirming their iron transport function. No trophoblast areas with high concentrations of Calcium binding protein, specialised for Calcium transport were found. In situ hybridisation demonstrated the presence of IGF-II mRNA in the trophoblast from the earliest stage, with TGFbeta1 and HGF-SF mRNA expressed subsequently but only IGF-II and HGF mRNA present in the second half of pregnancy. The results are briefly discussed in terms of placental growth and function and indicate that the elephant placenta is another example of a unique solution to the variety of problems posed by a resident fetus

 2004. Elephant Husbandry Resource Guide. International Elephant Foundation, Azle. TX.

Agatsuma, T., Rajapakse, R.P., Kuruwita, V.Y., Iwagami, M., Rajapakse, R.C., 2004. Molecular taxonomic position of the elephant schistosome, Bivitellobilharzia nairi, newly discovered in Sri Lanka
745. Parasitol. Int. 53, 69-75.
Abstract: Bivitellobilharzia nairi (Mudaliar and Ramanujachar, 1945) Dutt and Srivastava, 1955 was first recorded in India. A number of adult worm specimens of this schistosome species were recovered from a domestic elephant, which died in 1999 in Sri Lanka. This is the first report of this schistosome from Sri Lanka. In the present study, in order to clarify the phylogenetic relationship with other species of schistosomes, sequences from the second internal transcribed spacer (ITS2) of the ribosomal gene repeat, part of the 28S ribosomal RNA gene (28S), and part of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) gene from B. nairi were analyzed. Two intraspecific variations were seen within 13 individuals in the ITS2 region. In the CO1 region of the mitochondrial DNA, there were four haplotypes in the nucleotide sequences and two haplotypes in the amino acid sequences. Phylogenetic analysis using the nuclear DNA showed that B. nairi was basal to all of species of the genus Schistosoma. The 28S tree also showed that the mammalian lineage was monophyletic. However, phylogenetic analysis using the mitochondrial DNA showed that B. nairi was nested within the genus Schistosoma. The taxonomical position for this species as well as the contradiction between the results from the nuclear and mitochondrial genes were discussed

Agnew, D.W., Munson, L., Ramsay, E.C., 2004. Cystic endometrial hyperplasia in elephants
741. Vet. Pathol. 41, 179-183.
Abstract: Most captive female elephants are nulliparous and aged and many have endometrial disease, factors that may hinder fertility. This study characterized the pathologic features and demographic distribution of endometrial lesions from 27 captive Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 African elephants (Loxodonta africanus), 12- to 57-years of age. The principal lesion was marked cystic and polypoid endometrial hyperplasia (CEH), present in 67% of Asian and 15% of African elephants ranging from 26 to 57 years. The lower prevalence in African elephants likely reflects their younger age range in this study. Fourteen of 15 affected elephants with breeding information were nulliparous. These results suggest that CEH and polyps are common in aged nulliparous elephants, and the severity of these lesions may impair fertility. These findings will be useful in the interpretation of ultrasonographic findings during reproductive examinations of potential breeding cows. Also, breeding programs should focus on younger animals

Brown, J.L., Olson, D., Keele, M., Freeman, E.W., 2004. Survey of the reproductive cyclicity status of Asian and African elephants in North America. Zoo Biology 23, 309-321.
Abstract: The Asian and African elephant populations in North America are not self sustaining, and reproductive rates remain low. One problem identified from routine progestagen analyses is that some elephant females do not exhibit normal ovarian cycles. To better understand the extent of this problem, the Elephant TAG/SSP conducted a survey to determine the reproductive status of the captive population based on hormone and ultrasound evaluations. The survey response rates for facilities with Asian and African elephants were 81% and 71%, respectively, for the studbook populations, and nearly 100% for the SSP facilities. Of the elephants surveyed, 49% of Asian and 62% of African elephant females were being monitored for ovarian cyclicity via serum or urinary progestagen analyses on a weekly basis. Of these, 14% of Asian and 29% of African elephants either were not cycling at all or exhibited irregular cycles. For both species, ovarian inactivity was more prevalent in the older age categories (>30 years); however, acyclicity was found in all age groups of African elephants. Fewer elephant females (B30%) had been examined by transrectal ultrasound to assess reproductive-tract integrity, and corresponding hormonal data were available for about three-quarters of these females. Within this subset, most (B75%) cycling females had normal reproductive-tract morphologies, whereas at least 70% of noncycling females exhibited some type of ovarian or uterine pathology. In summary, the survey results suggest that ovarian inactivity is a significant reproductive problem for elephants held in zoos, especially African elephants. To increase the fecundity of captive elephants, females should be bred at a young age, before reproductive pathologies occur. However, a significant number of older Asian elephants are still not being reproductively monitored. More significantly, many prime reproductive-age (10-30 years) African females are not being monitored. This lack of information makes it difficult to determine what factors affect the reproductive health of elephants, and to develop mitigating treatments to reinitiate reproductive cyclicity.

Burks, K.D., Mellen, J.D., Miller, G.W., Lehnhardt, J., Weiss, A., Figueredo, A.J., Maple, T.L., 2004. Comparison of two introduction methods for African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 23,  109-126.
Abstract:
Managers must consider an animal's potential for aggression when they decide to change or form a captive social group formation. In this study we compared two introduction methods (termed "sequential" and "nonsequential" introductions) in African elephants to assess their effectiveness in managing aggression and minimizing stress. Both introduction methods included four phases: baseline, visual contact, limited tactile contact, and physical introduction. In the sequential introduction, these steps were followed sequentially, and empirical data were considered during decision-making. In the nonsequential introduction, these steps were not followed sequentially, and decision-making was based primarily on intuitive assessments by animal managers. Behavioral data and fecal corticoid concentrations were measured throughout both types of introduction. The behavior categories measured included active aggression, passive aggression, submissive behavior, undesirable/stress-related behavior, and affiliative behavior. While the role of affiliative behavior was surprising, general behavior patterns were characterized by increases in behavior as animals progressed to the next phase of introduction regardless of introduction type. These increases then attenuated over time during each phase. Overall, less behavior was observed during the sequential introduction, as predicted.  The data suggest that the sequential introduction managed aggression more effectively. Similar patterns were predicted for undesirable/stress-related behavior and fecal corticoid concentration. Undesirable/stress-related behavior was a poor predictor of observed behavior patterns. Although the patterns differed from those predicted, higher concentrations of fecal corticoids were measured during the nonsequential introduction and correlated significantly only with submissive behavior. While more investigation is warranted, the data indicate that the nonsequential introduction brought about an increased physiological response. Overall, the sequential introduction method appeared to manage aggression and stress better than the nonsequential technique. Every introduction is subject to factors that can influence success, such as staff experience, the design of the facility, and the animals' social histories. It is hoped that the rigorous sequential protocol will be a useful tool in the animal manager's "toolbox" for planning and implementing introductions. Applications of this introduction method are also discussed.

Dahl, N.J., Olson, D., Schmitt, D., Blasko, D.R., Kristipati, R., Roser, J.F., 2004. Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for luteinizing hormone (LH) in the elephant (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus). Zoo Biology 23, 65-78.
Abstract: A simple, rapid enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the measurement of LH in plasma and serum of elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus) has been developed, validated, and used for comparative studies. Purified elephant LH (eleLH) diluted in elephant plasma was used as standards (0.78-50 ng/ml). A monoclonal antibody against the beta-subunit of bovine LH (518B(7)) was used as the capture antibody. The second antibody (a polyclonal rabbit anti-human LH antibody), conjugated to horseradish peroxidase, cleaved a substrate (tetramethyl benzidine), resulting in a color change. The total assay time was approximately 21/2 hr, with incubations at room temperature. Sensitivity was found to be 1.56 ng/ml. Cross-reactivities to elephant FSH and TSH were low: 0.9% and 0.15%, respectively. The accuracy of the assay was demonstrated by comparing the ELISA with a validated eleLH radioimmunoassay (RIA), progesterone data, and  ultrasound observations. Blood samples from 18 Asian and African elephant cows were analyzed with the ELISA and RIA, and an additional 11 cows were used to describe endocrine parameters for LH and progesterone using only RIA. No difference was found in LH peak concentrations between the ELISA and RIA. The time from the progesterone decline to the first LH peak, and the time between the two peaks were similar between species. Asian cows had higher LH peaks than African cows. Ultrasound confirmed the time of ovulation occurring with the second LH peak. Three cows were inseminated and confirmed to be pregnant using this ELISA as a timing device. Instrumentation is not always required, as LH peaks approximating 3 ng/ml can be visually observed. In conclusion, this ELISA can be used as a field test to determine time of ovulation for artificial insemination (AI) or natural breeding of both species of elephants, and thus is an important tool for the preservation of captive populations worldwide.

Dangolla, A., Ekanayake, D.K., Rajapakse, R., Dubey, J.P., Silva, I.D. Presence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in captive elephants (Elephaus maximus maximus)) in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Peradeniya University Research  Sessions, Sri Lanka, Vol 9 November 10, 2004.  209-214. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Forty-five privately owned captive, apparently healthy elephants were blood sampled in order to detect the presence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii during August 2003- June 2004. The elephants were from 5 of the 11 districts in which, captive elephants live at present. Blood samples were transported in ice to the laboratory, serum separated immediately and frozen until analysed. A direct modified agglutination test was performed on serum. Sera of 14 of 45 (32%) elephants were found to be positive for the test. Highest titre reported was 1:400. A significantly high number of females (11/14) were positive for T.gondii antibodies compared with the male elephants (P = 0.02). The differences in titres among the age groups of elephants were not significant (P > 0.05). It appears that Toxoplasmosis is common among the Sri Lankan captive Elephants. Considering the nature of the infection, the sero-positive animals could become clinically diseased when immune-compromised, such as observed in the case of tuberculosis. Elephants, may have contacted this disease through faecal contamination from wild, semi wild or domestic animals. The fate of the parasites within elephant's body and investigating the possibility of elephants infecting humans or other animals may be of importance. This is the first report on presence of antibodies to T.gondii infection in elephants in Sri Lanka

de Oliveira, C.A., West, G.D., Houck, R., Leblanc, M., 2004. Control of musth in an Asian elephant bull (Elephas maximus) using leuprolide acetate
716. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 35, 70-76.
Abstract: The results of long-term administration of leuprolide acetate (LA) depot in a 52-yr-old Asian elephant bull (Elephas maximus) for control of musth are presented. Twelve injections were administered for 6 yr during our interpretation of early musth or "premusth." Intervals between musth periods during the study varied from 2 to 34 mo. Blood samples, drawn weekly, were assayed for serum testosterone concentrations; mean levels were 11.78 +/- 1.97 nmol/L throughout the first 26 mo of the study, 7.28 +/- 1.28 nmol/L during the following 21 mo, and 0.45 +/- 0.035 nmol/L in the last 34 mo of this study. Early musth signs ceased within 3 days of drug administration after 10 of 12 injections. The mean serum testosterone concentrations were significantly decreased by the last 34 mo of the study. The results suggest leuprolide is a suitable alternative for controlling or preventing (or both) musth in captive Asian elephants, although permanent reproductive effects may occur. Zoos and wildlife conservation institutions could benefit from the use of LA in Asian elephants to increase the male availability in captivity, consequently ensuring genetic diversity and the perpetuation of the species

Dembiec, D.P., Snider, R.J., Zanella, A.J., 2004. The effects of transport stress on tiger physiology and behavior. Zoo Biology 23, 335-346.
Abstract: Tigers are often transported for education, conservation, and zoo enhancement purposes, however the effect of transfer on them has not yet been documented. Our objective was to evaluate how transport affects the behavior and physiology of tigers, taking into account previous experience with the transport procedure. We simulated transport by relocating naive tigers in a small individual transfer cage. Two tigers had prior experience with the procedure, and three tigers were naive to it. After 30 min, each tiger was released back into their original enclosure. Physiological measurements were recorded for four of the naive tigers; these included respiration rate and immune-reactive fecal cortisol response using radioimmunoassay. We also recorded the behavior of all naive tigers before, during, and after transport. Our behavioral analysis included activity level, pacing behavior, time spent investigating, respiration rate, and ear position. Average respiration rates of all tigers increased from 56.1 breaths/min to 94.6 breaths/min during transport and to 132.3 breaths/min 10 min following release into their enclosures. Average immune-reactive cortisol concentrations peaked 3-6 days after transport at 239% above baseline and returned to baseline levels 9-12 days afterward. During their peak time block, naýve tigers exhibited a higher average increase in cortisol levels (482% above baseline) than the experienced tigers (158% above baseline). The naýve tigers' average immune-reactive cortisol concentration remained elevated for a longer period (9-12 days) than the experienced tigers' (3-6 days). In both groups, behavioral responses ranged from active to inactive, however naýve tigers performed these repertoires with greater intensity by pacing faster and performing fewer state changes. Results suggest that prior exposure to elements of the transport procedure may lead to some level of habituation, thus reducing the effects of transportation stress.

deOliveira, C.A., West, G.D., Houck, R., Leblanc, M., 2004. Control of musth in an Asian elephant bull (Elephas maximus) using leuprolide acetate. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35 , 70-76.
Abstract: The results of long-term administration of leuprolide acetate (LA) depot in a 52-yr-old Asian elephant bull (Elephas maximus) for control of musth are presented. Twelve injections were administered for 6 yr during our interpretation of early musth or "premusth". Intervals between musth periods during the study varied from 2 to 34 mo. Blood samples, drawn weekly, were assayed for serum testosterone concentrations; mean levels were 11.78 +/- 1.97 nmol/L throughout the first 26 mo of the study. 7.28 +/- 1.28 nmol/L during the following 21 mo. and 0.45 +/- 0.035 nmol/L in the last 34 mo of this study. Early musth signs ceased within 3 days of drug administration after 10 of 12 injections. The mean serum testosterone concentrations were significantly decreased by the last 34 mo of the study. The results suggest leuprolide is a suitable alternative for controlling or preventing (or both) musth in captive Asian elephants, although permanent reproductive effects may occur. Zoos and wildlife conservation institutions could benefit from the use of LA in Asian elephants to increase the male availability in captivity, consequently ensuring genetic diversity and perpetuation of the species.

Elvin, M., 2004. The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China. Yale University Press.
Abstract: Review from Nature 430, 505 - 506 (29 July 2004):                
Pity the poor elephants! Over more than 4,000 years they were gradually forced from living all over China to a few protected enclaves near the border with Burma. The main reason was the destruction of their habitat as humans cut down forests and introduced agriculture. Farmers found the dwindling elephant herds a nuisance, as crops were trampled and plundered. Others came to value elephants for military, transport and ceremonial purposes: their ivory was prized and their trunks became a gourmet delicacy. Elephant numbers shrank until they were little more than a memory for most Chinese. Mark Elvin uses the decline of the elephant as an allegory to illustrate the transformation of the Chinese environment to the end of pre-industrial times. Some of the same story can be seen in Africa today.

Elvin's book is not so much an environmental history of China as a collection of its fragments. With copious quotations from Chinese written sources of all kinds, he shows what happened in different places and why. Even if we can see from archaeology that comparable events took place elsewhere, only in China are there such written records, giving a unique account of how it felt to live through them. It was not always a pleasant or edifying process, and as usual the voices of those worst affected will never be heard.

In broad terms, the transformation of the Chinese environment, which was faster in some areas than others, had certain characteristics. First, deforestation made way for agriculture. There was then a bonanza as resources were exploited, species were lost and human numbers rose. This triggered the growth of towns, cities and states with social stratification, followed by increasing competition between them, with war as the spur and the environment sometimes used as a weapon. Better technology was mitigated by mismanagement of resources. Entrapment in limited local circumstances
left people vulnerable to change. Finally, there was a greater risk of social and economic collapse affecting society as a whole. Elvin shows the differences clearly in three areas: Jiaxing to the south of the Yangzi river; Guizhou in the south, where the Han people gradually displaced the indigenous Miao; and Zunhua in the mountainous northeast.

Everywhere, control of water was essential. 'Hydraulic despotism' may tell only part of the story, but communities and even states grew partly out of the need to manage this precious and sometimes capricious resource. The struggle to run irrigation systems, limit marine incursions, maintain banks and walls, undertake dredging, cope with floods and storms, and adapt to ever-changing weather patterns is as difficult today as it ever was. With huge populations dependent on particular systems, any change can become increasingly difficult to cope with.

The complexity of Chinese attempts to manage human effects on the environment is remarkable. Even more special are the Chinese beliefs and attitudes towards the environment that have existed over the millennia. Generalizations are bound to be misleading but, in general terms, the Chinese were driven, in Elvin's words, by a desire for rational mastery of the world. They had little hesitation in uprooting forests, redirecting and polluting rivers, destroying natural landscapes and giving political and military needs absolute priority. They had remarkable powers of organization, and ran projects far beyond European capacities at the time. But in doing so, the Chinese paid scant regard to the environment and unwittingly created many long-term problems.

On the other hand, the Chinese had a particularly sensitive respect for nature and natural beauty in all its forms. Even as forests were destroyed, individual trees were singled out for admiration. Heaven and Earth were closely linked, and the line between the natural and the supernatural was blurred. There was a confluence of matter leading to energy, and energy leading to life, each a product of Bright Force and Dark Force. Dragons and spirits were sometimes seen above the surface in thunder and lightning, and sometimes below it in earthquakes. They formed part of a living world that
sustained and punished humans. They even related the behaviour of the weather to human activity, so there was morality in meteorology.

In such a world, it was crucial to divine what the invisible forces felt or did. This could involve sacrificing animals or humans, or burning cracks in the shoulder blades of mammals or the undershells of turtles. In Shang times, such practices had political significance as the ruler was the intermediary between the visible and the invisible world. This was also true in other epochs when the apparatus of authority was given almost divine attributes.

It is as difficult for us to enter into this mental cosmology as into that of our own ancestors in pre-scientific times. Elvin shows that searching for observable and verifiable facts about the world, and putting them to use in programmes of thought, was almost entirely alien to the Chinese. As a result, the shock of change was more abrupt in China than it was in Europe, where the scientific revolution began earlier. Traces of the old thinking may have survived Mao Zedong and persist in fundamental ways today.

The Retreat of the Elephants is not an easy book to read. Some of the quotations seem scarcely relevant, and the whole text could have been usefully pruned. At the end there is an unilluminating venture into equations, as if sustainability could be reduced to an algorithm. Yet taken as a whole, the book is a fascinating, scholarly miscellany of stories, poetry and ideas from the history of the longest continuous civilization on Earth. The relationship of that civilization with its fragile and often tortured surroundings contains lessons for others - particularly at a time when industrial society in China, as elsewhere, is pressing harder than ever on the environment. This will be a source book, elephants and all, for generations to come.

Enders, A.C., Carter, A.M., 2004. What can comparative studies of placental structure tell us?--A review
739. Placenta 25 Suppl A , S3-S9.
Abstract: The diversity of placental structures in Eutherian mammals is such that drawing generalizations from the definitive forms is problematic. There are always areas of reduced interhaemal distance whether the placenta is epitheliochorial, synepitheliochorial, endotheliochorial or haemochorial. However, the thinning may be achieved by different means. The presence of a haemophagous area as an iron transport facilitator is generally associated with endotheliochorial placentae but is also found in sheep and goats (synepitheliochorial) and in tenrecs and hyaenas (haemochorial). Although similar chorioallantoic placentae are found within families, structure begins to diverge at the ordinal level and there is little correlation at the supraordinal level of phylogeny. Differences in formation and function of the yolk sac provide additional variation. There would appear to be considerable adaptive pressure for development or retention of the haemochorial type of chorioallantoic placenta. This type of placenta has several possible drawbacks including more ready passage of fetal cells to the maternal organism and, should the haemochorial condition be achieved early, oxidative stress. At any rate no animal larger than the human and gorilla has this type of placenta. The endotheliochorial condition is found in animals as large as the bears, manatee and elephants. In addition to the ungulates, the epitheliochorial condition is present in the largest animals with the longest gestation periods, the whales. Considering the length of time since the early stages of mammalian evolution, it is probable that few unmodified structural features are present in any currently surviving mammal. Nevertheless, more complete studies of divergent types of mammalian placenta should help our understanding of mammalian interrelationships as well as placental function

Freeman, E.W., Weiss, E., Brown, J.L., 2004. Examination of the interrelationships of behavior, dominance status, and ovarian activity in and African elephants. Zoo Biology 23, 431-448.
Abstract: Ovarian inactivity has been identified in captive African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants and is thought to be mediated in part by social influences. Thus, a survey was conducted to determine how behavior and dominance status relate to each other and to ovarian cyclicity. For both Asian and African elephants, dominance status was positively correlated with relative size, age, temperament, disciplinary nature, and willingness to share novel objects. Relative size and temperament were also related to disciplinary nature toward herdmates. Behavior toward keepers was a good indicator of the willingness of elephants to follow cmmands, whereas sharing novel objects was positively correlated with object curiosity. Finally, dominance status, temperament, and disciplinary nature were all correlated with willingness to share. Comparisons of ovarian cyclicity status with behavior rankings were conducted only for African elephants because of the low number of noncycling Asian elephants surveyed. Overall, social status appeared to be the best predictor of ovarian activity in African elephants. Noncycling African elephant females ranked higher in the dominance hierarchy and gave more discipline to herdmates than cycling cohorts. It remains to be determined whether these are cause or effect relationships, but clearly it is important to understand how physical and social attributes impact physiological processes, such as reproduction. Captive management now needs to focus on optimizing social and environmental conditions to maximize reproductive potential in elephants.

Graham, L.H., Bando, J., Gray, C., Buhr, M.M., 2004. Liquid storage of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) sperm at 4 degrees C
737. Anim Reprod. Sci. 80, 329-340.
Abstract: The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population in the wild has been in decline for several decades and breeding in captivity has not been self-sustaining. The use of artificial insemination (AI) can help overcome many of the difficulties associated with breeding elephants in captivity; however, the ability to store semen for extended periods of time is critical to the successful application of AI to elephants. The objective of the present study was to assess the effects of four different semen extenders and the presence of egg yolk on the viability and motility of Asian elephant semen stored at 4 degrees C. High quality ejaculates (n=4) were collected from two Asian elephant bulls by rectal massage. Aliquots of each ejaculate were extended in four different diluents (Beltsville thawing solution (BTS); Tris-citric acid (TCA)/fructose-based; Beltsville F5 (BF5); dextrose-supplemented phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)) with or without egg yolk then cooled and stored at 4 degrees C. The percentages of viable (viability) and motile (motility) sperm were evaluated at 8, 24 and 48 h following collection. The addition of egg yolk significantly reduced the percentage loss in viability from initial collection to 48 h compared to extenders without egg yolk (17.0 +/- 8.2 versus 32.6 +/- 8.9 decline in percent viable sperm in the population, respectively; P<0.05). Extender and egg yolk affected (P<0.005) total motility and percent progressively motile sperm at all evaluation times during incubation. TCA + egg yolk maintained higher (P<0.05) levels of progressive motility compared to other extenders supplemented with egg yolk. These results indicate that Asian elephant semen extended in TCA diluent supplemented with egg yolk can maintain at least 50% viability and motility when stored at 4 degrees C for 48 h.

Groendahl-Nielsen, C. Drunken Asian elephants (Elephas Maximus) from ryegrass hay. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE.  368-369. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Copenhagen Zoo has maintained a herd of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) since 1878. In 1999, the herd (2.3) was housed with separation of males and pairs of females. The elephants were fed concentrate, hay, vegetables, fruit, bread, sugar beets, and browse.On the day of presentation, keepers reported that the alpha female demonstrated pronounced body wide ataxia. Due to concerns of the dry moat, the elephant was moved into an indoor enclosure. On a visual examination, the elephant was found somewhat more cooperative than usual and severely ataxic. Rectal temperature was normal (36.9oC). Auscultation demonstrated normal peristaltic sounds. Oral mucosa was pink and moist. Keepers reported that the wrapped ryegrass hay had smelled oddly when the elephants were fed in the preceding days. However, the elephants had eagerly consumed it, even before their concentrate. The hay was inspected and clearly smelled of alcohol. A tentative diagnosis of ethanol intoxication -"drunken elephant" - was made.

Elephants reportedly have a taste for alcohol and will readily eat fermented hay. The local police department was contacted for assistance. After some persuasion, they agreed to bring a Breathalyzer (Lion Alcolmeter, model S-300, Sweden) to the zoo to assess the elephant.Approximately 15 kg of hay was put into a plastic bag for 30 min to allow accumulation of any vapors. This was conducted three times and in the third attempt, enough air was trapped to process and obtained a reading over 0.1% alcohol concentration. Direct analysis of exhaled air from the elephant was unsuccessful. A blood sample was collected from an ear vein and submitted for alcohol concentration analysis to a human forensic lab (Forensic Department, University of Copenhagen, Denmark). These tests provided a result of very low alcohol content (0.0024% - legal limit for humans in Denmark driving a vehicle is 0.05%). This amount of alcohol would not account for the ataxia.

The following day, the ataxia had not changed despite diet changes that returned the elephants to normal dry hay. After reviewing the literature and considering hay composition, the diagnosis was changed to ryegrass staggers.1,2 At this time, the elephant had a normal appetite but remained confined indoors due to ataxia. After 10 days, the keepers judged that although the elephant was somewhat ataxic, it was stable enough for outside access. However, it promptly staggered and fell into the moat. The elephant was dragged from the moat by an unaffected elephant, assisted by the keepers. After another 4 days, a noticeable improvement was present in the ataxia. After 16 days, the elephant was released safely outside.

Surprisingly, 4 days after the initial case presented, a second female elephant demonstrated signs of ataxia, then the 6-ton breeding bull became ataxic the following day. This was unexpected because the suspected hay had been promptly removed from all animals' diet. The bull was severely affected and made a slow recovery - 18 days before the ataxia resolved completely.If the mycotoxicosis had worsened, the elephants would have been treated with acepromazine or diazepam.2 In summary, the long onset of intoxication from ingestion of the fermented hay to the onset of clinical signs was surprising. The protracted recovery phase called for patience in both keepers and the veterinarian.

LITERATURE CITED
1. Mansmann, R. A., E. S. McAllister, and R. A. Pratt. 1982. Equine Medicine & Surgery. Am. Vet. Publ., Santa Barbara, California. Pp. 1212.
2. Mayhew, J. 1999. Clinical Neurology of the Horse. Seminar Notes, Pp. 24-25.

Gunther, R.H., O'Connell-Rodwell, C.E., Klemperer, S.L., ., 2004. Seismic waves from elephant vocalizations: A possible communication mode? Geophysical Research Letters 31 L11602.
Abstract: We conducted experiments with trained African elephants that show that low-frequency elephant vocalizations produce Rayleigh waves. We model a potential range for these seismic waves, under ideal conditions, of c. 2 km. In appropriate conditions, surface waves from an elephant's infrasonic vocalizations might propagate further than airborne sound and provide advantages over acoustic communication. However, if we use the
detection capabilities of the human ear as a benchmark for the signal-detection thresholds of elephants, our estimates of attenuation and ambient seismic noise suggest that the seismic detection range is unlikely to exceed the acoustic detection range under normal atmospheric conditions. We conclude that elephants may benefit from seismic detection in circumstances where the range of acoustic communication is limited, or in cases where multimodal communication is advantageous. Given our current uderstanding, elephants are unlikely to rely on seismic waves as their primary mode for long-range communication.

Hakansson, N.T., 2004. The human ecology of world systems in east Africa: The impact of the ivory trade. Human Ecology 32.
Abstract: The impact on human ecology of the ivory trade entailed direct and indirect effects. First, the reduction or extermination of elephant populations had direct effects on the vegetation patterns over large areas. Second, the economic activities connected with hunting, transport, and trading affected regional systems of exchange and thereby, indirectly through the political economy, settlements, patterns of resource utilization, population parameters, and specialization of production. Ethnohistorical information from the 1800s suggests how coastal goods interacted with regional systems of exchange and environmental exploitation. Although such information cannot be directly projected onto the more distant past, it can be used to establish some possible pathways through which the hunting of elephants and transportation and trade of ivory could have affected the ecology of human resource use.

Hermes, R., Hildebrandt, T.B., Goritz, F., 2004. Reproductive problems directly attributable to long-term captivity--asymmetric reproductive aging
704. Anim Reprod. Sci. 82-83, 49-60.
Abstract: Problems attributable to long-term captivity have been identified and are responsible for the difficulties in establishing successful reproduction in captive populations of wildlife, specifically, elephants and rhinoceroses. Historically, non-reproductive periods of 10-15 years in nulliparous female rhinoceroses and elephants have not been considered problematic. New evidence suggests that prolonged exposure to endogenous sex steroids and that long stretches of non-reproductive periods induce asymmetric reproductive aging in captive animals. The consequences are reduced fertility, shortened reproductive life-span and, eventually, irreversible acyclicity. Although age-related reproductive lesions have also been documented in male rhinoceroses, they continue to maintain a longer reproductive life-span than females. Since human and domestic animal models have already indicated that early pregnancy provides natural protective mechanism against asymmetric reproductive aging processes and premature senescence, it is imperative that appropriate counter measures such as assisted reproductive technologies (ART) be utilized to ensure early pregnancy in captive animals for their preservation and to ensure increased genetic diversity of the captive populations

Hermes, R., Hildebrandt, T.B., Goritz, F., 2004. Reproductive problems directly attributable to long-term captivity-asymmetric reproductive aging. Animal Reproduction Science 82-83, 49-60.
Abstract: Problems attributable to long-term captivity have been identified and are responsible for the difficulties in establishing successful reproduction in captive populations of wildlife, specifically, elephants and rhinoceroses. Historically, non-reproductive periods of 10-15 years in nulliparous female rhinoceroses and elephants have not been considered problematic. New evidence suggests that prolonged exposure to endogenous sex steroids and that long stretches of non-reproductive periods induce asymmetric reproductive aging in captive animals. The consequences are reduced fertility, shortened reproductive life-span and, eventually, irreversible acyclicity. Although age-related reproductive lesions have also been documented in male rhinoceroses, they continue to maintain a longer reproductive life-span than females. Since human and domestic animal models have already indicated that early pregnancy provides natural protective mechanism against asymmetric reproductive aging processes and premature senescence, it is imperative that appropriate counter measures such as assisted reproductive technologies (ART) be utilized to ensure early pregnancy in captive animals for their preservation and to ensure increased genetic diversity of the captive populations.

Hildebrandt, T.B., Hermes, R., Janssen, D.L., Oosterhuis, J.E., Murphy, D., Göritz, F. Reproductive evaluation in wild African elephants prior to translocation. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE.  75-76. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Translocations of wild African (Loxodonta africana) elephants have increased significantly since 1993 after Clem Coetzee developed a new method to move adult elephants in Zimbabwe. Since then the technique have been optimized mainly by the staff of the Kruger National Park (KNP) and over 750 elephants in family units and almost 100 mature bulls have been translocated by the KNP capture team.1 The translocations were mainly performed for reducing the number of elephants in KNP and for stocking other reserves. Few elephants were also moved for overseas export to international zoological institutions. However, each elephant translocation is always a logistic challenge and is extremely costly. Therefore, it is very important to select the right elephants or elephant groups for the future translocation. If the main goal of a translocation is the establishment of a new breeding group, it is especially important to select infertile individuals and highly pregnant females which could have a miscarriage due to the transport stress. The IZW team developed a field applicable portable ultrasound technique which allows the reproductive ev ry Killmar (ZSSD), and Randy Rieches (ZSSD).

LITERATURE CITED
1. Hofmeyr, M. 2003. Translocation as a management tool for control of elephant populations. Managing African Elephant Populations: Act or Let Die. Beekbergen, The Netherlands, 6.-7.Nov., Pp. 38-39.
2. Hildebrandt T. B., F. Göritz, N. C. Pratt, D. L. Schmitt, S. Quandt, J. Raath and R. R. Hofmann. 1998. Reproductive assessment of male elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus) by ultrasonography. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 29: 114-128.

Isaza, R., Hunter, R.P., 2004. Drug delivery to captive Asian elephants - treating Goliath
546. Curr. Drug Deliv. 1,  291-298.
Abstract: Captive Asian elephants have been maintained in captivity by humans for over 4000 years. Despite this association, there is little published literature on the treatment of elephant diseases or methods of drug administration to these animals. Elephants in captivity are generally healthy and require few therapeutic interventions over the course of their lifetime. However, when they become acutely ill, treatment becomes a serious issue. The successful and consistent administration of therapeutics to elephants is formidable in an animal that presents significant limitations in drug delivery options. The single most important factor in administering drugs to an elephant is the animal's cooperation in accepting the medication. Working around elephants can be very dangerous and this is magnified when working around sick or injured animals where the elephant is subject to increased stress, pain, and unusual situations associated with treatment. The large body size of the Asian elephant produces a separate set of issues. In this paper, methods of drug administration and their associated limitations will be reviewed. Considerations of medicating such large animals can serve to highlight the problems and principles of treatment that are inherent in these species

Janssen, D.L., Oosterhuis, J.E., Fuller, J., Williams, K. Field technique: A method for obtaining trunk wash mycobacterial cultures in anesthetized free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana). 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE.  582-583. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants 2003 (Guidelines) of the National tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species were written to protect the health and safety of captive elephants together with their handlers and the viewing public.1 The Guidelines specifically address the display and transport of captive elephants but do not address the unique situation of free-living elephants being imported and subsequently displayed to the public.

Although the Guidelines describe a technique for collecting and handling a trunk wash in a trained, standing, non-anesthetized elephant, it does not describe a similar technique for anesthetized elephants in lateral recumbency. In an attempt to detect active mycobacterial infection in a group of 3 male and 8 female free-ranging African elephants scheduled for import into the United States, a technique was developed for collecting trunk washes in recumbent,  anesthetized elephants for mycobacterial culture.

A South African game-capture crew, experienced in translocating elephants, anesthetized elephants in groups via remote drug delivery and from a helicopter. The ground crew accomplished multiple simultaneous procedures including anesthesia maintenance and monitoring, physical and reproductive examinations, collection of general diagnostic and investigative samples, and trunk washes for mycobacterial cultures. This was accomplished while the capture crew was preparing animals for loading into specially designed trailers for transport to a holding boma. Little time was available for any one of procedure with multiple
animals being attended to at one time.

Once an elephant was stable in lateral recumbency, a 3-m foal stomach tube, prepackaged and sterilized, was inserted into the dependent side of the trunk tip. It was then gently fed up the trunk approximately 2.5 m. A 50-ml sample suction trap was attached to the end of the foal tube.The suction trap was then attached to a battery powered, portable aspirator pump designed for emergency medical care. The aspiration pump was activated to collect secretions from the most proximal portion of the trunk. If little or no secretions were collected by this means, the system was disconnected between the sample trap and the foal tube. Then, 100 ml of sterile saline was placed into raised end of the foal tube allowing it to drain toward the tip through gravity. The suction trap and aspiration pump were reattached to collect a sample in the sample trap. Then, the sample trap was replaced with a new trap, and the foal tube was inserted into the oral pharynx for collection of a separate oropharyngeal sample. This same procedure was repeated
with each elephant.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
So African veterinarians, Mike Bester, Larry Killmar, Janet Payeur, ARC/OVI, Thomas Hildebrant, Eric Zeehandelar, Kevin Reily, Denise SoFranko.

LITERATURE CITED
1. National tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species. 2003. Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants 2003. USDA-APHIS: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf

Lazar, J., Rasmussen, L.E., Greenwood, D.R., Bang, I.S., Prestwich, G.D., 2004. Elephant albumin: a multipurpose pheromone shuttle
691. Chem. Biol. 11, 1093-1100.
Abstract: (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate (Z7-12:Ac) is present in the urine of female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) approaching ovulation and functions as a female-to-male sex pheromone. Here we show that a significant fraction of the pheromone in the urine is bound to a protein, elephant serum albumin (ESA), and provide evidence for key physiological functions of urinary ESA. Our biochemical and behavioral experiments suggest a three-fold role of ESA in pheromone signaling: (1) transporting Z7-12:Ac from serum into urine; (2) extending the presence of the pheromone in the environment without hampering detection; and (3) targeting pheromone delivery to chemosensory organs through localized release of the ligand induced by a pH change. The exploitation of albumin in pheromone transport clearly distinguishes the elephant from other mammals studied, and complements the uniqueness of elephant anatomy, physiology, and behavior

McAloon, F.M., 2004. Oribatid mites as intermediate hosts of Anoplocephala manubriata, cestode of the Asian elephant in India
726. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 32, 181-185.
Abstract: Anoplocephala manubriata (Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) is a tapeworm that parasitizes both African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximas) elephants. Its life cycle has not yet been completely elucidated nor have intermediate hosts been previously reported. Soil and substrate was collected in the Kodanadu Forest Range, Ernakulum District and Guruvayur Devaswom Temple grounds, Thrissur District, in Kerala, India. Oribatid mites (Acari: Oribatida) were collected from dung piles near captive elephants' bedding and examined for immature stages of the tapeworm. Five species of oribatids were found to contain at least one immature life stage of A. manubriata: Galumna flabellifera orientalis Hammer 1958, Scheloribates latipes (C.L. Koch 1844), S. praeincisus (Berlese 1913), Protoribates seminudus (Hammer 1971), and P. triangularis (Hammer 1971)

Rees, P.A., 2004. Some preliminary evidence of the social facilitation of mounting behavior in a juvenile bull asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
734. J. Appl. Anim Welf. Sci. 7, 49-58.
Abstract: This study recorded sexual behavior within a captive herd of 8 Asian elephants for approximately 230 hr on 50 days over a period of 10 months. The study observed a single adult and a single juvenile bull mounting cows more than 160 times. When the juvenile bull was between 4 years, 2 months and 4 years, 8 months old, he exhibited mounting behavior only on days when adult mounting occurred. Adult mounting always occurred first. Beyond the age of 4 years, 8 months, the juvenile bull exhibited spontaneous mounting behavior in the absence of adult mounting. This suggests that mounting behavior may develop because of social facilitation. Determining the significance of the presence of sexually active adults in the normal development of sexual behavior in juveniles will require further studies. Encouraging the establishment of larger captive herds containing adults and calves of both sexes-if their presence is important-would improve the welfare of elephants in zoos and increase their potential conservation value

Rees, P.A., 2004. Low environmental temperature causes an increase in stereotypic behaviour in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Thermal Biology 29, 37-43.
Abstract: (1) Captive Asian elephants exhibited a strong negative correlation between  maximum daily temperature and the frequency of stereotypic behaviour, in those animals predisposed to exhibit stereotypies. (2) The frequency of stereotypic behaviours increased throughout each study day (1000-1400 h), reaching maximum values at the end of the day, as feeding time approached. (3) The frequencies of stereotypic behaviour were higher at all times of the day on the 10 coldest days (mean maximum daily temperature=9.0degreesC) than on the 10 warmest days (mean maximum daily temperature=23.2degreesC) of the study. (4) There was a strong negative correlation between body mass and mean frequency of stereotypic behaviour. This may have been because smaller animals lost heat faster than larger animals. (5) The aetiology of stereotypic behaviour was unclear, but it was likely to be the result of poor husbandry experienced in early life, such as chaining and inappropriate housing. Hunger and the physical thwarting of attempts to reach food and shelter may have been the proximate cause of individual episodes of stereotypic behaviour, with temperature acting as a compounding factor. There was no evidence that stereotypic behaviour developed in response to exposure to cold.

Ruedi, D. Collection and handling of semen and insemination in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) at Basle Zoo.  2004.
Ref Type: Unpublished Work
Abstract: It is urgently necessary that we take measures towards enhancing the efficiency of captive breeding of African and Asian elephants. This might be accomplished in several ways: for instance, by an extensive loan of cows for natural mating and, last but not least, by breeding under artificial conditions. With the third possibility in mind we initiated a programme in 1977 to develop a technique for artificial insemination in the African elephant; it encompassed the collection and handling of semen, oestrus detection and insemination.

Saseendran, P.C., Rajendran, S., Subramanian, H., Sasikumar, M., Vivek, G., Anil, K.S., 2004. Incidence of helminthic infection among annually dewormed captive elephants. Zoos' Print Journal 19, 1422.
Abstract: This study was conducted to determine the prevalence of parasitic infections among captive elephants in Guruvayoor town in Kerala, India. Dung samples were collected from 44 and 55 elephants during 2000 and 2002, respectively, and examined for the presence of helminth ova. Of the 99 elephants, 17 (17.17%) were positive for helminths. The incidence of helminth infection decreased from 22.73% in 2000 to 12.73% in 2002. Among the positive dung samples, 10 (10.10%) had Strongylidae and 7 (7.07%) had Digenea. The low incidence of helminth infection among captive elephants in the studied area might be due to the regular annual deworming using albendazole (2.5 mg/kg body weight).

Stringfield, C.E., Oh, P., Granich, R., Scott, J., Sun, B., Joseph, M., Flood, J., Sedgwick, C.J. Epidemiologic investigation of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a metropolitan zoo. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE.  46-48. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: From 1997 to 2000, six cases of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) infection were diagnosed in three species of animals at, or recently originating from, the Los Angeles Zoo. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis showed that five of six animal isolates shared an identical IS6110 pattern, with the sixth differing only by one additional band. A multiinstitutional epidemiologic investigation was conducted to identify and interrupt possible transmission among the animal cases, and to screen personnel for active TB infection and TB skin-test conversion.
Animal Cases
In April and October of 1994, Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) #1 and Asian elephant #2 arrived at the Los Angeles Zoo from a private elephant facility where they had lived together. They were housed together at the zoo until November of 1996 when elephant #2 was returned to the facility for several months before transfer to another zoo. In the spring of 1997, Elephant #1 (30 yr old) died of salmonellosis, with M. tuberculosis found in granulomatous lymph node lesions from the thoracic and abdominal cavities, and Elephant #2 (30 yr old) was found to have a positive trunk wash culture for M. tuberculosis. In July of 1998, one of a closed herd of three Rocky Mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) consisting of a sire and two offspring, died of pulmonary M. tuberculosis at 6 yr of age. The goat's asymptomatic herdmates were screened and had negative chest radiographs and tracheal wash cultures, but one of the two goats was positive on tuberculin skin-test. In October of 1998, a clinically normal Black rhinocerus (Diceros bicornis) was diagnosed with Mycobacerium tuberculosis after a positive skin test and nasal wash culture. In the winter of 1998, the two remaining goats were evaluated again with negative chest radiographs and tracheal wash cultures. However, 1 yr later, both were humanely euthanatized at 8 and 12 yr of age due to clinical evidence of tuberculosis on chest radiographs (both animals), and active clinical signs in one (neither were able to be orally treated). In January of 2001, a rhino was humanely euthanatized after a protracted illness that was nonresponsive to aggressive treatment. The rhino was found to have severe multifocal hemosiderosis and atypical mycobacterial infection in her lungs, with no M. tuberculosis  cultured. This animal had been treated with oral Isoniazid and Rifampin for 1 yr, cultured routinely, and was never culture positive again.
 Epidemiologic Investigation
Investigators examined medical and location histories of the affected animals, animal handling practices, health-care procedures, and performed an infection control assessment of the animal compounds and health-care facilities (including measuring air flow in the compounds by smoke testing). We conducted a review of zoo employee medical records for evidence of TB symptoms, tuberculin skin-test results, and chest radiograph information. A list of current and former employees was cross-matched with reported TB cases in the California state registry from 1985 to 2000. As part of the annual occupational health screening in June of 2000, zoo employees underwent questioning regarding TB symptoms, received tuberculin skin tests, and completed a questionnaire on medical history, job type, and history of contact with the infected animals.
Epidemiologic Findings
No common cross-species contact outside the animal compounds and no contact with an infectious human were found. The distance at which the public was kept from the animals and the distance of the compounds from each other (the elephant compound was 27 meters from the rhino compound and the goat compound was 90 m from both) suggests that direct transmission was unlikely. No active TB cases in humans were found, and no matches were found in the database of reporte d cases. The RFLP analysis of this strain of M. tuberculosis matched that of three elephants with which #1 and #2 were housed at a private elephant facility from September of 1993-February of 1994.1 We hypothesize that elephants #1 and #2 were infected at the private facility and were shipped with latent M. tuberculosis infection in 1994, subsequently infecting the black rhino and Mountain goats at the Los Angeles Zoo.
Of interest, animal caretaking and animal contact were not associated with a positive tuberculin skin-test, while groundskeepers were found to have an increased risk of tuberculin skin-test conversion compared with other job categories. Employees attending the elephant necropsy and employees who trained elephants were more likely to have tuberculin skin-test conversion than those who did not.
Conclusion
This is the first documented human and veterinary epidemiologic investigation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis affecting multiple species in a zoo. ² No evidence of transmission from humans to animals or active infections in humans were found. Genotyping evidence strongly suggests transmission from one species to another, although no evidence of transmission was discovered. Human tuberculin skin-test conversions associated with the elephants were most likely due to lack of respiratory protection for these employees when the risk of TB infection was not known. The finding that groundskeepers and not animal handlers were associated with a higher risk of tuberculin skin-test conversion was surprising, and we hypothesized that this may have to do with groundskeepers as a group being more likely to have
been born outside of the United States.
Control measures to eliminate the spread of disease to people and animals were undertaken immediately and throughout this outbreak, and no further cases of M. tuberculosis have been diagnosed at the zoo in the past 3 yr despite ongoing surveillance. Four elephants and three rhinos that had direct contact with the infected animals remain TB negative by trunk and nasal wash culture methods as outlined by the USDA for elephant TB surveillance. Methods of indirect transmission in mammalian zoo species and causes of variability in infection and morbidity within and among species warrant further investigation. Ongoing vigilance, occupational health programs and infection control measures in potentially exposed animals are recommended to prevent ongoing transmission of M. tuberculosis in zoo settings.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Animal Care and Animal Health staff of the Los Angeles Zoo who cared so well for these animals, and the veterinarians (including consulting pathologists), technicians, and medical records staff who collected, analyzed, and organized the clinical data. We could not have performed this evaluation without Sue Thisdell, Safety Officer at the Los Angeles Zoo; Jothan Staley and Donna Workman-Malcom of the City of Los Angeles Occupational Health Services Division; Lee Borenstein, Elenor Lehnkering, Patrick Ryan, Jeanne Soukup, and Annette Nita of the Los Angeles County Department of Health Services; and Diana Whipple for her RFLP expertise.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S.K., L. Peddie, J. Peddie, R. Isaza, F. Dunker, G. West, W. Lindsay, R.S.Larsen, M. D. Salman, D. Chatterjee, J. Payeur, D. Whipple, C. Thoen, D. Davis, C. Sedgwick, R.J. Montali, M. Ziccardi, J. Maslow. 2001. Epidemiology and diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in captive asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 32: 1-16.
2. Oh, P., R. Granich, J. Scott, B. Sun, M. Joseph, C. Stringfield, S. Thisdell, J. Staley, D. Workman-Malcolm, L. Borenstein, E. Lehnkering, P. Ryan, J. Soukup, A.Nitta, J. Flood. 2002. Human exposure following Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a metropolitan zoo. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 8 (11): 1290-1293.orte

Tenhumberg, B., Tyre, A.J., Shea, K., Possingham, H.P., 2004. Linking wild and captive populations to maximize species persistence: Optimal translocation strategies. Conservation Biology 18, 1304-1314.
Abstract: Captive breeding of animals is widely used to manage endangered species, frequently with the ambition of future reintroduction into the wild. Because this conservation measure is very expensive, we need to optimize decisions, such as when to capture wild animals or release captive-bred individuals into the wild. It is unlikely that one particular strategy will always work best; instead, we expect the best decision to depend on the number of individuals in the wild and in captivity. We constructed a first-order Markov-chain population model for two populations, one captive and one wild, and we used stochastic dynamic programming to identify optimal state-dependent strategies. The model recommends unique sequences of optimal management actions over several years. A robust rule of thumb for species that can increase faster in captivity than in the wild is to capture the entire wild population whenever the wild population is below a threshold size of 20 females. This rule applies even if the wild population is growing and under a broad range of different parameter values. Once a captive population is established, it should be maintained as a safety net and animals should be released only if the captive population is close to its carrying capacity. We illustrate the utility of this model by applying it to the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx). The threshold for capturing the entire Arabian oryx population in the wild is 36 females, and captive-bred individuals should not be released before the captive facilities are at least 85% full.

Wiese, R.J., Willis, K., 2004. Calculation of longevity and life expectancy in captive elephants. Zoo Biology 23, 365-373.
Abstract: The concepts of longevity (longest lived) and life expectancy (typical age at death) are common demographic parameters that provide insight into a population. Defined as the longest lived individual, longevity is easily calculated but is not representative, as only one individual will live to this extreme. Longevity records for North American Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and African elephants (Loxodonta africana) have not yet been set, as the oldest individuals (77 and 53 years, respectively) are still alive. One Asian elephant lived to 86 years in the Taipei Zoo. This is comparable to the maximum (though not typical) longevity estimated in wild populations. Calculation of life expectancy, however, must use statistics that are appropriate for the data available, the distribution of the data, and the species' biology. Using a simple arithmetic mean to describe the nonnormally distributed age at death for elephant populations underestimates life expectancy. Use of life-table analysis to estimate median survivorship or survival analysis to estimate average survivorship are more appropriate for the species' biology and the data available, and provide more accurate estimates. Using a lifetable, the median life expectancy for female Asian elephants (LxĽ0.50) is 35.9 years in North America and 41.9 years in Europe. Survival analysis estimates of average life expectancy for Asian elephants are 47.6 years in Europe and 44.8 years in North America. Survival analysis estimates for African elephants are less robust due to less data. Currently the African elephant average life expectancy estimate in North America is 33.0 years, but this is likely to increase with more data, as it has over the past 10 years.

Wilson, M.L., Bloomsmith, M.A., Maple, T.L., 2004. Stereotypic swaying and serum cortisol concentrations in three captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Animal-Welfare 13, 39-43.
Abstract: The behaviour and serum cortisol concentrations of three captive female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were studied to determine whether their stereotypic swaying was more prevalent before regularly scheduled events in the elephants' routine, and whether the elephants that exhibited more stereotyped swaying had lower mean serum cortisol concentrations. Behavioural data were collected during hour-long observations balanced across three periods, and during 15-min observations prior to the elephants being moved to different portions of their enclosure. Observational data were collected using instantaneous focal sampling of behaviours every 30 s. Serum cortisol measures were obtained through weekly blood withdrawal from the elephants' ears. Of the three elephants, two exhibited stereotyped swaying, which accounted for a mean of 0.4% of the scans during the hour-long observations and a mean of 18% of the scans prior to the elephants being moved between different parts of the enclosure. Swaying was highly variable among the individual elephants during both categories of observations. Additionally, both elephants swayed more prior to moving in the afternoon than prior to moving in the morning. Analyses of serum cortisol concentrations indicated that each elephant had a different mean cortisol level, which did not clearly correspond with the expression of swaying. The findings indicate that a rigidly scheduled management event may elicit stereotyped swaying in the studied elephants. Future research should document the behavioural and physiological effects of an altered management routine to improve captive elephant welfare.

 2003. Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.

In safe hands: A response to the RSPCA report on the welfare of elephants in captivity.  1-8. 2003. London, Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland.
Ref Type: Report

Elephants in European zoos and safari parks: Comprehensive data on elephant husbandry with an analysis of the Oxford study: Dokumentation 2002.  1-210. 2003.  European Elephant Group.
Ref Type: Report

Bechert, U., Christensen, J.M., Finnegan, M. Pharmacokinetics of orally administered ibuprofen in elephants. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  84-85. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Musculoskeletal disorders (e.g., trauma, arthritis) occur commonly in captive elephants, affecting 73% of the animals studied in 69 zoos in North America.¹  To treat these and other conditions, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents (e.g., ibuprofen and phenylbutazone) are used strictly on an empirical basis in elephants.  There is some indication that species differences in drug metabolism exist between African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants, although this has not been substantiated.²  Determination of safe and therapeutic dosing regimens for ibuprofen and phenylbutazone will improve medical management of captive elephants by providing efficacious dosage regimens, improved control of pain, and prevention of potential toxic side effects resulting from improper drug administration. The purpose of this study was: 1) to determine the pharmacokinetic parameters of ibuprofen administered per os in elephants, and 2) to establish therapeutic dosage regimens for African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus ) male and female elephants.  Twenty healthy elephants (five males and five females of each species) housed in zoos throughout North America were used in this study.  Pilot studies were conducted at the Oregon Zoo with Asian elephants using empirically derived dosing regimens and preceded each set of clinical trials to ensure that proper ranges for dosage and dosing frequency determinations would be utilized.  Therapeutic dosage requirements were determined using 4, 5 and 6 mg/kg dosages in each animal, and blood samples were collected at –5, 15, 30, 45, 60 minutes, 1½, 2, 4, 10, 12, 24 and 48 hours post-oral administration from superficial ear veins.  Optimal dosing frequency was then determined by conducting 12 and 24 hour dosing interval trials, with blood samples collected hourly for 4 hours after each of three administrations, then every 6 hours plus 1 hour prior to the next administration.  Washout periods between all trials were 3 weeks in duration and allowed for complete elimination of residual drug metabolites. Following administration of 4 mg/kg ibuprofen and a rapid absorption phase, mean ibuprofen serum concentrations peaked in African and Asian elephants at 4 hrs at 16.75 ± 6.79 μg/mL (mean ± SD).  Five mg/kg dosages of ibuprofen resulted in peak serum concentrations of 17.20 ± 7.78 μg/mL, and with 6 mg/kg dosages, serum concentrations increased to 22.42 ± 12.30 μg/mL.  Ibuprofen was eliminated with first-order kinetics characteristic of a single-compartment model with a half-life of 4 to 4.5 hrs.  The volume of distribution (V_d/F) was estimated to be 200.8 ± 101.17 mL/kg for African and 164.4 ± 34.60 mL/kg for Asian elephants.  The doses used in this study with elephants resulted in serum concentrations at or above therapeutic concentrations for humans (15-30 mg/L) for up to 12 hrs.  Serum ibuprofen concentrations decreased to below 5 μg/mL 24 hr post-administration in all elephants.  There were no statistically significant pharmacokinetic parameter differences between males and females of either species, and differences between African and Asian elephants existed but were not significant (p < 0.12).  The mean AUC and t_1/2 life values for Asian elephants were higher as compared to African elephants, and the mean clearance and elimination rate constant were lower in Asian elephants as compared to African elephants.  Ibuprofen administered at 6 mg/kg/12 hrs for Asian elephants and at 7 mg/kg/12 hrs for African elephants resulted in therapeutic serum concentrations of this anti-inflammatory agent.  Acknowledgments:The elephant keeper staff at the Kansas City Zoo, Riddle's Elephant Sanctuary, the Bowmanville Zoo, Pittsburgh Zoo, Have Trunk Will Travel, and Oregon Zoo did a great job collecting the blood samples for this study.  The Morris Animal Foundation funded this research. References: 1.Mikota, S.K., E.L. Sargent, and G.S. Ranglack.  1994.  Medical Management of the Elephant.  Indira Publishing House, West Bloomfield, Michigan, pp. 137-150. 2.Mortenson, J., and S. Sierra.  1998.  Determining dosages for anti-inflammatory agents in elephants.  Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet, pp. 477-479.

Chakraborty, A., 2003. Common words used in elephant management. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 191-194.

Clauss, M., Wang, Y., Ghebremeskel, K., Lendl, C.E., Streich, W.J., ., 2003. Plasma and erythrocyte fatty acids in captive Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Vet Rec 153, 54-58.
Abstract: The fatty acid components of the plasma triglycerides and the phospholipid fractions of the red blood cells of a captive group of two African (Loxodonta africana) and four Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants were investigated. All the animals received the same diet of hay, fruits and vegetables, and concentrates. A comparison with data from free-ranging African elephants or Asian work-camp elephants showed that the captive elephants had lower proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and for several lipid fractions a higher n-6:n-3 ratio, than their counterparts in the wild or under the more natural, in terms of diet, work-camp conditions. The difference in PUFA content was smaller in the African than in the Asian elephants. The captive Asian elephants tended to have lower levels of n-3 and total unsaturated fatty acids in their red blood cells than the captive African elephants.  Institute of Animal Physiology, Physiological Chemistry and Animal Nutrition, Veterinary Faculty, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Veterinarstrasse 13, D-80539 Munich, Germany.

Clauss, M., Loehlein, W., Kienzle, E., Wiesner, H., 2003. Studies on feed digestibilities in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 87, 160-173.
Abstract: In order to test the suitability of the horse as a nutritional model for elephants, digestibility studies were performed with six captive Asian elephants on six different dietary regimes, using the double marker method with acid detergent lignin as an internal and chromium oxide as an external digestibility marker. Elephants resembled horses in the way dietary supplements and dietary crude fibre content influenced digestibility, in calcium absorption parameters and in faecal volatile fatty acid composition. However, the absolute digestibility coefficients achieved for all nutrients are distinctively lower in elephants. This is because of much faster ingesta passage rates reported for elephants. No answer is given to why elephants do not make use of their high digestive potential theoretically provided by their immense body weight. Differences in volatile fatty acid concentrations between these captive elephants and those reported from elephants from the wild are in accord with a reported high dependence of free-ranging elephants on browse forage. Institute of Animal Physiology, Physiological Chemistry and Animal Nutrition, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany. clauss@tiph.vetmed.uni-muenchen.de

Coe, J.C., 2003. Steering the ark toward Eden: Design for animal well-being. J Am Vet Med Assoc 223, 977-980.

Dobson, G.P., 2003. On being the right size: Heart design, mitochondrial efficiency and liefspan potential. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 30, 590-597.
Abstract: 1. From the smallest shrew or bumble-bee bat to the largest blue whale, heart size varies by over seven orders of magnitude (from 12 mg to 600 kg). This study reviews the scaling relationships between heart design, cellular bioenergetics and mitochondrial effciencies in mammals of different body sizes.
2. [31P]-nuclear magnetic resonance-derived [phospho-creatine]/[ATP] ratio in hearts of smaller mammals is significantly higher (2.7 ± 0.3 for mouse; n = 22) than in larger mammals (1.6 ± 0.3 for humans; n = 13).
3. The inverse of the free myocardial cytosolic [ADP] concentration and the cytosolic phosphorylation ratio ([ATP]/ [ADP][Pi]) scales with heart size and with absolute mitochondrial and myofibrillar volumes, close to a quarter-power (from -0.22 to -0.28; r = 0.99).
4. Assuming a similar mitochondrial P/O ratio and the same maximal amount of work required to convert 1 mol NADH to 0.5 mol O2 (i.e. 212.25 kJ/mol), the higher [ATP]/[ADP][Pi] ratios or cellular driving forces (GATP) in hearts of smaller mammals imply greater mitochondrial efficiencies in coupling ATP production to electron transport as body size decreases. For a P/O ratio of 2.5, the mitochondrial efficiency in the heart of a shrew, mouse, human and whale is 84, 82, 71 and 65%, respectively.
5. Higher cytosolic ATP]/[ADP][Pi] ratios and GATP values imply that the hearts of smaller mammals operate further from equilibrium than hearts of larger mammals.
6. As a consequence of scaling relationships, a number of remarkable invariants emerge when comparing heart function from the smallest shrew to the largest whale; the total volume of blood pumped by each heart in a lifetime is approximately 200 million L/kg heart and the total number of heart beats is approximately 1.1 billion per lifetime.
7. Similarly, the metabolic potential (total O2 consumed during adult lifespan per g bodyweight) for a 2 g shrew or a 100 000 kg blue whale is approximately 38 L O2 consumed or 8.5 mol ATP/g body mass per lifetime.
8. The importance of quarter-power scaling relationships linking structural, metabolic and bioenergetic design to the natural ageing process and maximum lifespan potential is discussed.

Dumonceaux, G., Hunter, R., Koch, D., Isaza, R. The absorption and distribution of ceftiofur in asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  80-81. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Captive elephants are prone to infections of the feet, lungs and skin as evidenced by clinical and necropsy reports.³  Antimicrobials are commonly used to treat these infections with or without culture and sensitivity information.  Often treatment regimens are established with no pharmacokinetic data on the agents being used in these species.  Many times antimicrobial dosage regimens are extrapolated from equine doses or are allometrically scaled from other domestic species dosage regimens.  There are only a few antimicrobials that have been studied for pharmacokinetic information in the elephant.  These include trimethoprim-sulfadiazine, oxytetracycline, amikacin, amoxicillin, penicillin,  and ampicillin.^1,2,5,7,8  When treating animals without the benefit of pharmacokinetic information, there is risk of either overdosing or underdosing the medication to the animal resulting in adverse effects or ineffective dosing and the possibility of developing antimicrobial resistant infections.  More treatment options are needed that are based on scientific information in order to treat these appropriately. A pharmacokinetic study using ceftiofur sodium (Naxcel, Pharmacia & Upjohn Company, Kalamazoo, Michigan  49001, USA) was performed in our captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Busch Gardens in Tampa, Florida.  Health status was determined by physical condition, complete blood counts, and serum chemistry parameters.

Elephants were randomly assigned to either an intravenous (IV) or an intramuscular (IM) administration group for the first administration.  At the end of this phase the animals were not used again for a minimum of three weeks to ensure that the ceftiofur had cleared their system.  Then the groups were switched so that the group receiving the IV injections on the first set of trials received the IM injections the second time around and vice versa.  The dosage of ceftiofur administered by either route was 1.1 mg/kg based on the recommended dosage ranges for cattle and horses.⁶ Blood samples were collected just prior to drug administration and at 0.33, 0.67, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours post-administration.  Samples were collected in lithium heparin tubes, centrifuged within 10 minutes after collection, the plasma separated into cryovials and these aliquots frozen at –80 C until assayed. Ceftiofur analysis was performed using a validated liquid chromatography/mass spectrophotometry assay.

Analysis showed a steady  decline in plasma levels for both IV and IM administrations through the first 12 hours.  The IV dosing samples showed further decline through 24 hours.  Levels at 48 and 72 hours were below detectible limits for this assay. The study overall shows a similar pattern in decline of plasma levels between IM and IV administration of ceftiofur sodium in these elephants.  Plasma concentrations for the IM samples were lower than expected.  This likely could be adjusted by administering ceftiofur at a higher dosage rate of 2.2 mg/kg.  This would result in an extremely large injection volume and necessitate increasing the number of injection sites.  Efficacy of this drug at this dose is also dependent on the MIC of the target organism. Results indicate that ceftiofur used at 1.1 mg/kg IM could be useful in elephants when given 2-3 times a day depending upon the type and location of infection.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their appreciation to the elephant staff and veterinary department at Busch Gardens, Tampa for their assistance with animal handling and sample collection respectively.

LITERATURE CITED
1.  Bush, M., Raath, J.P., de Vos, V.,  Stoskopf, M.K. 1996. Serum oxytetracycline levels in free-ranging male African elephants (Loxoconta Africana) injected with a long-acting formulation.  Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 27, 382-385.
2.  Lodwick, L.J., Duback, J.M., Phillips, L.G., Brown, C.S.,  Jandreski, M.A. 1994. Pharmacokinetics of amikacin in African elephants (Loxodonta Africana).  Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 25, 367-375.
3.  Mikota, S.K., Sargent, E.,  Georgeian, L.  1994.  Medical Management of the Elephant, Indira Publishing House.  West Bloomfield, Michigan, U.S.A.
4.  Olsen, J.H. 1999.  Antibiotic therapy in elephants.  In Zoo & Wildlife Medicine:  Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders
5.  Page, C.D., Mautino, M., Derendorf, H.D.,  Anhalt, J.P. 1991.  Comparative pharmacokinetics of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole administered intravenously and orally to captive elephants.  Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine,  22, 409-416.
6.  Plumb, D.C. 1994.  Veterinary Drug Handbook.  Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa
7.  Rosin, E., Schultz-Darken, N., Perry, B.,  Tears, J.A.  1993.  Pharmacokinetics of ampicillin administered orally in Asian elephants (Elaphus maximus).  Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 24, 515-518.
8.  Schmidt, M.J. (1978) Penicillin G and amoxicillin in elephants: a study comparing dose regimens administered with serum levels achieved in healthy elephants.  Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine, 9, 127-136.

Dutta, B., 2003. Transportation of elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 164-173.

Easwaran, K.R., Ravindran, R., Pillai, K.M., 2003. Parasitic infections of some wild animals at Thekkady in Kerala. Zoos' Print Journal 18, 1030.
Abstract: Helminth infection is wide spread in wild animals and may cause mortality and morbidity of varying degrees. Gour et al.(1979) and Fowler(1986) have stated that the wild animals in the free-living state are generally infected with numerous parasites, but cause little harm to them, unless they are streesed. Therefore, understanding the rate of infection in wild animals is important since infections could result in massive die-offs of wild animals during extreme stress conditions. There are several reports of parasitic infection in zoo animals, but information of the same in free- living wild animal scanty. This paper reports the parasitic infection in four wild boars, a calf elephant, a sambar deer and a leopard cat which died at Thekkady forest area in Kerala. The parasites collected during post mortem by the first author were preserved in formalin and brought to College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy. The specimens were washed, dehydrated, cleared in creosote and eexamined for specific identity.
All the parasites found in wild boars except Gastrodiscoides hominis and Gnathostoma hispidum  commonly infect the domestic pig(Soulsby, 1982). Noda(1973) has reported Ascaris suum from Sus scrofa lucomystax while Henry and Conley(1970) recorded  Physosephalus sexalatus from European wild hogs. Occurrence of Amblyoma sp.(ticks) in wild boars is recorded by Rajagopalan et al.(1968). Herbivores and rodents are the common intermediate hosts of Lingutula serrata, which in the adult stage occur in carnivores. Available literature did not reveal the occurrence of larvae of this parasite in Sambar. The elephant calf was heavily infected with strongyle worms and maggots of Cobboldia elephantis and is quite likely that its death may be due this infection. Sundram(1966) has recorded all these parasites from captive elephants. The Leopard Cat was also heavily infected with Echinococcus granulosus causing enteritis which probably could have contributed to its death.

Fickel, J., Liekfeldt, D., Richman, L.K., Streich, W.J., Hildebrandt, T.B., Pitra, C., 2003. Comparison of glycoprotein B (gB) variants of the elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) isolated from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Vet Microbiol 91, 11-21.
Abstract: The recently described elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) have been associated with the deaths of numerous captive elephants. A proposed tool for the detection of EEHV infection in elephants is the PCR-based screening for EEHV-DNA in whole blood samples. Unfortunately, this detection method has only been successful in post-mortem analyses or in animals already displaying clinical signs of EEHV disease, thus rendering this method unsuitable for identification of carrier elephants. Here, we focus on glycoprotein B (gB) for serologic assay development, since gB is an envelope protein known to induce a neutralising antibody response in other herpesvirus infections. We sequenced the entire gB gene from five Asian elephants with EEHV, representing four different gB variants. Computer-aided methods were used to predict functionally important regions within EEHVgB. An extra-cytoplasmic region of 153 amino acids was predicted to be under positive selection and may potentially contain antigenic determinants that will be useful for future serologic assay development.

Hermes, R., Arav, A., Saragusty, J., Goeritz, F., Pettit, M., Blottner, S., Flach, E., Eshkar, G., Boardman, W., Hildebrandt, T.B. Cryopreservation of Asian elephant spermatozoa using directional freezing. Proc.Amer Assoc of Zoo Veterinarians.  264. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Male infertility and absence of males in a facility are contributing factors to the limited reproduction of Asian elephants in captivity. Subsequent transport for breeding purposes increase social stress, risks of disease transmission and management costs. Recent success in artificial insemination eliminated these obstacles only transporting the semen. However, the transport of fresh semen involves logistical<bold> </bold>difficulties: access to semen donors, consistent semen quality and preservation of the spermatozoa during transport. The use of cryo-preserved sperm for AI can partially overcome these problems and can additionally be used for the establishment of Genome Resource Banks. However, to date, attempts to cryo-preserve Asian elephant spermatozoa have failed due to its sensitivity to freezing. Aims of this study were to identify the temperature range during which spermatozoa is most sensitive to chilling injury, and to use directional freezing (DF) to reduce cell damage during the freezing process. Semen was collected from two Asian elephants by manual stimulation. DF was used for freezing sperm samples. In contrast to conventional freezing methods DF facilitated a fast cooling rate, controlled ice crystal formation and cryopreservation of large volumes. Samples extended with a variety of DMSO extenders showed post thaw motility of 30-40%. DF was able to cryo-preserve Asian Elephant spermatozoa for the first time. As DF seems to reduce cryo injury it may become of interest to optimize existing cryopreservation protocols of other endangered species, or to make cryopreservation even possible in species with cryo-sensitive spermatozoa.

Kashid, K.P., Shrikhande, G.B., Bhojne, G.R., 2003. Incidence of gastro-intestinal helminths in captive wild animals at different locations. Zoos' Print Journal 18, 1053-1054.
Abstract: The faecal samples of various species of wild and zoo animals in six different locations in India were analysed for the presence of gastrointestinal helminths. The percentages of infection for the tigers, leopards, elephants, monkeys, spotted deer, lions, peacocks, geese and ducks, kaka-kuas and other animals are given. The isolated worms included Amphistoma, strongyles, Trichuris spp., Moniezia spp., Ascaridia galli, Toxascaris leonina, Raillietina tetragona, Paragonimus westermani, Filaroides osleri [Oslerus osleri], F. hirthi, Ascaridia galli + R. tetragona, Taenia taeniaeformis, Trichuris + P. westermani and Ascaridia galli + Subulura spp.

Kotoky, P., 2003. Purchase of elephants for government departments and introduction to relevant government schemes. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 174-179.

Langman, V.A., Rowe, M., Forthman, D., Langman, N., Black, J., Walker, T., 2003. Quantifying shade using a standard environment. Zoo Biology 22, 253-260.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to quantify the thermal microclimate provided by a shade structure in the African elephant enclosure at Zoo Atlanta. The hypothesis was that the interior of a weather instrument shelter (a Stevenson screen) would provide the maximum environmental shielding and the coolest possible ambient conditions without artificial heating or cooling. The ambient conditions inside the Stevenson screen were compared with the ambient conditions in the shaded and nonshaded sections of the exhibit to quantify the extremes possible under the environmental conditions. The Stevenson screen reduced the radiant heat load by 766 W m-2. The shade structure in the elephant enclosure reduced the radiant heat load by 278 W m-2, which was 37% of the total possible reduction represented by the interior of the Stevenson screen. The longwave radiant heat was 10% greater in the direct sun and 37% greater in the shaded area than the shortwave radiant heat. The shade structure reduced the shortwave radiant heat by 254 W m-2 or 43%, but only reduced the longwave radiant heat by 24 W m-2 or 3%. Shade structures alone may not provide adequate protection from radiant heat for captive species. A cool microclimate in an artificial enclosure should be designed to reduce all sources of radiant heat.

Malhotra, A.K., Kumar, M., 2003. Management of musth Indian elephant at National Zoological Park, New Delhi. Zoos' Print Journal 18, 10.

Mikota, S.K., Hammatt, H., Finnegan, M. Occurrence and prevention of capture wounds in Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus). Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  291-293. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The capturing of elephants in Indonesia began in 1986 as an attempted solution to human-elephant conflict.  The intent was to train "problem" elephants for use in agriculture, logging and tourism.  The initial captures were conducted under the guidance of Thai mahouts and Thai koonkie elephants (trained elephants used for capture).  A number of the Indonesians that were originally trained in capture techniques still work for the government forestry department (KSDA).  The younger pawangs (elephant handlers) that participate in captures have learned from their peers.  There is no formal training program. The actual mortality rate associated with elephant captures in Sumatra is unknown as official reports are lacking.  The age structure of the existing ~ 400 captive elephants is young (most under 25) which suggests that smaller, younger elephants are preferentially captured and / or that adult elephants do not survive the capture and training processes.  Our personal experiences (Mikota and Hammatt) in Sumatra show that mortality in newly captured elephants is high.In 2001, with endorsement from the World Wide Fund for Nature-Indonesia (WWF), the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Fauna and Flora International (FFI), and the International Elephant Foundation (IEF), we requested a two-year Moratorium on elephant captures during which time capture techniques would be improved and alternative conflict mediation techniques evaluated.
A Moratorium against placing additional elephants into the Elephant Training Centers has been issued by the central government, however capture for translocation is still sanctioned.  Unfortunately, the provincial governments have increasingly acted in their own interests since the government of Indonesia began a de-centralization process a few years ago. Riau Province is thought to have the largest remaining populations of wild Sumatran elephants.Fifty-seven, human-elephant conflicts occurred in Riau between 1997-2000.  Although Riau is a hotbed of conflict, problems are occurring throughout Sumatra and we are aware of conflicts and captures in Bengkulu and North Sumatra. In October 2002, we were invited by KSDA (the provincial forestry department) to accompany their team into the field as they attempted to capture a large bull that had been raiding a palm oil plantation.  This opportunity was invaluable as we were able to observe first hand the techniques being used and where improvements were needed.  As a result of this and other experiences with newly captured elephants we observed: ·Equipment (Palmer) is old, poorly maintained, and used improperly. · Essential supplies are lacking or homemade substitutes are used.
·The dose of xylazine is very high compared to wild elephant capture doses used in India and Malaysia.  The same dose is often used regardless of the size of the elephant. ·The needles are too short to reach muscle; open-ended needles are used which can become plugged with tissue, thus preventing injection. ·Neither the correct charge nor the correct load is selected.  We observed that many darts bounced making it difficult to ascertain the amount of drug injected or its depth of penetration.  Selection of an inappropriate charge results in unnecessary trauma. ·The preparation and use of darts, needles, and syringes lacks basic hygiene. ·Dart wounds are not treated and antibiotics are not administered.  · There is no understanding of stress or capture myopathy. ·The capture team was not aware that sternal recumbency severely compromises respiration in elephants and that they can quickly die in this position. ·It is believed that elephant restraints must inflict pain to prevent wild elephants from escaping once captured.  ·There is no veterinarian on the capture team. The current capture techniques result in leg wounds from unprotected chains, neck wounds from "kahs" (neck yokes made of wood and wire), and abscesses from inappropriately administered darts.  Leg and neck wounds often become maggot infested.  Infections from dart wounds are, however, the primary cause of capture-related mortality.  These abscesses can drain for several months, even with treatment, and often progress to a necrotizing fasciitis, acute sepsis, and death. The Riau Province KSDA Team has been receptive to suggested changes to minimize wounds. Provision of heavier chains has alleviated the fear that elephants will escape.  Covering the chains with fire hose or heavy plastic minimizes injuries to legs and use of the kah has been discontinued.  A basic dart wound treatment protocol has been established. In June 2003, a comprehensive Elephant Immobilization and Translocation Workshop for Sumatra is planned to retrain all of Sumatra's field teams and to upgrade equipment. Sumatra's wild elephant population probably numbers fewer than 3000 and is under continued threat.  With so few elephants left, the preservation of as many viable herds as possible takes on increased urgency.  The Moratorium achieved in 2001 has set the groundwork for KSDA to choose translocation of wild elephants rather than capture and placement into already over-crowded and under-resourced Elephant Training Centers.  We cannot guarantee that Sumatra will capture elephants only for translocation, and it is inevitable that many more elephants will end up in captivity.  Regardless, all of the elephants that must suffer the interruption of their lives at the hand of man deserve, at the very least, humane treatment.  Translocations are neither simple nor a complete panacea.  Identifying suitable translocation areas and insuring that elephants remain there are significant challenges.  WWF-Indonesia is continuing its efforts to secure the lowland forest of Tesso Nilo in Riau Province as a "safe haven" for at least some of Sumatra's wild elephants (see WWF AREAS Program – Riau, Sumatra: http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/attachments/riau_profile.pdf).  The identification of interim release sites, together with improved capture techniques, offers the hope that fewer elephants will be removed from the wild.   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Our work in Sumatra has been supported by the Guggenheim Foundation, a CEF grant from the American Zoo and Aquarium Association, the International Elephant Foundation, Oregon Zoo, Columbus Zoo, Disney, Peace River Refuge, the Elephant Managers Association, the Riddles Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Tulsa Zoo, Toronto Zoo, Niabi Zoo, San Antonio Zoo, Denver Zoo (AAZK Chapter), Milwaukee Zoo (AAZK Chapter), the Audubon Nature Institute (Youth Volunteers), Buttonwood Park Zoo, Melbourne Zoo, and private donors.  Special thanks to Harry Peachey, John Lehnhardt, Holly Reed, Kay Backues, Mike Keele, Steve Osofsky, and Heidi and Scott Riddle.

Rees, P.A., 2003. Asian elephants in zoos face global extinction: should zoos accept the inevitable? Oryx 37, 20-22.
Abstract: Captive breeding programmes for the Asian elephant Elephas maximus have failed to establish self-sustaining zoo populations. Birth rates are low and calf mortality rates are high. The zoo population is widely dispersed, with few animals being moved on breeding loan. New techniques may increase birth rates but current predictions suggest demographic extinction within 50 years. It would be difficult to justify importing elephants from sustainable zoo reserves in Asia to participate in ex situ breeding programmes where reproductive success is low. Zoos should either urgently regroup animals to form breeding units, or accept that Asian elephants will die out in zoos and that funds should be diverted to in situ conservation projects.

Roychoudhury, R., 2003. Feeding schedule for elephants of different age groups and jobs. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 83-93.

Sarma, K.K., 2003. Managing troublesome bulls with special reference to musth in captive Asian elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 58-66.

Slade, B.E., Schulte, B.A., Rasmussen, L.E.L., 2003. Oestrous state dynamics in chemical communication by captive female Asian elephants. Animal Behaviour 65, 813-819.
Abstract: In many mammals, reproductive status is revealed through chemical cues in urine. The reproductive status of receivers may influence their interest in such signals. For social mammals that live in matrilineal groups, females may benefit by detecting the reproductive condition of herdmates. Responses to urine during oestrous cycles of senders and receivers are potential indicators of signal functions. We examined the chemosensory responses, first by four captive female Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, over their oestrous cycles to familiar follicular and luteal phase urine and second by 14 different female Asian elephants to unfamiliar conspecific follicular and luteal phase urine. We asked whether females could distinguish the reproductive state of another female as measured by their differential response to luteal-and follicular-phase urine. We further examined the influence of the receiver's reproductive status on response levels. Females responded more with specific tactolfactory trunk behaviours to follicular- than to luteal-phase urine, but only when the receiving female was in her follicular phase. Like their male conspecifics, Asian elephant females can detect changes in the reproductive state of conspecifics. The functional significance of this ability has yet to be determined but may be related more to the resource holding power of females in follicular phase than to a means for females to synchronize oestrous cycles. Such female-female communication may have important effects on social group dynamics.

Sukumar, K., 2003. Asian elephants in zoos – a response to Rees. Oryx 37, 23-24.
Abstract: The real role of zoos in the conservation of threatened animals is increasingly coming under public scrutiny, and this is perhaps natural in the case of intelligent, charismatic animals such as elephants. From Roman times up to the mid nineteenth century the elephant was a curiosity in Europe, and then with the establishment of zoos and the popularity of modern circuses there was a steady influx of animals from colonies in Africa and Asia. Elephants, however, never bred well in captivity, either historically in Asia or in recent decades in western zoos. Kings and other rulers have over the centuries obtained their elephant stocks mainly through capture from the wild, in many instances depleting these populations to the point of local extinction (Sukumar, 1989). Even the stocks of timber camp elephants in British India and Burma during the twentieth century were built up mainly through capture as opposed to breeding (Williams, 1950; Stracey, 1963; Gale, 1974; Krishnamurthy & Wemmer, 1995). The longevity of elephants ensured that sizeable numbers were available at any point in time; there was breeding among the timber camp elephants but in most places this rarely compensated for the mortality rate.

Talukdar, B.N., 2003. Daily routine and working hours for elephants and gear for different purposes. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 157-163.

Ziccardi, M., Wong, H.N., Tell, L.A., Fritcher, D., Blanchard, J., Kilbourn, A., Godfrey, H.P. Further optimization and validation of the antigen 85 immunoassay for diagnosing mycobacteriosis in wildlife. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  219-220. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis,  M. tuberculosis and M. avium has been a well-documented health problem for zoological collections as long ago as the late 19^th century.  Prevalence estimation in these captive wildlife populations, however, has been hampered by diagnostic test methods that are oftentimes difficult or impossible to conduct and/or interpret (due to the requirement for multiple immobilizations for measurement of response), the occurrence of non-specific results with methods such as the intradermal skin test, and/or the near-total lack of validation, optimization and standardization of any of the available test methods in the species of interest.  Additionally, because intradermal skin testing is the primary screening method for many of these species, the ability to compare exposure in captive wildlife with exposure in free-ranging populations has been limited due to the difficulty with follow-up in free-ranging populations.  Lastly, unlike testing methods that use serological techniques, skin testing precludes retrospective studies of banked samples to determine onset of reactivity.

Recently, human tuberculosis researchers working with tuberculosis in humans have developed an immunoassay that detects a serum protein complex (the antigen 85, or Ag85, complex) produced by mycobacteria in the early stages of mycobacterial infections¹.  Previous work has shown that this method is a promising diagnostic tool in the evaluation of tuberculosis exposure in some primate (including orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), a species known for non-specific tuberculin responses)²  and captive hoofstock species³.  In order to determine the feasibility and applicability of a widespread use of this method for captive and free-ranging wildlife species, we have undertaken a number of pilot studies on different populations of interest, with the goals of optimizing and validating the immunoassay through analysis of serum from known infected and non-infected individuals and through comparisons with other diagnostic methods.  Thus far, we have begun evaluating the applicability of the antigen 85 immunoassay in various avian, primate, rhinoceros and hoofstock species for detecting tuberculosis and/or paratuberculosis (Johne's disease) infections.  Preliminary results, a summary of which will be presented, indicate that this method may be a valuable adjunct to other testing methods (including gamma interferon and multiple-antigen ELISA) to allow a better evaluation of true mycobacterial status in these species.

LITERATURE CITED

1.Bentley-Hibbert, S. I., X. Quan, T. G. Newman, K. Huygen and H. P. Godfrey. 1999.  Pathophysiology of Antigen 85 in patients with active tuberculosis. Infect Immun. 67(2):581-8.
2.Kilbourn, A. M., H. P. Godfrey, R. A. Cook, P. P. Calle, E. J. Bosi, S. I. Bentley-Hibbert, K. Huygen, M. Andau, M. Ziccardi and W. B. Karesh.  2001.  Serum Antigen 85 levels in adjunct testing for active mycobacterial infections in orangutans.  J. Wildl. Dis. 37(1): 65-71.
3.Mangold, B. J., R. A. Cook, M. R. Cranfield, K. Huygen, and H. P. Godfrey.  1999.  Detection of elevated levels of circulating antigen 85 by dot immunobinding assay in captive wild animals with tuberculosis.  J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 30(4): 477-483.

Live hard, die young - how elephants suffer in zoos.  1-11. 2002. Southwater, U.K., RSPCA / Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
Ref Type: Report

 2002. Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand.
Abstract: FAO organized the first ever international workshop on domesticated  elephants in February 2001 at its regional office in  Bangkok. Prior to the  workshop, a series of studies in 11 domesticated  elephant range countries  was carried out and the results were presented at the workshop. The  countries included Sri Lanka, Nepal, India,  Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Malaysia and  Indonesia.  The workshop defined  the situation of domesticated elephants; identified priority areas of work,  especially on registration and laws; developed work  plans for each  identified priority area; and developed a networking  mechanism. This  publication should serve as a useful source of information and a good reference guide for elephant managers, specialists,  non-governmental  organizations and donors seeking opportunities to improve the management and utilization of Asian elephants. For a free copy write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email:Mr. Masakazu Kashio ( masakazu.kashio@fao.org). Also available on line: http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/AD031E/ad031e00.htm

Alex, P.C., 2002. The Musth, the vicious and the rogue elephants - a review. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 26-27.

Bist, S.S., 2002. The status of the domesticated elephants in India. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 4-7.

Bist, S.S., Cheeran, J.V., Choudhury, S., Barua, P., Misra, M.K., 2002. The domesticated Asian elephant in India. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 129-148.
Abstract: The history of domesticated elephants in India is briefly discussed. Estimates of the numbers of domesticated elephants are given. The laws pertaining to domestic elephants are discussed. The work done by elephants is described. The veterinary care of elephants is discussed . Recommendations for improving the domestic elephant situation in India are given.

Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Specific diseases of Asian elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 31-34.
Abstract: The earliest writing describing the diseases of elephants in ancient literature said to be the works on "Gajasastra" (Elephantology) written in Sanskrit by authors like Gautama, Narada, Mrigacharma, Rajaputra and Vyasa. "Hasthyayurveda" a legendary book in Sanskrit written by a safe Palakapya deals with some diseases, treatment, desirable and undesirable points of selection, management practices and some mythological aspects on the origin of elephants. The earliest book in English dealing with diseases of elephants seems to be that of W. Gilchrist "A practical treatise on the treatment of diseases of elephants" published in 1848. Later Slym (1873), Sanderson (1878), Steel (1885), Evans (1910), Herpburn (1913), Milroy (1922), Ptaff (1940), Ferrier (1947), Utoke Gale (1974), Chandrasekharan (1979) and Panicker (1985) have documented their findings on the incidence, etiology and control of diseases of Asian elephants.

Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Sensitive Points of Elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 25.

Cheeran, J.V., Panicker, K.C., Kaimal, R.K., Giridas, P.B., 2002. Tranquillization and translocation of captive bulls. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 219-222.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org

Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 2002. Tranquilization and translocation of elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 42-46.

Cheeran, J.V., 2002. Training and Management of Elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 21-23.

Clausen, B., 2002. An assessment of the work of the mobile elephant clinic based in Lampang, Thailand. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 239-240.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org

Clubb, R., Mason, G. A review of the welfare of zoo elephants in Europe: A report commissioned by the RSPCA.  1-280. 2002. Oxford,U.K., University of Oxford, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology.
Ref Type: Report

Daim, M.S., 2002. The care and management of domesticated elephants in Malaysia. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 149-155.
Abstract: The status of domesticated elephants in Malaysia is described. Of the 36 domesticated elephants in the country 26 are zoo exhibits, 2 are used as draught animals and 8 are used to assist in the relocation of wild elephants. The laws governing the treatment of elephants are described.

Duer, C., Carden, M., Schmitt, D., Tomasi, T., 2002. Utility of maternal serum total testosterone analysis for fetal gender determination in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Anim Reprod Sci 69, 47-52.
Abstract: It has been shown in some species that fetal testes produce testosterone early in gestation. This study investigated the possibility that fetal testosterone may be reflected in maternal serum levels in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Weekly serum samples were collected from seventeen pregnant captive Asian elephants and analyzed via radioimmunoassay (RIA) for total testosterone levels. Nine of the cows carried male fetuses and eight carried female fetuses. A non-random pattern over time (P<0.01) was observed in cows carrying either a male or female fetus. Mean maternal serum total testosterone was significantly higher in cows carrying male versus female fetuses (P<0.01). Mean trimester values indicate that first trimester values are not significantly different among male versus female groups. The second and third trimester values of cows carrying male fetuses were higher than cows carrying female fetuses, (P<0.01 and <0.05, respectively). The results of this study show that it is possible via RIA of maternal serum for total testosterone to determine the gender of calves during gestation.

Essbauer, S., Meyer, H., Kaaden, O.R., Pfeffer, M., 2002. Recent cases in the German poxvirus consulting laboratory. Revue de Medecine Veterinaire 153, 635-642.
Abstract: Designated as poxvirus consulting laboratory by the Robert-Koch-Institute (Berlin), we provide scientific advice regarding any aspects of poxviruses affecting different animals e.g. cats, elephants, swines, birds and men. Human smallpox was eradicated in the 1980s, and consequently with diminishing vaccination a generation susceptible for other zoonotic poxviruses grows up. Although the epidemiology of orthopoxvirus infections in Germany remains unclear, in the last few years we observed a drastic increase of zoonotic poxvirus infections with three case reports on human 'cowpox' infections presented here. In the two cases, we could only retrospectively trace the source of the orthopoxvirus to cats based on seroconversion. In one case, a young cat transmitted the virus to three humans; all developed clinical pox lesions. Underlying the zoonotic potential of cowpoxviruses (CPXV), these viruses exhibit a broad host range. In the year 2000, two elephants (Elephas maximus) of a German travelling circus revealed a fatal orthopoxvirus infection. The animals exhibited many poxviral lesions and died. Thus, we provide the modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) for vaccination of exotic or expensive animals. Classical virological and serological methods as well as molecular-biological techniques including PCR, sequencing and restriction fragment patterns of the newly isolated poxviruses show a very close relationship of the investigated CPXV isolates irrespective of their host species. These findings and our long-term data give evidence of an increase in orthopoxviruses infections in animals and men; thus, highlighting the importance of further investigations on virus transmission and orthopoxvirus reservoirs.

Gavier-Widen, D., Hard Af Segerstad, C., Roken, B., Moller, T., Bolske, G., Sternberg, S. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Sweden. European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians 4th Scientific Meeting.  2002. Heidelberg, Germany.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Gracenea, M., Gomez, M.S., Torres, J., Carne, E., Fernandez-Moran, J., 2002. Transmission dynamics of Cryptosporidium in primates and herbivores at the Barcelona zoo: a long-term study. Vet Parasitol 104, 19-26.
Abstract: Factors influencing the transmission of Cryptosporidium in primates and herbivores housed at the Barcelona zoo have been analyzed. The relationship between continuous and discontinuous oocyst shedding, both animal housing conditions and abiotic factors (seasonality, humidity, temperature) was examined to explain the epizootiology of the protozoan. Thirty six fecal samples from each of 11 primates (Pongidae, Cebidae, Cercopithecidae and Lemuridae) and 22 herbivores (Elephantidae, Camelidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae and Bovidae) were examined over the period of 1 year. The parasite transmission was based on the chronic infection status of some animals serving as a source of successive  reinfection for other animals. The environmental temperature and humidity (seasonality), the physical features of the facilities, the vicinity of the animals and the physiological status induced by captivity contributed to transmission. The long-term character of this study was essential for obtaining these results and interpreting the complex relationships.

Hutadjulu, B., Janis, R. The care and management of domesticated elephants in Sumatra, Indonesia. Giants on our hands. Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001.  59-66. 2002.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Islam, M.A., 2002. The status of Bangladesh's captive elephants. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 67-77.
Abstract: The history of elephant domestication in Bangladesh is described. The numbers of domesticated elephants in zoos, circuses and logging operations are given. The regulations protecting elephants are described. Recommendations for improving the welfare of domesticated elephants are given. A table lists the owners of elephants, the sex, age (if known), origin (if known), use and names of the animals, the names of the mahouts and whether the animals are registered.

Jayewardene, J. The care and management of domesticated Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. Giants on our hands. Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001.  43-57. 2002.  FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific; Bangkok; Thailand ; RAP-Publication. 2002, No.30.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Kharel, F.R., 2002. The challenge of managing domesticated Asian elephants in Nepal. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 103-110.
Abstract: The numbers of wild and domesticated elephants in Nepal are given. The legal status of domesticated elephants is discussed. Data on domesticated elephants born between 1979 and 2000 is given. The uses of elephants are discussed and recommendations for improving the husbandry of elephants are given.

Khawnual, P., Clarke, B., 2002. General care and reproductive management of pregnant and infant elephants at the Ayutthaya Elephant Camp. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 249-256.
Abstract: The management practices used at the Ayutthaya Elephant Camp (Thailand), where animals are kept for ecotourism purposes, are described. The aspects covered include feeding, provision of water, waste management and veterinary care (including health monitoring and disease control). Detailed descriptions are given of the procedures for management of pregnant females. The topics covered include mating, pregnancy diagnosis, parturition and postpartum management of the female and her offspring. These practices had resulted in 4 successful births in 2000.

Kumar, G.A., Ghosh, K.N.A., Sreekumaran, T., Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Reproduction in elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 38-40, 48-48.

Lair, R., 2002. A regional overview of the need for registration of domesticated Asian elephants. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 8-13.
Abstract: The need for registration of domesticated elephants, in order to improve welfare, prevent smuggling and assist in conservation, is discussed. The tools required (tags, forms, databases etc.) are described. The feasibility of registration programmes in 11 Asian countries are discussed.

Lohanan, R., 2002. The elephant situation in Thailand and a plea for co-operation. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 231-238.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org

Milroy, A.J.W., 2002. A.J.W. Milroy's Management of Elephants in Captivity. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun, New Delhi, India.

Murali, K., 2002. An introduction to Hastyayurveda. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 54,63-63.

Nayar, K.N.M., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 2002. Management of surgical affections in captive elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 55-59.

Norachack, B., 2002. The care and management of domesticated Asian elephants in Lao PDR. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 173-180.
Abstract: The numbers of domesticated elephants in various provinces of Laos are given. Laws and regulations protecting elephants and the organizations responsible for enforcing these are described. The uses of elephants and the veterinary care available are discussed.

Payeur, J.B., Jarnagin, J.L., Marquardt, J.G., Whipple, D.L., 2002. Mycobacterial isolations in captive elephants in the United States. Ann N Y Acad Sci 969, 256-258.
Abstract: Interest in tuberculosis in elephants has been increasing over the past several years in the United States. Several techniques have been used to diagnose mammalian tuberculosis. Currently, the test considered most reliable for diagnosis of TB in elephants is based on the culture of respiratory secretions obtained by trunk washes.

Pimmanrojnagool, V., Wanghongsa, S., 2002. A study of street wandering elephants in Bangkok and the socio-economic life of their mahouts. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 34-42.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org

Rafeek, A.K., 2002. Human Elephant Conflict. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 47-48.

Rajkamal, P.J., Rajeev, T.S., 2002. Training the Mahouts. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 24, 30-30.

Rasmussen, L.E., Wittemyer, G., 2002. Chemosignalling of musth by individual wild African elephants (Loxodonta africana): implications for conservation and management. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 269, 853-860.
Abstract: Elephants have extraordinary olfactory receptive equipment, yet this sensory system has been only minimally investigated in wild elephants. We present an in-depth study of urinary chemical signals emitted by individual, behaviourally characterized, wild male African elephants, investigating whether these compounds were the same, accentuated, or diminished in comparison with captive individuals. Remarkably, most emitted chemicals were similar in captive and wild elephants with an exception traced to drought-induced dietary cyanates among wild males. We observed developmental changes predominated by the transition from acids and esters emitted by young males to alcohols and ketones released by older males. We determined that the ketones (2-butanone, acetone and 2-pentanone, and 2-nonanone) were considerably elevated during early musth, musth and late musth, respectively, suggesting that males communicate their condition via these compounds. The similarity to compounds released during musth by Asian male elephants that evoke conspecific bioresponses suggests the existence of species-free 'musth' signals. Our innovative techniques, which allow the recognition of precise sexual and musth states of individual elephants, can be helpful to managers of both wild and captive elephants. Such sampling may allow the more accurate categorization of the social and reproductive status of individual male elephants.

Rasmussen, L.E.L., Riddle, H.S., Krishnamurthy, V., 2002. Mellifluous matures to malodorous in musth; Mood-altering secretions by excited male elephants smooth out social interactions. Nature 415, 975-976.

Ratanakorn, P., 2002. The role of NGOs in the management of domesticated elephants in Thailand. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 227-229.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org

Rees, P.A., 2002. Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) dust bathe in response to an increase in environmental temperature. Journal of Thermal Biology 27, 353-358.
Abstract: (1) A captive herd of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) exhibited dusting  behaviour when the maximum daily temperature exceeded approximately 13°C, and dusting frequency increased directly with the environmental   temperature. (2) Individual animals showed variation in dusting frequency but this was not related to body mass, suggesting that the function of   dusting is not primarily thermoregulatory. (3) Synchronisation in the   timing of dusting behaviour within the herd suggests that it may have a function in the maintenance of social cohesion. (4) The function of  dusting behaviour could not be determined from the data presented, but it  may be involved in skin care, protection from insects or other parasites, temperature control, protection from radiation or some combination of  these.

Reilly, J., 2002. Growth in the Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) and age estimation based on dung diameter. J. Zool. , Lond 258, 205-213.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate age-related growth in the Sumatran elephant Elephas maximus sumatranus and to use the derived relationship to determine the age structure of the wild elephant population in Way Kambas National Park (WKNP), Sumatra. Shoulder height, forefoot circumference and diameter of dung bolus were found to be related to age of captive Sumatran elephants using the Von Bertalanffy growth function. All length measurements were highly correlated with age in the Sumatran elephant and provide growth models for determining the age structure of wild populations. Female captive elephants reached their growth plateau earlier than male elephants who continued growing throughout the ages observed. There was no clear evidence of a secondary growth spurt in male elephants. The growth model relating dung diameter to age was used to predict the age structure of the wild elephant population in WKNP from dung measured along random line transects. The wild elephant population in WKNP is
young and dominated by sub-adults (between 5 and 15 years of age). There are marked differences between the age structure of the population as revealed in the current survey and that reported from previous studies, suggesting that changes have occurred within the population in the intervening period. The use of dung diameter to predict age offers a robust field technique for use in situations where direct observations are limited, and the use of other age estimation methods is impractical. It is easily coupled with dung counts for estimating the size, age structure and biomass of elephant populations, and has considerable potential for investigating the effects of poaching on age structure and identifying where priority action should be directed in human-elephant conflict situations.

Rietschel, W., 2002. Keeping of elephants in zoo and circus. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 109, 123-126.

Salwala, S., 2002. The role of private organizations in elephant conservation. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 223-226.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org

Sarma, K.K., 2002. Treatment of descemetocele in a captive elephant – A report. The North-East Veterinarian 1, 6-7.

Saseendran, P.C., Anil, K.S., Nair, A., Radhakrishnan, K., Prasad, A., 2002. Elephants and work. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 41, 48-48.

Schaftenaar, W., 2002. Use of vaccination against foot and mouth disease in zoo animals, endangered species and exceptionally valuable animals. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz. 21, 613-623.
Abstract: A historical review of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in non-domestic species is given and the use of FMD vaccines to protect those species is described. Several non-domestic species are susceptible to FMD. Legislation in many countries, based on the definition of FMD-free status as determined by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE: World organisation for animal health), forms an important barrier against the use of vaccines. National authorities may even feel obliged to slaughter animals of threatened species protected by international
agreements during an outbreak of FMD to preserve their FMD-free status. The importance of international breeding programmes for endangered species is forcing the international community to reconsider the role that vaccination against FMD should play in animal health prevention programmes of captive populations. Much research is still required in regard to vaccine types and diagnostic procedures. Species-specific differences in susceptibility to FMD make this a challenging research topic for zoological institutions.  Use of vaccination against foot and mouth disease in zoo animals, endangered species and exceptionally valuable animals

Schmid, J., 2002. Keeping circus elephants temporarily in paddocks - the effects on their behaviour. Animal Welfare 4, 87-101.

Suprayogi, B., Sugardjito, J., Lilley, R.P.H., 2002. Management of Sumatran elephants in Indonesia: problems and challenges. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 183-194.
Abstract: The status of domestic elephants in Indonesia is described. The development of elephant training centres and reasons for their failure to encourage the use of elephants for logging operations are discussed. Problems of stress and other health problems are described. The availability of resources (feed, water and veterinary support) are discussed. Recommendations for improvement are given.

Tipprasert, P., 2002. Elephants and ecotourism in Thailand. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 156-172.
Abstract: The numbers of elephants used at particular locations in Thailand, the activities for which they are used and the conditions under which they are kept are presented in tabular form. The Thai Elephant New World Project, which aims to integrate elephant ecotourism and conservation is described. Recommendations for the regulation and support of the use of elephants in ecotourism are given.

Tuntasuvan, D., Theeraphan, A., Phoengpong, N., Jitnupong, W., Lungka, G., 2002. Comparison of serum chemistry values and serum mineral values between captive and free-ranging elephants in Thailand. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 213-218.
Abstract: For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org

Tuntivanich, P., Soontornvipart, K., Tuntivanich, N., Wongaumnuaykul, S., Briksawan, P., 2002. Schirmer tear test in clinically normal Asian elephants. Veterinary Research Communications 26, 297-299.
Abstract: The objective of the study was to evaluate normal tear production in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand. 44 elephants (80 eyes) were studied. The mean value for a 1-minute Schirmer tear test (STT), without topical anaesthesia, was 34.3±1.7 mm/min, with a range of 14-70 mm/min. There was no significant difference between males and females. STT values varied with age, being lowest in the 0-20 year age group and highest in the 41-60 year age group.

U Tan, A., U Thoung, N., 2002. The care and management of the domesticated Asian elephant in Myanmar. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 89-102.
Abstract: he numbers of domesticated elephants employed in the logging industry and kept in zoos are given. The laws and regulations governing domestic elephants are described. Research projects relating to the reproduction of domesticated elephants are discussed. The work domestic elephants are used for is described and the veterinary care available is discussed. For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org

 2001. The Elephant's Foot: Prevention and Care of Foot Conditions in Captive Asian and African Elephants. Iowa State University Press, Ames,Iowa, USA.

Asher, G.W., Pearse, A.J. The farming of "game" species ... "horses for courses". Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production.  38-41. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Pastoral-based animal industries utilize only a handful of domesticated species. The relatively recent development of farming "game" species (i.e., species traditionally harvested by hunting) has been largely prompted by changing first-world consumer demographics. Pastoral farming of red deer in New Zealand is often seen as a glowing example of diversification away from traditional livestock. In tropical regions, specific species adapted to local climate, vegetation and diseases include axis deer, sambar deer and rusa deer. In the arctic regions, reindeer are the species of choice due to their cold tolerance and food selection habits. Various species (e.g., antelope, buffalo, elephants, zebra, etc) form the basis of a growing game ranching industry in the dry savannah regions of Africa, structured around sustainable, low-density, multi-species grazing of rangelands that are generally unsuited to domestic livestock due to aridity or parasites/diseases (e.g., tsetse fly). Thus, there are many examples of successfully picking "horses for courses" ... game species suited to particular environments. Conversely, there is a danger that in the enthusiasm to promulgate particular systems around the world, there are occasions when "horses are on the wrong courses". Classic examples for this include attempts to farm (1) tropical species in temperate environments, (2) temperate species in tropical environments, and (3) species behaviourally and physiologically misaligned with pastoral environments.

Boardman, W.S.J., Jakob-Hoff, R., Huntress, S., Lynch, M., Reiss, A., Monaghan, C., 2001. The medical and surgical management of foot abscesses in captive Asiatic elephants: case studies. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 121-126.

Buckely, C., 2001. Captive Elephant Foot Care: Natural Habitat Husbandry Techniques. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 53-55.
Abstract: Many factors, including environment, diet, and management, determine the psychological and physical health of captive elephants.  When these factors are suboptimal, resulting in stress, the captive elephants' response will manifest in disorders of the mind and/or body.  The link between these disorders and an unhealthy environment, inadequate diet, or inferior management techniques is not always obvious; but often is painfully obvious. For the purpose of this chapter, "natural habitat" is defined as a vast space of diverse terrain and natural substrate, complete with wetlands, seeded and volunteer pastures, wooded areas, natural year-round water sources (including spring-fed ponds, washes, streams, and dry creek beds), and a wide range of live vegetation suitable for the species being maintained.

Cooper, R.M., Honeyman, V.L., French, D.A., 2001. Surgical management of a chronic infection involving the phalange of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 133-134.

Dastig, B. Birth and Reproduction Rate in a Herd of Captive Asian Elephants at the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  19-23. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The majority of Asian elephants currently or previously held in zoos and circuses in Europe and North America came into captivity as young animals between two and five years of age. This was possible due to the low transportation costs. These young animals, either captured or born to working elephants, were merely a by-product and thus sold at a low price. Today, Asian elephants destined for zoos come from working elephants or from jungle camps. These animals are all orphans and have never lived in a natural social structure. Circuses and zoos usually keep only female elephants, which are then deprived of a social structure including an alpha cow, aunts, sisters and their young. This results in the animals' rarely giving birth in captivity. This is why gathering data and conducting observation in this field is particularly difficult. It is for this reason that the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage offers an ideal location for learning more about reproduction and social structure in Asian elephants. The orphanage is located in Sri Lanka halfway between the capitol, Colombo, and Kandy, the ancient royal city. The orphanage represents the largest herd of Asian elephants in human care. In 1997 the herd consisted of 56 elephants; in 1998 the population had grown to include 63 elephants.

Dhakal, N.P. Role of Domestic Elephants (Elephas maximus) in Park Management: Nepal's Experience. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  255-257. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

du Toit, J.G., 2001. Veterinary Care of African Elephants. Novartis and south African Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria, Republic of Southhttp://bigfive.jl.co.za./elephant_book.htm Africa.
Abstract: This manual is a project of the South African Veterinary Foundation and Novartis South Africa (Pty) Ltd. It is distributed by Wildlife Decision Support
PO BOX 74610, Lynnwood Ridge, Pretoria, RSA, 0040; Tel: +27 12991-3083; Fax: +27 12991-3851 Online:http://bigfive.jl.co.za./elephant_book.htm

Finnegan, M., Monti, M., 2001. Surgical management of phalangeal osteomyelitis in a female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 135-137.

Flugger, M., Goritz, F., Hermes, E., Isenbugel, A., Klarenbeek, W., Schaftenaar, W., Schaller, K., Strauss, G. Evaluation of physiological data and veterinary medical experiences in 31 Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) births in six European zoos. Verh ber Erkrg Zootiere (Proc. 40th Intl Symp  Zoo and Wild Anim  Med).  123-133. 2001. Rotterdam, Netherlands. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Fowler, M.E., 2001. Elephant foot care: concluding remarks. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 147-149.

Fowler, M.E., 2001. An Overview of Foot Conditions in Asian and African Elephants. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames IA, USA, pp. 3-7.

Fritsch, G., Hermes, R., Maltzan, J. New Aspects of Sexual Maturation in Male Elephants. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  25. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Gage, L., 2001. Treatment of osteomyelitis in elephant feet. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press,  Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 117-118.

Ganswindt, A., Heistermann, M., Borragan, S., Hodges, J.K., 2001. Assessment of testicular endocrine function in captive African elephants by measurement of urinary and fecal androgens. Zoo Biology 21,  27-36.

Garai, M. Managing Elephants on Private Reserves in South Africa. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  259-261. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Gibson, K., Flanagan, J.P., 2001. Ouch, do that again! Treatment of chronic nail infections in an Asian bull elephant using protected contact. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 87-88.

Gsandtner, H., Schwammer, H. Future Perspectives for Elephant-Keeping in Circuses. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  263. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Hart, B.L., Hart, L.A., Mccoy, M., Sarath, C.R., 2001. Cognitive behaviour in Asian elephants: use and modification of branches for fly switching. Animal Behaviour 62, 839-847.
Abstract: This article reports on a study which consists of two parts, the first part reports on the observations of one juvenile and 33 adult wild elephants comprising 26.7 h of cumulative observations in Nagarhole National Park, Karnataka, India. Eight of these elephants were observed using branches presumably to repel flies. In the second part of the study, conducted on  the same park, 13 captive elephants, maintained under a naturalistic system, were given branches that were too long or bushy to be effectively used as switches. Eight of these elephants modified the branch on at least one trial to a smaller branch, or modify the branch and switch with the altered branch. The style of branch modification seen in the elephants that did modify was of two general approaches. One was done either of two ways: (1) by holding the main stem on the ground with a front foot and  pulling the side stem off with the trunk; (2) by coiling the trunk around  the side stem and twisting and swishing it against the weight of the main branch.

Hildebrandt, T.B., Hermes, R., Pratt, N.C., Brown, J.L., Schwammer, H., Schmitt, D., Jewgenow, K., Olson, D., Lehnhardt, J.L., Goritz, F. Results of Artificial Insemination Programmes in Asian and African Elephants Kept Under Different Management Systems. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  52. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Horwath, A., Kratochvil, H., Schwammer, H. Sounds of a Newborn African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Captivity. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  265-267. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Houser, D., Simmons, L.G., Armstrong, D.L., 2001. Treatment of an abscessed footpad of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) using a sandal and topically applied chitosan. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 107-113.

Hughes, J., Southard, M., 2001. Elephant Foot Care for an Asian Elephant at Mesker Park Zoo and Botanic Garden. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press,  Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 73-77.
Abstract: Mesker Park Zoo and Botanic Garden, Evansville, Indiana, has a 46-year old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) who is left unchained in a stall with a concrete floor at night.  She has daily access to a yard with a substrate of large rock (number 53 limestone) covered with crushed limestone (number 10 with fines) and an area of sand.  We have an aggressive, free-contact regimen to prevent serious foot problems.  The preventive regimen includes interior exhibit and yard maintenance, general husbandry, daily hands-on inspections, twice a day foot scrubs, and weekly pedicures for all four feet.  To make more efficient use of time, pedicures are done with power tools (planer, sander) in addition to the usual hand tools.  If an incipient problem is detected, treatment is aggressive.  Treatment usually consists of medical soaks, topical antimicrobials, and removal of all necrotic tissue.  In this manner we have been able to contain relatively minor problems and prevent major problems from developing.  Therefore, Mesker Park Zoo and Botanic Garden has instituted a free-contact, preventive foot care program for our Asian elephant.  Incorporated into this program are general husbandry practices, inside and outside exhibit maintenance, daily foot inspections, weekly pedicures, and two-way communication between keepers and veterinary staff.  The program is updated as new problems arise and as old treatments cease to work.  This preventive program allows minor programs to be identified and treated early, thus avoiding any major future problems.

Kalk, P., Wilgenkamp, C., 2001. Elephant Foot Care Under the Voluntary-Contact System: Problems and Solutions              . In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 63-64.
Abstract: Dependable, consistent access to an elephant's nails and pads is a crucial aspect of keeping captive elephants healthy.  This requires the cooperation from the elephant, a facility design that allows safe access to the elephant, and flexible thinking from those who provide the care.  This is true under any method of elephant management, but provides some new challenges with the relatively new, voluntary (or protected) contact style of elephant handling.  We discuss in this chapter some simple elephant facility modifications and training strategies that have allowed us to provide sound foot care for elephants in a voluntary-contact facility. Reliable foot care is critical to the health of captive elephants.  There has been considerable concern about the restricted access to elephant feet, nails and pads under a voluntary-contact system (Priest 1994).  Voluntary contact (VC) is a more accurate and descriptive term than protected contact because it emphasizes the elephants' voluntary cooperation with the keeper (Doherty et al. 1996).  VC has been the sole method of management for four of our Indian Elephants (Elephas maximus indicus) since May 1995.  We describe in this chapter our solutions to obstacles in VC elephant foot access, care, and treatment.  Simple facility modification and systemic training, with thoughtful positioning of the elephant relative to the keeper, has allowed us to provide reliable, sound care for our elephants' feet.

Kam, R., 2001. Preoperative conditioning and postoperative treatments of a protected-contact bull elephant. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 127-131.

Kenny, D.E., 2001. Long-term administration of α-Tocopherol in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Zoo Biology 20, 245-250.
Abstract: After the loss of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in February 1989 at the Denver Zoological Gardens (DZG) with very low circulating serum α-tocopherol, a long-term study was initiated with three Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to evaluate the effect of an oral micellized, water-soluble, natural source d-α-tocopherol supplement. Baseline α-tocopherol levels were evaluated and found to be approximately 3.75-fold less than those reported for semi-free-ranging Asian Nepalese work camp and free-ranging African elephants. The DZG elephants were then administered a liquid d-α-tocopherol (Emcelle®) at 2.2 IU/ kg body weight orally once daily. Serum samples were obtained and analyzed at 1, 2, 8, and 12 months and then annually for 96 months. The oral vitamin E supplement significantly elevated serum levels above baseline and were found to be comparable with levels reported for semi-free-ranging and free-ranging elephants.

Kurt, F., Garai, M. Stereotypies in Captive Asian Elephants - A Symptom of Social Isolation. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  57-63. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Kurt, F., Touma, C. Musth in Wild - Living and Captive Asian Elephants in Sri Lanka. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  64-69. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Lahiri-Choudhury, D.K., 2001. Historical lessons for the treatment of foot diseases in captive Asian elephants. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 81-83.

Lehnhardt, J., Bolling, J., Pratt, N., Joseph, S., Miller, G., Graham, L., Miller, M., Neiffer, D., Hildebrandt, T., Goeritz, F. Elephant Artificial Insemination (AI) in Protected Contact. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  70. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Loehlein, W., Kienzle, E., Wiesner, H., Clauss, M. Investigations on the Use of Chromium Oxide as an Inert, External Marker in Captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus): Passage and Recovery Rates. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  250. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Mahasavangkul, S. Domestic Elephant Status and Management in Thailand. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  71-82. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Mellen, J., MacPhee, M.S., 2001. Philosophy of environmental enrichment: past, present, and future. Zoo Biology 20, 211-226.
Abstract: The brief tenure of environmental enrichment has been influenced both directly and indirectly by the field of psychology, from the work of B.F. Skinner to that of Hal Markowitz. Research on enrichment supports the supposition that an enriched environment does indeed contribute to a captive animal's well-being. Critical elements of effective environmental enrichment are 1) assessing the animal's natural history, individual history, and exhibit constraints and 2) providing species-appropriate opportunities, i.e., the animal should have some choices within its environment. This paper presents a historic perspective of environmental enrichment, proposes a broader, more holistic approach to the enrichment of animals in captive environments, and describes a framework or process that will ensure a consistent and self-sustaining enrichment program.

Mikota, S.K., Hammatt, H. Elephant Care International: An Independent Program Devoted to Elephant Healthcare and Conservation. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  272-276. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding