Elephant
Bibliographic
Database

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Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org

References Updated October 2007

     1.    Archie E.A., Hollister-Smith J.A., Poole J.H. et al. 2007. Behavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African elephants.Molecular Ecology 16: 4138-4148.
Abstract: The costs of inbreeding depression, as well as the opportunity costs of inbreeding avoidance, determine whether and which mechanisms of inbreeding avoidance evolve. In African elephants, sex-biased dispersal does not lead to the complete separation of male and female relatives, and so individuals may experience selection to recognize kin and avoid inbreeding. However, because estrous females are rare and male-male competition for mates is intense, the opportunity costs of inbreeding avoidance may be high, particularly for males. Here we combine 28 years of behavioural and demographic data on wild elephants with genotypes from 545 adult females, adult males, and calves in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, to test the hypothesis that elephants engage in sexual behaviour and reproduction with relatives less often than expected by chance. We found support for this hypothesis: males engaged in proportionally fewer sexual behaviours and sired proportionally fewer offspring with females that were natal family members or close genetic relatives (both maternal and paternal) than they did with nonkin. We discuss the relevance of these results for understanding the evolution of inbreeding avoidance and for elephant conservation.

     2.    Babweteera F., Savill P. and Brown N. 2007. Balanites wilsoniana: Regeneration with and without elephants.Biological Conservation 134: 40-47.
Abstract: Tropical forest trees that produce large fruits and/or large seeds are believed to be dependant on a few and often rare large vertebrates for dispersal. However, little is known about the population dynamics of such trees when they lose their specialised dispersers. This study examines the juvenile spatial distribution of Balanites wilsoniana, Dawe & Spraque, which is believed to be dependant solely on elephants for dispersal, in forests with and without elephants. Using camera traps, elephants were confirmed to be the only frugivores feeding and thus dispersing Balanites wilsoniona fruits. There was a high density of seedlings beneath adult trees in one forest without elephants, which was attributed to low seed and seedling predation in this forest. Nevertheless, it was only in the forest with elephants that juveniles were established away from adult trees. Analysis of the spatial distribution of these juveniles by size revealed that saplings and poles are more likely to be found away from adult trees thus providing evidence that dispersal enhances juvenile survival. This study underlines the importance of seed dispersal for trees that cannot maintain their populations through seedlings germinating and surviving beneath adult conspecifics. The study also demonstrates that loss of vertebrates has ramifications for tree species dynamics above and beyond loss of seed dispersers.

     3.    Barnes R.F.W., Dubiure U.F., Danquah E. et al. 2007. Crop-raiding elephants and the moon.African Journal of Ecology 45: 112-115.
Abstract: The problem of crop-raiding elephants has become particularly acute around the Kakum Conservation Area (KCA) in southern Ghana where the surrounding communities suffer severe losses each year (Dudley, Mensah-Ntiamoah & Kpelle, 1992; Barnes, Azika & Asamoah-Boateng, 1995). The frequency of crop-raiding by elephants is affected by the ecological conditions within their forest refuge and by the farming landscape outside (Barnes, 2002; Barnes et al., 2003; Danquah, 2003; Chiyo et al., 2005). In addition, physical features of the environment play a role. For example, Dickinson (1998) suspected that the Kakum elephants raided less frequently at the full moon. Here we test Dickinson's (1998) hypothesis for the Kakum elephants using data from an investigation of crop-raiding around KCA (Barnes et al., 2003, 2005). An exploratory analysis of the data revealed that rainfall was another physical variable that influenced crop-raiding, and here we show how rainfall and lunar phase together predict the risk from elephants.

     4.    Bates L.A. and Byrne R.W. 2007. Creative or created: using anecdotes to investigate animal cognition.Methods 42: 12-21.
Abstract: In non-human animals, creative behaviour occurs spontaneously only at low frequencies, so is typically missed by standardised observational methods. Experimental approaches have tended to rely overly on paradigms from child development or adult human cognition, which may be inappropriate for species that inhabit very different perceptual worlds and possess quite different motor capacities than humans. The analysis of anecdotes offers a solution to this impasse, provided certain conditions are met. To be reliable, anecdotes must be recorded immediately after observation, and only the records of scientists experienced with the species and the individuals concerned should be used. Even then, interpretation of a single record is always ambiguous, and analysis is feasible only when collation of multiple records shows that a behaviour pattern occurs repeatedly under similar circumstances. This approach has been used successfully to study a number of creative capacities of animals: the distribution, nature and neural correlates of deception across the primate order; the occurrence of teaching in animals; and the neural correlates of several aptitudes--in birds, foraging innovation, and in primates, innovation, sociallearning and tool-use. Drawing on these approaches, we describe the use of this method to investigate a new problem, the cognition of the African elephant, a species whose sheer size and evolutionary distance from humans renders the conventional methods of comparative psychology of little use. The aim is both to chart the creative cognitive capacities of this species, and to devise appropriate experimental methods to confirm and extend previous findings.

     5.    Binladen J., Gilbert M.T.P. and Willerslev E. 2007. 800,000 year old mammoth DNA, modern elephant DNA or PCR artefact?Biology Letters 3: 55-56.
Abstract: Poulakakis and colleagues (Poulakakis et al. 2006: Biol. Lett. 2, 451 - 454), report the recovery of 'authentic' mammoth DNA from an 800 000 year-old fragment of bone excavated on the island of Crete. In light of results from other ancient DNA studies that indicate how DNA survival is unlikely in samples, which are recovered from warm environments and are relatively old (e. g. more than 100 000 years), these findings come as a great surprise. Here, we show that problems exist with the methodological approaches used in the study. First, the nested PCR technique as reported is nonsensical - one of the second round 'nested' primers falls outside the amplicon of the first round PCR. More worryingly, the binding region of one of the first round primers (Elcytb320R) falls within the short 43 base pair reported mammoth sequence, specifically covering two of the three reportedly diagnostic Elephas polymorphisms. Finally, we demonstrate using a simple BLAST search in GenBank that the claimed 'uniquely derived character state' for mammoths is in fact also found within modern elephants.

     6.    Blake S., Strindberg S., Boudjan P. et al. 2007. Forest Elephant Crisis in the Congo Basin.PLoS Biol 5: Epub.
Abstract: A systematic survey of 68,000 km2 throughout Central Africa reveals that the forest elephant--distinct from the savannah elephant--is severely threatened by poaching, despite a near universal ban of trade in ivory. Author Summary: Forest elephants, perhaps a distinct species of African elephant, occur in the forests of West and Central Africa. Compared to the more familiar savannah elephant of Eastern and Southern Africa, forest elephant biology and their conservation status are poorly known. To provide robust scientific data on the status and distribution of forest elephants to inform and guide conservation efforts, we conducted surveys on foot of forest elephant abundance and of illegal killing of elephants in important conservation sites throughout Central Africa. We covered a combined distance of over 8,000 km on reconnaissance walks, and we systematically surveyed a total area of some 60,000 km2 under the auspices of the Monitoring of the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) programme. Our results indicate that forest elephant numbers and range are severely threatened by hunting for ivory. Elephant abundance increased with increasing distance from the nearest road, and poaching pressure was most concentrated near roads. We found that protected areas have a positive impact on elephant abundance, probably because management interventions reduced poaching rates inside protected areas compared to non-protected forest. Law enforcement to bring the illegal ivory trade under control, and effective management and protection of large and remote national parks will be critical if forest elephants are to be successfully conserved.

     7.    Buij R., McShea W.J., Campbell P. et al. 2007.  Patch-occupancy models indicate human activity as major determinant of forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis seasonal distribution in an industrial corridor in Gabon.Biological Conservation 135: 189-201.
Abstract: The importance of human activity and ecological features in influencing African forest elephant ranging behaviour was investigated in the Rabi-Ndogo corridor of the Gamba Complex of Protected Areas in southwest Gabon. Locations in a wide geographical area with a range of environmental variables were selected for patch-occupancy surveys using elephant dung to assess seasonal presence and absence of elephants. Patch-occupancy procedures allowed for covariate modelling evaluating hypotheses for both occupancy in relation to human activity and ecological features, and detection probability in relation to vegetation density. The best fitting models for old and fresh dung data sets indicate that (1) detection probability for elephant dung is negatively related to the relative density of the vegetation, and (2) human activity, such as presence and infrastructure, are more closely associated with elephant distribution patterns than are ecological features, such as the presence of wetlands and preferred fresh fruit. Our findings emphasize the sensitivity of elephants to human disturbance, in this case infrastructure development associated with gas and oil production. Patch-occupancy methodology offers a viable alternative to current transect protocols for monitoring programs with multiple covariates.

     8.    Bulte E.H., Damania R. and Van Kooten G.C. 2007. The effects of one-off ivory sales on elephant mortality.Journal of Wildlife Management 71: 613-618.
Abstract: We revisited the debate about whether the 1999 one-off sale of ivory promoted elephant (Loxodonta africana) poaching in Africa. Complementing earlier work based on ivory seizure data, we considered data on elephant mortality in Zimbabwe and Kenya. Our findings present a mixed picture. At the local level there was some evidence that the one-off sale resulted in extra elephant killing, but this effect was relatively small (and probably short-lived). Although the data were too scanty to draw strong conclusions, decision-making about elephant management and the ivory trade has to continue and will necessarily be based on imperfect information for a long time to come. Our findings suggest that further experimenting with one-off sales may be beneficial from a conservation and development perspective.

     9.    Carbone C., Teacher A. and Rowcliffe J.M. 2007. The Costs of Carnivory.PLoS Biol 5: 1-6.
Abstract: Mammalian carnivores fall into two broad dietary groups: smaller carnivores (,20 kg) that feed on very small prey (invertebrates and small vertebrates) and larger carnivores (.20 kg) that specialize in feeding on large vertebrates. We develop a model that predicts the mass-related energy budgets and limits of carnivore size within these groups. We show that the transition from small to large prey can be predicted by the maximization of net energy gain; larger carnivores achieve a higher net gain rate by concentrating on large prey. However, because it requires more energy to pursue and subdue large prey, this leads to a 2-fold step increase in energy expenditure, as well as increased intake. Across all species, energy expenditure and intake both follow a three-fourths scaling with body mass. However, when each dietary group is considered individually they both display a shallower scaling. This suggests that carnivores at the upper limits of each group are constrained by intake and adopt energy conserving strategies to counter this. Given predictions of expenditure and estimates of intake, we predict a maximum carnivore mass of approximately a ton, consistent with the largest extinct species. Our approach provides a framework for understanding carnivore energetics, size, and extinction dynamics.

   10.    Clauss M., Streich W.J., Schwarm A., Ortmann S. and Hummel J. 2007. The relationship of food intake and ingesta passage predicts feeding ecology in two different megaherbivore groups.Oikos 116: 209-216.
Abstract: Digestion, especially of plant material, is a time-dependent process. In herbivores, an increase in food intake is usually correlated to an acceleration of ingesta passage through the gut, and could hence depress digestive efficiency. Therefore, the nature of the relationship between food intake and ingesta passage (i.e. whether the increase in ingesta passage due to the increase in food intake is mild or drastic) should determine the flexibility of the feeding strategy of herbivore and omnivore species. Using two megaherbivore groups, the elephants and the hippopotamuses, as examples from opposing ends of the range of potential adaptations to this problem, we demonstrate that the species-specific relationship of food intake and ingesta passage can precisely predict feeding ecology and activity budgets. In hippos, the distinct acceleration in ingesta passage due to increased intake limits the additional energy gained from eating more forage, and explains the comparatively low food intake and short feeding times generally observed in these animals. In elephants, increased food intake only leads to a very moderate increase of ingesta passage, thus theoretically allowing to optimize energy gain by eating more, which is in accord with the high food intake and long feeding times observed in these animals. We suggest that the characterization of the intake-passage relationship in herbi- and omnivorous species is of much higher ecological relevance than the determination of a supposedly species-specific "passage time/mean retention time.".

   11.    Corlett R.T. 2007. The impact of hunting on the mammalian fauna of tropical Asian forests.Biotropica 39: 292-303.
Abstract: People have hunted mammals in tropical Asian forests for at least 40,000 yr. This period has seen one confirmed global extinction (the giant pangolin, Manis palaeojavanica) and range restrictions for several large mammals, but there is no strong evidence for unsustainable hunting pressure until the last 2000-3000 yr, when elephants, rhinoceroses, and several other species were progressively eliminated from the large parts of their ranges. Regional declines in most species have occurred largely within the last 50 yr. Recent subsistence hunting has typically focused on pigs and deer (hunted with dogs and spears or with snares), monkeys and other arboreal mammals (often caught with blowpipes), and porcupines and other rodents (smoked or dug out of burrows). Over the last 50 yr, the importance of hunting for subsistence has been increasingly outweighed by hunting for the market. The hunted biomass is dominated by the same species as before, sold mostly for local consumption, but numerous additional species are targeted for the colossal regional trade in wild animals and their parts for food, medicines, raw materials, and pets. Many populations of mammalian dispersers of large seeds and understory browsers have been depleted or eliminated, while seed predators have had a more variable fate. Most of this hunting is now illegal, but the law enforcement is generally weak. However, examples of successful enforcement show that hunting impacts can be greatly reduced where there is sufficient political will. Ending the trade in wild animals and their parts should have the highest regional conservation priority.

   12.    Dai X., Shannon G., Slotow R., Page B. and Duffy K.J. 2007. Short-Duration Daytime Movements Of A Cow Herd Of African Elephants.Journal of Mammalogy 88: 151-157.
Abstract: We examined daytime movements of a herd of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) at 10-min, 15-min, and 20-min intervals in Pongola Game Reserve, South Africa. This group tended to proceed in a consistent direction during consecutive movements, especially during long moves. Serial movement lengths and serial movement angles were autocorrelated at 10-min and 15-min intervals but not at 20-min intervals, indicating that 20-min intervals may be a suitable temporal scale to avoid oversampling. Herd movements followed a Lévy-modulated correlated random walk. In addition, looping movements were detected. Spatial scale of the loops averaged about 1 km. Movement strategies that include both Lévy walks and correlated random walks are thought to optimize foraging.

   13.    Edkins M.T., Kruger L.M., Harris K. and Midgley J.J. 2007. Baobabs and elephants in Kruger National Park: nowhere to hide.African Journal of Ecology doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00798.x.
Abstract: Baobab size class distributions were surveyed in the Limpopo National Park (LNP), Mozambique, and the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa. There are very few elephants in the LNP and the baobab population there had a reverse J-shaped size class distribution with many small baobabs. In contrast, the elephant-impacted baobab population of KNP displayed a mono-modal size-class distribution, with a lack in recruitment. Within KNP, elephant impact (percentage bark stripped up to the height of 3 m) decreased with increasing rockiness and slope steepness. We interpret this to suggest that steep rocky slopes are inaccessible to elephants and therefore these sites may act as a refuge for baobabs. In such inaccessible areas, the baobab population has a similar size-class distribution to that of the populations in the LNP. However, these baobab refugia are restricted in the northern KNP landscape and are therefore probably not large enough to sustain a viable baobab population.

   14.    Hildebrandt T., Drews B., Gaeth A.P. et al. 2007. Foetal age determination and development in elephants.Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 274: 323-331.
Abstract: Elephants have the longest pregnancy of all mammals, with an average gestation of around 660 days, so their embryonic and foetal development have always been of special interest. Hitherto, it has only been possible to estimate foetal ages from theoretical calculations based on foetal mass. The recent development of sophisticated ultrasound procedures for elephants has now made it possible to monitor the growth and development of foetuses of known gestational age conceived in captivity from natural matings or artificial insemination. We have studied the early stages of pregnancy in 10 captive Asian and 9 African elephants by transrectal ultrasound. Measurements of foetal crown-rump lengths have provided the first accurate growth curves, which differ significantly from the previous theoretical estimates based on the cube root of foetal mass. We have used these to age 22 African elephant foetuses collected during culling operations. Pregnancy can be first recognized ultrasonographically by day 50, the presumptive yolk sac by about day 75 and the zonary placenta by about day 85. The trunk is first recognizable by days 85-90 and is distinct by day 104, while the first heartbeats are evident from around day 80. By combining ultrasonography and morphology, we have been able to produce the first reliable criteria for estimating gestational age and ontological development of Asian and African elephant foetuses during the first third of gestation.

   15.    Holdo R.M. 2007. Elephants, fire, and frost can determine community structure and composition in Kalahari Woodlands.Ecol Appl 17: 558-568.
Abstract: Fire, elephants, and frost are important disturbance factors in many African savannas, but the relative magnitude of their effects on vegetation and their interactions have not been quantified. Understanding how disturbance shapes savanna structure and composition is critical for predicting changes in tree cover and for formulating management and conservation policy. A simulation model was used to investigate how the disturbance regime determines vegetation structure and composition in a mixed Kalahari sand woodland savanna in western Zimbabwe. The model consisted of submodels for tree growth, tree damage caused by disturbance, mortality, and recruitment that were parameterized from field data collected over a two-year period. The model predicts that, under the current disturbance regime, tree basal area in the study area will decline by two-thirds over the next two decades and become dominated by species unpalatable to elephants. Changes in the disturbance regime are predicted to greatly modify vegetation structure and community composition. Elephants are the primary drivers of woodland change in this community at present-day population densities, and their impacts are exacerbated by the effects of fire and frost. Frost, in particular, does not play an important role when acting independently but appears to be a key secondary factor in the presence of elephants and/or fire. Unlike fire and frost, which cannot suppress the woodland phase on their own in this ecosystem, elephants can independently drive the vegetation to the scrub phase. The results suggest that elephant and fire management may be critical for the persistence of certain woodland communities within dry-season elephant habitats in the eastern Kalahari, particularly those dominated by Brachystegia spiciformis and other palatable species.

   16.    Kellogg M.E., Burkett S., Dennis T.R. et al. 2007. Chromosome painting in the manatee supports Afrotheria and Paenungulata.BMC Evolutionary Biology 7.
Abstract: Sirenia (manatees, dugongs and Stellar's sea cow) have no evolutionary relationship with other marine mammals, despite similarities in adaptations and body shape. Recent phylogenomic results place Sirenia in Afrotheria and with elephants and rock hyraxes in Paenungulata. Sirenia and Hyracoidea are the two afrotherian orders as yet unstudied by comparative molecular cytogenetics. Here we report on the chromosome painting of the Florida manatee. Results: The human autosomal and X chromosome paints delimited a total of 44 homologous segments in the manatee genome. The synteny of nine of the 22 human autosomal chromosomes (4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 14, 17, 18 and 20) and the X chromosome were found intact in the manatee. The syntenies of other human chromosomes were disrupted in the manatee genome into two to five segments. The hybridization pattern revealed that 20 (15 unique) associations of human chromosome segments are found in the manatee genome: 1/15, 1/19, 2/3 (twice), 3/7 (twice), 3/13, 3/21, 5/21, 7/16, 8/22, 10/12 (twice), 11/20, 12/22 (three times), 14/15, 16/19 and 18/19. Conclusion: There are five derived chromosome traits that strongly link elephants with manatees in Tethytheria and give implicit support to Paenungulata: the associations 2/3, 3/13, 8/22, 18/19 and the loss of the ancestral eutherian 4/8 association. It would be useful to test these conclusions with chromosome painting in hyraxes. The manatee chromosome painting data confirm that the associations 1/19 and 5/21 phylogenetically link afrotherian species and show that Afrotheria is a natural clade. The association 10/12/22 is also ubiquitous in Afrotheria (clade I), present in Laurasiatheria (clade IV), only partially present in Xenarthra (10/12, clade II) and absent in Euarchontoglires (clade III). If Afrotheria is basal to eutherians, this association could be part of the ancestral eutherian karyotype. If afrotherians are not at the root of the eutherian tree, then the 10/12/22 association could be one of a suite of derived associations linking afrotherian taxa.

   17.    Kinahan A.A., Pimma S.L. and van Aarde R.J. 2007. Ambient temperature as a determinant of landscape use in the savanna elephant, Loxodonta africana.Journal of Thermal Biology 32: 47-58.
Abstract: Elephants occur in landscapes where temperatures can reach 50 degrees C. Due to their large size they may face physiological problems of dissipating heat during such high temperatures. In spite of this, no one seems to have considered ambient temperature as limiting landscape choices in elephants. We recorded hourly landscape use in free-ranging elephants using GPS collars. We also placed temperature data loggers in each of the landscapes, to obtain corresponding ambient temperatures for each hour. Our results suggest that elephants may select landscapes based on the rate at which temperatures changed and also for shade. We suggest that these selected variables provide a thermal benefit to individuals. As such, we propose that landscape use in elephants may be constrained by their thermal physiological requirements as well as other resources such as food and water.

   18.    King L.E., Douglas-Hamilton I. and Vollrath F. 2007. African elephants run from the sound of disturbed bees.Current Biology 17: 832-833.
Abstract: Encroaching human development into former wildlife areas [1] is compressing African elephants into ever smaller home ranges, causing increased levels of human-elephant conflict [2]. African honeybees have been proposed as a possible deterrent to elephants [3]. We have performed a sound playback experiment to study this hypothesis. We found that a significant majority of elephants, in a sample of 18 well-known families and subgroups of varying sizes, reacted negatively - immediately walking or running away - when they heard the buzz of disturbed bees, while they ignored the control sound of natural white-noise. Whether the observed response was the result of individual conditioning or of learning by social facilitation remains to be established. Our study strongly supports the hypothesis that bees - and perhaps even their buzz alone - may be deployed to keep elephants at bay.

   19.    Kullberg M., Hallström B., Arnason U. and Janke A. 2007. Expressed sequence tags as a tool for phylogenetic analysis of placental mammal evolution.PLoS ONE E publication Aug 22;2(1):e775.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: We investigate the usefulness of expressed sequence tags, ESTs, for establishing divergences within the tree of placental mammals. This is done on the example of the established relationships among primates (human), lagomorphs (rabbit), rodents (rat and mouse), artiodactyls (cow), carnivorans (dog) and proboscideans (elephant). METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We have produced 2000 ESTs (1.2 mega bases) from a marsupial mouse and characterized the data for their use in phylogenetic analysis. The sequences were used to identify putative orthologous sequences from whole genome projects. Although most ESTs stem from single sequence reads, the frequency of potential sequencing errors was found to be lower than allelic variation. Most of the sequences represented slowly evolving housekeeping-type genes, with an average amino acid distance of 6.6% between human and mouse. Positive Darwinian selection was identified at only a few single sites. Phylogenetic analyses of the EST data yielded trees that were consistent with those established from whole genome projects. CONCLUSIONS: The general quality of EST sequences and the general absence of positive selection in these sequences make ESTs an attractive tool for phylogenetic analysis. The EST approach allows, at reasonable costs, a fast extension of data sampling from species outside the genome projects.

   20.    Mailand C. and Wasser S.K. 2007. Isolation of DNA from small amounts of elephant ivory.Nature Protocols doi:10.1038/nprot.2007.318.
Abstract: This protocol describes a method for the extraction of DNA from elephant ivory. These techniques are being used to assign geographic origin to poached ivory by comparing the ivory genotype to a geographic-based gene frequency map, developed separately. The method has three components: ivory pulverization, decalcification and DNA extraction. Pulverization occurs in a freezer mill while the sample is deep frozen in liquid nitrogen, preventing degradation of DNA during the process. Decalcification involves repeated agitation of the sample in 0.5 M hylenediaminetetraacetic acid over a 4-d period. Extraction follows a modified Qiagen protocol for the extraction of DNA from animal tissue. This method can be used on all forms of ivory. However, DNA recovery is highest when the outermost layer of the tusk, the cementum, is used. When applied to extract DNA from 11 samples, in duplicate, the entire protocol can be completed in 6 d, although much of this time consists of pause points that do not require effort. The protocol provides 0.8 ± 0.11 ng ll1 (mean ± s.e., n 1/4 48) of DNA per sample.

   21.    Mailand C. and Wasser S.K. 2007. Isolation of DNA from small amounts of elephant ivory.Nat Protoc 2: 2228-2232.
Abstract: This protocol describes a method for the extraction of DNA from elephant ivory. These techniques are being used to assign geographic origin to poached ivory by comparing the ivory genotype to a geographic-based gene frequency map, developed separately. The method has three components: ivory pulverization, decalcification and DNA extraction. Pulverization occurs in a freezer mill while the sample is deep frozen in liquid nitrogen, preventing degradation of DNA during the process. Decalcification involves repeated agitation of the sample in 0.5 M
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid over a 4-d period. Extraction follows a modified Qiagen protocol for the extraction of DNA from animal tissue. This method can be used on all forms of ivory. However, DNA recovery is highest when the outermost layer of the tusk, the cementum, is used. When applied to extract DNA from 11 samples, in duplicate, the entire protocol can be completed in 6 d, although much of this time consists of pause points that do not require effort. The protocol provides 0.8 +/- 0.11 ng microl(-1) (mean +/- s.e., n = 48) of DNA per sample.

   22.    Masunga G.S., Andresen Ø., Taylor J.E. and Dhillion S.S. 2007. Elephant dung decomposition and coprophilous fungi in two habitats of semi-arid Botswana.Mycol Res 110 (Pt10): 1214-1226.
Abstract: In order to understand the impact of habitat changes on ecosystem processes caused by increased populations of elephants, elephant dung decomposition was studied in semi-arid Botswana. Dung decomposition rates were studied with and without the presence of arthropods, using pairs of exposed dung and dung enclosed in nylon-mesh bags, respectively. Dung decomposition rates were lower in the absence of arthropods. The rates in the late wet season were higher in the scrubland than in the woodland. In the early dry season, immediately after the wet season, the rates were higher in the woodland than in the scrubland. The difference in decomposition rates between habitats was attributed to microclimatic conditions created by vegetation cover. With regard to fungal succession, Cladosporium cladosporioides and Eurotium brefeldianum occurred only in the late stages of dung decomposition whereas Talaromyces helicus, Cercophora coprophila and Sporormiella minima occurred in all the stages. Although there was no significant difference in Shannon-Weiner fungal species diversity index between habitats, seasons, dung ages and laboratory incubation periods, there were significant differences in fungal community composition between these parameters. Species richness was higher in the late wet season than in the early dry season, indicating the importance of moist conditions for a large diversity of fungal species.Department of Ecology & Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Aas, Norway. gaseitsiwe.masunga@umb.no

   23.    Mills A. and Milewski A. 2007. Geophagy and nutrient supplementation in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania, with particular reference to selenium, cobalt and molybdenum.Journal of Zoology 271: 110-118.
Abstract: Wildlife and livestock in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, commonly practise geophagy. We investigated the nutrient content of nine earth licks and adjacent topsoils in the NCA, and for comparative purposes, two salt pans in north-eastern Tanzania, licks in central Tanzania and a lick near Puerto Maldonado, Peru. The licks had no consistent pattern of nutrient enrichment relative to unutilized topsoils, although the Na content of licks was greater than that of the adjacent topsoils at all but one site. The three largest licks in the NCA (Gibbs Farm, Seneto and Ascent Road) were enriched relative to topsoils and global averages in Se (maximum of 4.7 mg kg), Co (maximum of 107 mg kg) and/or Mo (maximum of 7.4 mg kg). We suggest that licks do provide supplemental Na, but that Se, Co and/or Mo at the largest licks provide easily overlooked nutritional benefits and are perhaps the primary target for geophagy at these sites. Subsoil zones of clay deposition are likely to be enriched in various elements through illuviation or mineral precipitation from solution. Animals may use the taste of NaCl as a clue for locating such zones where they are likely to find a greater quantity of micronutrients relative to other soils. These findings have consequences for conservation and pastoralism in that these large licks may be key resources, providing micronutrients that are essential for maintaining the health and fecundity of animal as well as human populations in the region.

   24.    Morley R.C. and van Aarde R.J. 2007. Estimating abundance for a savanna elephant population using mark-resight methods: a case study for the Tembe Elephant Park, South Africa.Journal of Zoology 271: 418-427.
Abstract:  Elephants living in dense woodlands are difficult to count. Many elephant populations in Africa occur in such conditions. Estimates of these populations based on total counts, aerial counts and dung counts often lack information on precision and accuracy. We use standard mark-recapture field methods to obtain estimates of population size with associated confidence limits. We apply this approach to a closed elephant population in the Tembe Elephant Park (300 km(2)), South Africa. A registration count completed in 4 months gives a known population size. We evaluate mark-recapture models against the known population size. Individual identification profiles obtained for elephants during the registration count and mark-recapture events indicate that at least 167 elephants live in the park. We consider this value as an estimate of the minimum number alive. We include 189 sightings of bulls and 37 sightings of breeding herds in the mark-recapture modelling. Of the models we test (Petersen, Schnabel, Schumacher, Jolly-Seber, Bowden's, Poisson and negative binomial), Bowden's gives an estimate closest to the registration count. Assumptions of the model are not violated. For all models except one (negative binomial), our estimates improve with increased sampling intensity. Confidence intervals do not improve with increased effort except for the Schnabel model. Mark-recapture methods should be considered as reliable estimators of population size for elephants occurring in dense woodlands and forests when other methods cannot be relied on.

   25.    Morrell V. 2007. Endangered species. Elephants take center ring at CITES.Science 316: 1678-1679.

   26.    Odadi W.O., Young T.P. and Okeyo-Owuor J.B. 2007. Effects of wildlife on cattle diets in Laikipia rangeland, Kenya.Rangeland Ecology and Management 60: 179-185.
Abstract: The impacts of wild herbivores on cattle diet selection were investigated in an East African rangeland during August 2001 and February 2002. The study compared cattle diets in plots exclusively accessible to cattle (C) and those accessible to megaherbivores (elephants and giraffes), non-megaherbivore wild herbivores > 15 kg (zebras, hartebeests, Grant's gazelles, oryx, elands, and buffaloes) and cattle (MWC); or non-megaherbivore wild herbivores and cattle (WC). There were no treatment differences in selection of most grass species in either sampling period (P > 0.05). However, selection of forbs differed among treatments during February when conditions were relatively dry and percent Of bites taken by cattle on this forage class increased (P < 0.005) from 1.8% +/- 0.3 to 7.7% +/- 1.6 (mean +/- SE). During this period, cattle took a lower percent of bites on forbs in MWC (4.3% +/- 1.7; P = 0.01) and WC (5.9% +/- 2.2; P = 0.03) than in C (12.5% +/- 0.9). These patterns were generally driven by Commelina spp., which comprised 65% +/- 9.4 of total bites on forbs. Notably, these differences were associated with differences in cover of forbs, which was positively correlated with percent of bites on forbs (r(2) = 0.86, P < 0.01). Because forbs may be critical components of cattle diets in such rangelands during relatively dry periods, these dietary changes may indicate potential seasonal costs of wildlife to cattle production. Looking for ways to offset such costs may be worthwhile for livestock properties that accommodate wildlife.

   27.    Orlando L., Pages M., Calvignac S., Hughes S. and Hanni C. 2007. Does the 43 bp sequence from an 800,000 year old Cretan dwarf elephantid really rewrite the textbook on mammoths?Biology Letters 3: 57-59.
Abstract: Pigmy elephants inhabited the islands from the Mediterranean region during the Pleistocene period but became extinct in the course of the Holocene. Despite striking distinctive anatomical characteristics related to insularity, some similarities with the lineage of extant Asian elephants have suggested that pigmy elephants could be most probably seen as members of the genus Elephas. Poulakakis et al. (2006) have recently challenged this view by recovering a short mtDNA sequence from an 800 000 year old fossil of the Cretan pigmy elephant (Elephas creticus). According to the authors of this study, a deep taxonomic revision of Cretan dwarf elephants would be needed, as the sequence exhibits clear affinities with woolly mammoth haplotypes. However, we point here many aspects that seriously weaken the strength of the ancient DNA evidence reported.

   28.    Plumptre A.J., Kujirakwinja D., Treves A., Owiunji I. and Rainer H. 2007. Transboundary conservation in the greater Virunga landscape: Its importance for landscape species.Biological Conservation 134: 279-287.
Abstract: Several of the protected areas within the Albertine Rift are contiguous with protected areas across international boundaries. This is particularly true for the Greater Virunga. Landscape, which includes Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and ten contiguous protected areas in Uganda and Rwanda. The larger bodied animal species that occur in this landscape have moved freely across what are now international borders for millennia and some species probably need this larger landscape if their populations are to remain viable. An analysis was carried out to identify these 'landscape species' and the importance of this cross-border movement is assessed in the light of civil wars in the region. For 13 years the International Gorilla Conservation Programme has been working in the Virunga Volcanoes and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park to foster transboundary collaboration. The results have shown that regular meetings and planning of activities by wardens can lead to better conservation even with countries at war with each other. More recently the Wildlife Conservation Society has started a programme to support transboundary collaboration further north in the landscape so that all contiguous protected areas are working together. The results show that mountain gorilla numbers have on the whole increased during the past 25 years despite civil wars in the region and this can largely be attributed to their ability to generate income from tourism but also to enhanced transboundary collaboration between Congo, Rwanda and Uganda. Ungulate numbers on the other hand have declined drastically since the 1960s but it is shown that the connectivity in the landscape has been important in reducing the impact of the civil war on elephants.

   29.    Pringle R.M., Young T.P., Rubenstein D.I. and McCauley D.J. 2007. Herbivore-initiated interaction cascades and their modulation by productivity in an African savanna.PNAS 104: 193-197.
Abstract: Despite conceptual recognition that indirect effects initiated by large herbivores are likely to have profound impacts on ecological community structure and function, the existing literature on indirect effects focuses largely on the role of predators. As a result, we know neither the frequency and extent of herbivore-initiated indirect effects nor the mechanisms that regulate their strength. We examined the effects of ungulates on taxa (plants, arthropods, and an insectivorous lizard) representing several trophic levels, using a series of large, long-term, ungulate-exclusion plots that span a landscape-scale productivity gradient in an African savanna. At each of six sites, lizards, trees, and the numerically dominant order of arthropods (Coleoptera) were more abundant in the absence of ungulates. The effect of ungulates on arthropods was mediated by herbaceous vegetation cover. The effect on lizards was simultaneously mediated by both tree density (lizard microhabitat) and arthropod abundance (lizard food). The magnitudes of the experimental effects on all response variables (trees, arthropods, and lizards) were negatively correlated with two distinct measures of primary productivity. These results demonstrate strong cascading effects of ungulates, both trophic and nontrophic, and support the hypothesis that productivity regulates the strength of these effects. Hence, the strongest indirect effects (and thus, the greatest risks to ecosystem integrity after large mammals are extirpated) are likely to occur in low-productivity habitats.

   30.    Rohland N., Malaspinas A.S., Pollack J.L., Slatkin M. and Matheus P. 2007. Proboscidean mitogenomics: Chronology and mode of elephant evolution using mastodon as outgroup.PLoS Biol 5:  e207. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050207.
Abstract: We have sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome of the extinct American mastodon (Mammut americanum) from an Alaskan fossil that is between 50,000 and 130,000 y old, extending the age range of genomic analyses by almost a complete glacial cycle. The sequence we obtained is substantially different from previously reported partial mastodon mitochondrial DNA sequences. By comparing those partial sequences to other proboscidean sequences, we conclude that we have obtained the first sequence of mastodon DNA ever reported. Using the sequence of the mastodon, which diverged 24-28 million years ago (mya) from the Elephantidae lineage, as an outgroup, we infer that the ancestors of African elephants diverged from the lineage leading to mammoths and Asian elephants approximately 7.6 mya and that mammoths and Asian elephants diverged approximately 6.7 mya. We also conclude
that the nuclear genomes of the African savannah and forest elephants diverged approximately 4.0 mya, supporting the view that these two groups represent different species. Finally, we found the mitochondrial mutation rate of proboscideans to be roughly half of the rate in primates during at least the last 24 million years.

   31.    Schulte B.A., Freeman E.W., Goodwin T.E., Hollister-Smith J. and Rasmussen L.E.L. 2007. Honest signalling through chemicals by elephants with applications for care and conservation.Applied Animal Behaviour Science 102: 344-363.
Abstract: Chemical signals are difficult to fake because they are often directly associated with phenotype and physiological condition, and hence likely to be honest signals for intraspecific communication. Chemical signals may be modified after release by the sender or by the environment. The proximate and ultimate signal meanings are dependent not only on the condition of the sender, but also on the physiological status of the receiver. Understanding the relationships and linkage among signal modality, signal function and receiver response is an essential first step before using natural signals for animal care and conservation. Our studies on chemical communication in Asian and African elephants combine observational and experimental work in captive and wild settings to further this understanding. Recent discoveries of pheromones in Asian elephants and the biochemistry of these compounds provide strong evidence that such chemical signals are honest indicators of reproductive status. Chemically identifying the signals and verifying their functional context with statistically robust behavioural studies are essential aspects for understanding the communication system. Additionally, the investigative process of discovering, identifying and verifying the function of chemical signals among captive elephants offers safe and stimulating enrichments. The knowledge garnered from such studies has potential conservation benefits for managing wild elephant populations. A firm foundation of scientific information is required for successful behavioural investigations and applied conservation and enrichment components.

   32.    Sinclair A.R., Mduma S.A., Hopcraft J.G.  et al. 2007. Long-term ecosystem dynamics in the Serengeti: lessons for conservation.Conserv Biol 21: 580-590.
Abstract: Data from long-term ecological studies further understanding of ecosystem dynamics and can guide evidence-based management. In a quasi-natural experiment we examined long-term monitoring data on different components of the Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem to trace the effects of disturbances and thus to elucidate cause-and-effect connections between them. The long-term data illustrated the role of food limitation in population regulation in mammals, particularly in migratory wildebeest and nonmigratory buffalo. Predation limited populations of smaller resident ungulates and small carnivores. Abiotic events, such as droughts and floods, created disturbances that affected survivorship of ungulates and birds. Such disturbances showed feedbacks between biotic and abiotic realms. Interactions between elephants and their food allowed savanna and grassland communities to co-occur. With increased woodland vegetation, predators' capture of prey increased. Anthropogenic disturbances had direct (hunting) and indirect (transfer of disease to wildlife) effects. Slow and rapid changes and multiple ecosystem states became apparent only over several decades and involved events at different spatial scales. Conservation efforts should accommodate both infrequent and unpredictable events and long-term trends. Management should plan on the time scale of those events and should not aim to maintain the status quo. Systems can be self-regulating through food availability and predator-prey interactions; thus, culling may not be required. Ecosystems can occur in multiple states; thus, there may be no a priori need to maintain one natural state. Finally, conservation efforts outside protected areas must distinguish between natural change and direct human-induced change. Protected areas can act as ecological baselines in which human-induced change is kept to a minimum.

   33.    Smit I.P.J., Grant C.C. and Whyte I.J. 2007. Landscape-scale sexual segregation in the dry season distribution and resource utilization of elephants in Kruger National Park, South Africa.Diversity And Distributions 13: 225-236.
Abstract:  This study compared the dry season distribution of elephant bull groups and mixed herds and the resources driving these distributions within Kruger National Park, South Africa. It is important to understand what resources drive the distribution of elephants as this may be of relevance to understanding and managing their impact. It is also important to distinguish between resource use by bull groups and mixed herds because their impact on the habitat may differ. Our results indicated that sexual segregation, both in space and in resource selection, did occur in Kruger Park. Bulls roamed more widely in the park, and although their distribution and resource use overlapped with mixed herds, they also occurred in areas that mixed herds apparently did not, or could not, utilize in the dry season. This gave rise to areas used exclusively by bulls but no areas used exclusively by mixed herds. Lower collective feeding requirements as a result of smaller group size, wider habitat tolerance, and increased mobility as a result of bigger body size, as well as conflict avoidance with musth bulls in areas with mixed herds, might have been some of the reasons for bull groups roaming more widely and for the establishment of separate bull areas. Rivers were an important resource driving both the distribution of the mixed herds and bull groups, but with the mixed herds occurring closer to these resource hot spots than the bull groups. Tree cover proved important for mixed herds, probably because of the importance of shade and the higher nutritional requirements of the smaller-sized cows and calves. Artificial waterholes might have opened up previously unutilized areas for bulls in the dry season, especially on the grassy basaltic plains in the north of the park. However, the distribution of the mixed herds suggested that they did not occur in higher densities in areas surrounding waterholes.

   34.    Sreekumar E., Janki M.B.V., Arathy D.S. et al. 2007. Molecular characterization and expression of Interferon-gamma of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).Vet Immunol Immunopathol 118: 75-83.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterial organisms has emerged as one of the major diseases in captive elephants. In vitro Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) assay is being used as an ancillary test for early detection of TB in domestic and captive wild animals. In the present study, basic sequence information and immunological cross-reactivity of this major cytokine of Asian elephants were explored. At predicted amino acid level, IFN-gamma of Asian elephant showed maximum identity to that of horse (73%). Other IFN-gamma amino acid sequences that showed high level identity were that of giant panda (72%), dog (71%), nine-banded armadillo (69%), cattle (63%) and human (62%). IFN-gamma promoter sequences of Asian elephant, human, cattle and mouse showed high level conservation of the putative transcription factor binding sites, TATA box and transcriptional start site. The functionally important human IFN-gamma promoter elements, such as AP-2IRE-BE, YY1-gammaIFN-BED, ATFCS and AP-1gammaINF binding sites, were absolutely conserved in the corresponding elephant sequence. There was only a single nucleotide variation in the other two important elements, NFAT-gammaINF and IFN-gammaPE, indicating the highly conserved regulation of IFN-gamma expression across different species. Phylogenetic analysis based on IFN-gamma protein sequences revealed a closer relation of Asian elephants and nine-banded armadillo. This shows a closer evolution of these members of Afrotheria and Xenarthra, respectively; and supports the previous reports based on mitochondrial DNA studies. In Western blot analysis, IFN-gamma of Asian elephant expressed in Escherichia coli was detected using an anti-bovine IFN-gamma monoclonal antibody, indicating immunological cross-reactivity.

   35.    Teixeira C.P., Schetini de Azevedo C., Mendl M., Cipreste C.F. and Young R.J. 2007. Revisiting translocation and reintroduction programmes: the importance of considering stress.Animal Behaviour 73: 1-13.
Abstract: It is widely known that the adverse effects of stress must be considered in animal conservation programmes. However, a full consideration of how and where stress occurs in animal conservation programmes has not been undertaken, especially in translocation and reintroduction programmes. The literature concerning these types of programmes shows high levels of mortality, despite researchers' consideration of the effects of stress. However, an analysis of the literature shows that many conservation biologists have only a superficial knowledge about stress. For example, most do not understand the importance of subclinical stress or the fact that the effect of successive stressors can be additive or accumulative. While most conservation biologists know that stress is bad for animal health, few have considered its adverse effects on cognitive abilities, which an animal needs to survive in the wild (e.g. memory). In this paper we conclude with suggestions for improving the efficiency of animal conservation programmes in terms of the number of animals surviving after reintroduction or translocation. The most important conclusion from this review of the literature is that there needs to be a greater interchange of information between animal welfare and animal conservation scientists.

   36.    Valeix M., Fritz H., Dubois S. et al. 2007. Vegetation structure and ungulate abundance over a period of increasing elephant abundance in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe.Journal of Tropical Ecology 23: 87-93.
Abstract: This study investigates whether increases in elephant populations may influence the structure of African savannas, and consequently may affect other herbivores through changes in habitats. Two contrasting periods in terms of elephant population densities were compared in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe: the early 1980s and the late 1990s. Elephant population density and other ungulate population densities were estimated for a c. 400-km(2) area from road counts. Vegetation structure at the landscape scale was assessed using aerial photographs for the same area. All browsers and grazers declined between the early 1980s and the late 1990s, whereas elephants experienced a 16-fold increase. At the landscape scale, vegetation structure changed little with no evidence of an opening of the habitats. These results do not support any kind of medium-term facilitation between elephants and other herbivores. They rather suggest a negative effect of elephants on other herbivore species when elephants arc present at high densities. This study rules out a scenario where the decrease of the different herbivore populations was caused by large changes in vegetation structure due to elephant activity.

   37.    Valeix M., Chamaillé-Jammes S. and Fritz H. 2007. Interference competition and temporal niche shifts: elephants and herbivore communities at waterholes.Oecologia Epub ahead of print.
Abstract: Scarcity of resources may result in high levels of animal aggregation; interference competition can occur in such a scenario and play a role in resource acquisition. Here, we test the hypothesis that animals could minimize interference competition by shifting their temporal niches in relation to competitors. In Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, we monitored waterholes in order to study agonistic interactions between elephants and other herbivore species. We also used a long-term data set from a yearly survey of waterhole attendance by herbivores to evaluate the influence of the presence of elephants on the use of waterholes by other herbivore species. Our results show that in drier years, waterholes are crowded with elephants early in the afternoon. In general, the species most affected by interference competition with elephants shift their temporal niches at the waterholes, thus maintaining a constant temporal overlaps
with elephants. The species less affected by interference competition with elephants show no temporal niche shifts and increase their temporal overlap with elephants at waterholes, as predicted from a noncompetition hypothesis. This study provides evidence that interference competition with a behaviorally dominant large species influences the temporal niches of smaller species, and suggests that the potential costs associated with interference between elephants and other herbivores at waterholes are linked to shifts in diurnal activities rather than interactions and water acquisition itself.

   38.    van Aarde R.J. and Jackson T.P. 2007. Megaparks for metapopulations: Addressing the causes of locally high elephant numbers in southern Africa.Biological Conservation 134: 289-297.
Abstract: Conservation management options for southern African elephants range from local to regional scales. Here we review these options and argue in favour of actions that will deal with the causes rather than symptoms of elephant numbers that are locally high. Metapopulation theory ensures population persistence, while our approach extends this in order to stabilise elephant numbers regionally. By allowing for the development and maintenance of regional sinks, we may also limit numbers in sources. This application of the metapopulation metaphor is a powerful ecological platform from which to manage elephant numbers and impact through southern Africa. Our approach engages the causes of the apparently high abundance of elephants in parts of southern Africa. It moves away from the practice of dealing only with numbers (symptoms) when managing the impact of elephants on other species. While providing an ecological basis for the development of elephant management options, this needs to be melded with social, political and economic realities through southern Africa. In this regard we are encouraged by the ongoing development of several Transfrontier Conservation programmes and Peace Parks across the region.

   39.    Wasser S.K., Mailand C., Booth R. et al. 2007. Using DNA to track the origin of the largest ivory seizure since the 1989 trade ban.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 104: 4228-4233.
Abstract: The illegal ivory trade recently intensified to the highest levels ever reported. Policing this trafficking has been hampered by the inability to reliably determine geographic origin of contraband ivory. Ivory can be smuggled across multiple international borders and along numerous trade routes, making poaching hotspots and potential trade routes difficult to identify. This fluidity also makes it difficult to refute a country's denial of poaching problems. We extend an innovative DNA assignment method to determine the geographic origin(s) of large elephant ivory seizures. A Voronoi tessellation method is used that utilizes genetic similarities across tusks to simultaneously infer the origin of multiple samples that could have one or more common origin(s). We show that this joint analysis performs better than sample-by-sample methods in assigning sample clusters of known origin. The joint method is then used to infer the geographic origin of the largest ivory seizure since the 1989 ivory trade ban. Wildlife authorities initially suspected that this ivory came from multiple locations across forest and savanna Africa. However, we show that the ivory was entirely from savanna elephants, most probably originating from a narrow east-to-west band of southern Africa, centered on Zambia. These findings enabled law enforcement to focus their investigation to a smaller area and fewer trade routes and led to changes within the Zambian government to improve antipoaching efforts. Such outcomes demonstrate the potential of genetic analyses to help combat the expanding wildlife trade by identifying origin(s) of large seizures of contraband ivory. Broader applications to wildlife trade are discussed. Center for Conservation Biology, Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA. wassers@u.washington.edu

   40.    Aleper D. and Moe S.R. 2006. The African savannah elephant population in Kidepo Valley National Park, Uganda: Changes in size and structure from 1967 to 2000.African Journal of Ecology 44: 157-164.
Abstract: The age and sex structure of the elephant population in Kidepo Valley National Park were studied using recognition files. Moreover, population trends were reviewed using past studies. From 1967 to 2000, the elephant population varied between 200 and 500 individuals. Of the minimum number of 374 elephants found to use the Park, 352 were individually identified. Seventy-nine per cent of these were recorded in 29 families ranging from three to 22 animals with a mean group size of ten. Young animals dominated the population (45% aged 0-9.9 years), while 11% were 10-14.9 years of age and only 18% over 25 years of age. Overall, males constituted 45% of the population, but only 32% of the individuals in the 10-14.9-year age class were males. Individuals >= 15 years of age displayed a skewed sex ratio of 1 : 1.4 in favour of females. The extent of skew was greatest among mature animals (>= 25 years of age), which had four times as many females as males. The skewed age structure in the year 2000 caused by poaching and drought, led to a significant difference between the age distribution in 1970 and 2000. Recent counts suggest that the Kidepo elephant population may be increasing.

   41.    Alfa Gambari Imorou S. and Sinsin B. 2006. Impact of elephant's behaviour on the dynamic of vegetation in the W-Regional Park: The case of elephants in the north of Benin.  Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium., 2006, pp. 227-240.

   42.    Archie E.A., Moss C.J. and Alberts S.C. 2006. The ties that bind: genetic relatedness predicts the fission and fusion of social groups in wild African elephants.Proc Biol Sci 273: 513-522.
Abstract: Many social animals live in stable groups. In contrast, African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) live in unusually fluid, fission-fusion
societies. That is, 'core' social groups are composed of predictable sets of individuals; however, over the course of hours or days, these groups may
temporarily divide and reunite, or they may fuse with other social groups to form much larger social units. Here, we test the hypothesis that genetic
relatedness predicts patterns of group fission and fusion among wild, female African elephants. Our study of a single Kenyan population spans 236 individuals in 45 core social groups, genotyped at 11 microsatellite and one mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) locus. We found that genetic relatedness predicted group fission; adult females remained with their first order maternal relatives when core groups fissioned temporarily. Relatedness also predicted temporary fusion between social groups; core groups were more likely to fuse with each other when the oldest females in each group were genetic relatives. Groups that shared mtDNA haplotypes were also significantly more likely to fuse than groups that did not share mtDNA. Our results suggest that associations between core social groups persist for decades after the original maternal kin have died. We discuss these results in the context of kin selection and its possible role in the evolution of elephant sociality.

   43.    Bairagi S.P., Baruah C.S., Dutta U. and Saikia D. 2006. Resolving human-elephant conflict in the northern areas of Asom, India a discouraging endeavour.  Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium., 2006, pp. 10-16.

   44.    Baishya H.K., Dey S., Sharma P. et al. 2006. Human elephant conflict mitigation in North Bank Landscape, north east India.  Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium., 2006, pp. 17-25.

   45.    Ball R.L. and Brown J. 2006. Preliminary results of a cabergoline trial in captive elephants with hyperprolactinemia.  Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium., 2006, pp. 26-28.

   46.    Barrett C.B., Gibson C.C., Hoffman B. and McCubbins M.D. 2006. The complex links between governance and biodiversity.Conserv Biol 20.
Abstract: We argue that two problems weaken the claims of those who link corruption and the exploitation of natural resources. The first is conceptual and the second is methodological. Studies that use national-level indicators of corruption fail to note that corruption comes in many forms, at multiple levels, that may affect resource use quite differently: negatively, positively, or not at all. Without a clear causal model of the mechanism by which corruption affects resources, one should treat with caution any estimated relationship between corruption and the state of natural resources. Simple, atheoretical models linking corruption measures and natural resource use typically do not account for other important control variables pivotal to the relationship between humans and natural resources. By way of illustration of these two general concerns, we used statistical methods to demonstrate that the findings of a recent, well-known study that posits a link between corruption and decreases in forests and elephants are not robust to simple conceptual and methodological refinements. In particular, once we controlled for a few plausible anthropogenic and biophysical conditioning factors, estimated the effects in changes rather than levels so as not to confound cross-sectional and longitudinal variation, and incorporated additional observations from the same data sources, corruption levels no longer had any explanatory power.

   47.    Baskaran N., Das S. and Sukumar R. 2006. Status and management of captive Asian elephants in northern West Bengal, northeastern India.  Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium., 2006, pp. 29-37.

   48.    Bell J. 2006. Supporting elephant conservation across southern Africa: The megaparks for metapopulation initiative.  Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium., 2006, p. 248.

   49.    Bertschinger H., Delsink A., Kirkpatrick J.F. et al. 2006. Management of elephant populations in private South African game reserves with porcine zona pellucida vaccine.   2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 283-285.
Abstract: Control of African elephant populations has become an absolute necessity in a number of game reserves in southern Africa.  The two main methods used to control populations so far are culling and translocation. Culling, besides being regarded as inhumane and unacceptable in many quarters, is not suitable for smaller populations.  It requires that whole family units are culled simultaneously which could mean that in reserves with 10 to 50 elephants a considerable portion, if not the entire population, is killed.  As far as translocation is concerned, limited new space is available for elephants. The only alternative to the two above options is to control the rate of reproduction. The porcine zona pellucida (pZP) vaccine has been used to successfully contracept wild horses and other wildlife species.  Work on the contraception of African elephants was initiated in the Kruger National Park in 1995 when the potential for using the porcine zona pellucida (pZP) was investigated. Subsequently the first field trials on wild elephants were carried out in Kruger and the results clearly showed that elephants could be contracepted with the pZP vaccine, although the efficacy achieved was 80%. During these field trials safety and reversibility werecould be demonstrated. In 2000 an elephant contraceptive program was initiated at Makalali Private Game Reserve, RSA, which has become the flagship model for immunocontrol in African elephants. The preliminary findings have been reported in three publications.During the first year, all 18 cows that were individually identified and older than 12 yr of age were treated.  During the next 4 yr the number of cows contracepted increased to 23 as young animals were added to the program. The standard vaccination procedure during the first year consisted of a primary vaccination (600 μg or 400 μg pZP with 0.5 ml Freund's modified complete adjuvant) followed by boosters (200 μg pZP with 0.5 ml Freund's incomplete adjuvant) at 3 to 6-wk intervals. Annual boosters to maintain antibody titers and contraceptive effect followed.  To date, the success rate on cows that have passed reserve-specific intercalving period of 56 mo has been 100%. The population stabilized within 3 yr by which time when all cows that had been pregnant at the time of first vaccination in 2000 had calved. Once again safety during pregnancy (14 cows pregnant at 2-21 mo gestation when first treated gave birth to normal healthy calves) as well as side effects that were limited to occasional lumps at the site of vaccination could be shown. Following ground darting, behavioral patterns returned to pre-darting status within 2 days. During 2003 and 2004 most boosters were administered from a helicopter; whereas, previously they had been done from a vehicle or on foot.  In all cases, drop-out darts were used. Time taken for vaccination from helicopter take-off to landing was about 30 min (1.5 min per cow; 30 min for total time). This required prior knowledge of the locations of family units or that an individual in each unit is radio-collared. Herds settled down much more quickly (1-2 days) than if darted from the ground. Since then we have vaccinated another 107 elephant cows in eight game reserves.  The cow populations have ranged from 4 to 43. In one of the reserves, Mabula, RSA, two of the four cows vaccinated have passed the mean intercalving intervals of the reserve with neither of them producing a calf. Treatment at the remaining reserves was initiated in 2004 or 2005 and it is too early to evaluate results.  The most difficult reserve in terms of the vaccination process was Welgevonden, RSA, (35 000 ha) with 43 cows.  The reserve is mountainous and heavily wooded. None of the elephants were collared and individuals could not be easily identified on the day of primary vaccination.  The total flying time during which individuals were identified and vaccinated was 4.5 hr.  Administration of the first booster took about 2 hr to locate and vaccinate each cow. Between the first and second booster the first rains occurred, followed by the spring flush of the vegetation. By the time the second booster was attempted late in November, the trees all had foliage. Only half the cows were located and darted because the elephants were very difficult to spot under the tree canopies.  The valuable lessons we learned from this were: 1) that helicopter vaccinations should be performed when most trees are bare, and 2) when larger populations are vaccinated repeatedly during the first year, one cow in each family unit should be radio-collared. This makes rapid location of each unit possible and cuts down on the major cost factor that is flying time. Elephant behavior is being monitored in all eight reserves where contraception is being applied. Because most of them have been contracepted recently, only the data from Makalali is available. The elephants at Makalali have been monitored intensively almost on a daily basis. To date, no anomalies in terms of aggressive or indifferent behavior with regards to nursing time, nursing behavior and calf proximity have been noted. No change in the cows' social hierarchy has been noted. Since January 2003, a total of 15 heats were observed in 10 cows (nine in 2003 and six in 2004) with four mating episodes. For the same period, 38 musth occasions were seen in five bulls (26 in 2003 and 12 in 2004). These occasions include musth displayed in the same bull during consecutive days or within the same musth cycle. The greatest occurrence of musth was recorded in the largest, dominant bull. Bulls were not observed harassing or separating cows off from their herds or calves as a result of increased estrous frequency. Thus, the Makalali program demonstrates that pZP does not cause herd fragmentation, harassment by bulls, change in rank and other negative behaviors normally associated with hormonal contraceptives. In conclusion we feel that it is important to emphasize the following points: The pZP vaccine can be used successfully to contracept African elephants The vaccine is safe during pregnancy and has no negative effect on birth or calf raising It has no side effects other than occasional swelling at the site of vaccination It is reversible Other than an increased incidence of heat no behavioral side effects were seen.

   50.    Borthakur A., Bora P.J., Sharma A. et al. 2006. Beyond Kaziranga -- A vision towards Kaziranga - Karbi Anglong landscape.  Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium., 2006, pp. 42-47.

   51.    Brugiere D., Badjinca I., Silva C., Serra A. and Barry M. 2006. On the road to extinction? The status of elephant Loxodonta africana in Guinea Bissau and western Guinea, West Africa.Oryx 40: 442-446.
Abstract: We carried out a nationwide survey of elephant Loxodonta africana in Guinea Bissau, a small West African country for which records of elephant are limited. We also investigated parts of western Guinea along the border with Guinea Bissau likely to harbour a transboundary elephant population. Standardized interviews with hunters were held in 110 villages in Guinea Bissau and 60 villages in Guinea, and field surveys were carried out to validate interviewee responses. Results suggest that elephants are mainly restricted to an area between the Corubal River (Guinea Bissau) and the Kogon River (Guinea) and that elephants occur only seasonally in Guinea. Based on the number, geographical localization and interpretation of observed tracks, our estimate of the minimum number of elephants in Guinea Bissau is 4-10 animals. We did not observe any signs of young elephants. The most immediate threat to elephants is a road scheme between Guinea Bissau and Guinea that cuts through elephant range. The future of elephants in this region depends on the capacity of the two countries to manage their common elephant population jointly. In particular, the creation of a transboundary park is urgently needed.

   52.    Cerling T.E., Wittemyer G., Rasmussen H.B. et al. 2006. Stable isotopes in elephant hair document migration patterns and diet changes.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103: 371-373.
Abstract: We use chronologies of stable isotopes measured from elephant (Loxodonta africana) hair to determine migration patterns and seasonal diet changes in
elephants in and near Samburu National Reserve in northern Kenya. Stable carbon isotopes record diet changes, principally enabling differentiation between browse and tropical grasses, which use the C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways, respectively; stable nitrogen isotopes record regional patterns related to aridity, offering insight into localized ranging behavior. Isotopically identified range shifts were corroborated by global positioning system radio tracking data of the studied individuals. Comparison of the stable isotope record in the hair of one migrant individual with that of a resident population shows important differences in feeding and ranging behavior over time. Our analysis indicates that differences are the result of excursions into mesic environments coupled with intermittent crop raiding by the migrant individual. Variation in diet, quantified by using stable isotopes, can offer insight into diet-related wildlife behavior.

   53.    Choudhury A. 2006. Status and conservation of the Asian Elephant Elephas maximus in north-eastern India.Mammal Review 29: 141-173.
Abstract: A status survey of Asian Elephants Elephas maximus was conducted in the 9 north-eastern states of India. The habitat is contiguous with that in Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Although the estimated population of 11 000 elephants is higher than in other regions of the Indian Sub-continent, it is fragmented and a number of small inviable isolated populations have formed. About 35% of the population is partly protected, but protection is inadequate. More areas and migration routes need to be protected. Man-elephant conflict is serious in many areas. A comprehensive Action Plan with a more pragmatic protected-area network has been proposed.

   54.    Cooper A. 2006. The year of the mammoth.PLoS Biology 4: 1-3.
Abstract: Mammoth mitochondrial (mt) genomes are apparently on a similar schedule to London buses-you wait for ages and then suddenly three come along at once. Within the past six weeks, three studies [1-3] have independently determined all, or most, of the mammoth mt genome sequence, some 16,800 base pairs (bp). Encouragingly, the partial sequence was a byproduct of a study that generated some 13 million bp of mammoth genomic DNA using a new, massively parallel sequencing approach. The very divergent methods used in these three studies also neatly represent the past, present, and future of ancient DNA (aDNA) research. aDNA methods provide an opportunity to characterise the genetic composition of species and populations in the past, and to actually observe evolutionary change through real time. Such a record has great potential to reveal the processes that have generated the diversity and distribution of taxa in our modern environment, and to examine phenomena such as speciation, domestication, morphological evolution, and the impacts of major environmental changes. aDNA data also provide an important opportunity to test our ability to accurately reconstruct evolutionary history via the fossil record or via extrapolation from the genetic data of modern species. Unfortunately, the potential of aDNA remains largely untapped because research has been severely limited by the technical diffi culties of retrieving and studying the trace amounts of  highly fragmented DNA that survive in ancient specimens.

   55.    Corea R., Gammanpila H., Khalid Z. et al. 2006. Saving elephants by helping people establishing a model for sustainable research, capacity building and community development for the protection of elephants in Sri Lanka and to resolve human elephant conflicts.  Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium., 2006, p. 76.

   56.    De Beer Y., Kilian W., Versfeld W. and van Aarde R.J. 2006. Elephants and low rainfall alter woody vegetation in Etosha National Park, Namibia.Journal of Arid Environments 64: 412-421.
Abstract: Elephants, the distribution of water sources and below-average rainfall may threaten the survival of woody plants in Etosha National Park, Namibia. We base our assessment of  such interactions on the satellite tracking of six elephant herds following a 17-year record of fixed point photographs. These showed that woody plant survival increased and spatial use by elephants decreased at greater distances from water sources. We conclude, therefore, that elephants may be an important factor in reducing woody plant survival. The low rainfall typical of our study period may also have limited survival. A continued decline in vegetation, aggravated by elephants, could compromise local conservation efforts. Our study emphasizes the importance of studying interactions between animals, plants and water before supplementing water sources as a management action.

   57.    De Merode E. and Cowlishaw G. 2006. Species protection, the changing informal economy, and the politics of access to the bushmeat trade in the Democratic Republic of Congo.Conservation Biology 20: 1262-1271.
Abstract: Our understanding of the linkages between the bushmeat trade and the wider informal economy is limited. This lack of knowledge is particularly problematic for conservation under conditions of political instability, when the informal economy can be highly dynamic and impacts on wildlife populations can be severe. To explore these interlinked processes, we conducted a study of the bushmeat trade in Garamba National ark, Democratic Republic of Congo, through a combination of market surveys, semistructured interviews, and direct observation. We focused on the sale of protected and unprotected species in urban and rural markets, and the bushmeat commodity chains that supplied these markets, under conditions of political stability and armed conflict During peacetime, protected species from the park (predominantly elephant and buffalo) rarely appeared in the rural markets, but they comprised more than half of all bushmeat sales in the urban markets. This pattern reflected differences in the rural and urban commodity chains. Automatic weapons were required to hunt large protected species and were supplied to hunters by the military officers who controlled the urban trade. The use of such weapons was discouraged by the traditional chiefs, who administered the village markets. During wartime, the sales of protected species in the urban markets increased-fivefold because the military officers fled, leaving behind an open-access system that led to a massive increase in the exploitation of protected species. In contrast, the rural markets remained relatively stable because of the continued authority of the village chiefs. Our results indicate that sociopolitical factors can be an important determinant of species offtake and, therefore, that know ledge of the bushmeat commodity chain can be vital to controlling the processes that drive species extraction. In addition, our findings suggest that traditional authorities can be potentially valuable partners for bushmeat management.

   58.    De Merode E. and Cowlishaw G. 2006. Species protection, the changing informal economy, and the politics of access to the bushmeat trade in the Democratic Republic of Congo.Conserv Biol 20: 1262-1271.
Abstract: Our understanding of the linkages between the bushmeat trade and the wider informal economy is limited. This lack of knowledge is particularly problematic for conservation under conditions of political instability, when the informal economy can be highly dynamic and impacts on wildlife populations can be severe. To explore these interlinked processes, we conducted a study of the bushmeat trade in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, through a combination of market surveys, semistructured interviews, and direct observation. We focused on the sale of protected and unprotected species in urban and rural markets, and the bushmeat commodity chains that supplied these markets, under conditions of political stability and armed conflict. During peacetime, protected species from the park (predominantly elephant and buffalo) rarely appeared in the rural markets, but they comprised more than half of all bushmeat sales in the urban markets. This pattern reflected differences in the rural and urban commodity chains. Automatic weapons were urban trade. The use of such weapons was discouraged by the traditional chiefs, who administered the village markets. During wartime, the sales of protected species in the urban markets increased fivefold because the military officers fled, leaving behind an open-access system that led to a massive increase in the exploitation of protected species. In contrast, the rural markets remained relatively stable because of the continued authority of the village chiefs. Our results indicate that sociopolitical factors can be an important determinant of species offtake and, therefore, that knowledge of the bushmeat commodity chain can be vital to controlling theprocesses that drive species extraction. In addition, our findings suggest that traditional authorities can be potentially valuable partners for bushmeat management.

   59.    Delsink A.K., van Alten J.J., Grobler D.  et al. 2006. Regulation of a small, discrete African elephant population through immunocontraception in the Makalali Conservancy, Limpopo, South Africa.South African Journal of Science 102: 403-405.
Abstract: Populations of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana, are growing rapidly in southern Africa, to the extent that population control has become essential. The management option of translocation is no longer realistically available, whilst culling has become ethically unacceptable, especially to the general public. Previous immunocontraception trials on elephants with Porcine Zona Pellucida (PZP) vaccine demonstrated that it is safe, effective, reversible, remotely deliverable, and has had no evident adverse side effects. We demonstrate effective contraceptive management of a discrete, small population of free-roaming elephants in the Makalali Conservancy, Limpopo province, South Africa. Complete reproductive control has been demonstrated in all 18 original targeted females, who have by now passed the population's average intercalving interval of 56 months without giving birth. A zero population growth rate has been maintained within this target group since August 2002. On the basis of this small sample over a short period, immunocontraception should be considered a viable means of population management as an alternative to long-term culling strategies in small populations

   60.    Díaz S., Fargione J., Chapin F.S. and Tilman D. 2006. Biodiversity loss threatens human well-being.PLoS Biol 4: e277.

   61.    Donlan C., Berger J., Bock C.E. et al. 2006. Pleistocene rewilding: an optimistic agenda for twenty-first century conservation.Am Nat. 168: 660-681.
Abstract: Large vertebrates are strong interactors in food webs, yet they were lost from most ecosystems after the dispersal of modern humans from Africa and Eurasia. We call for restoration of missing ecological functions and evolutionary potential of lost North American megafauna using extant conspecifics and related taxa. We refer to this restoration as Pleistocene rewilding; it is conceived as carefully managed ecosystem manipulations whereby costs and benefits are objectively addressed on a case-by-case and locality-by-locality basis. Pleistocene rewilding would deliberately promote large, long-lived species over pest and weed assemblages, facilitate the persistence and ecological effectiveness of megafauna on a global scale, and broaden the underlying premise of conservation from managing extinction to encompass restoring ecological and evolutionary processes. Pleistocene rewilding can begin immediately with species such as Bolson tortoises and feral horses and continue through the coming decades with elephants and Holarctic lions. Our exemplar taxa would contribute biological, economic, and cultural benefits to North America. Owners of large tracts of private land in the central and western United States could be the first to implement this restoration. Risks of Pleistocene rewilding include the possibility of altered disease ecology and associated human health implications, as well as unexpected ecological and sociopolitical consequences of reintroductions. Establishment of programs to monitor suites of species interactions and their consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem health will be a significant challenge. Secure fencing would be a major economic cost, and social challenges will include acceptance of predation as an overriding natural process and the incorporation of pre-Columbian ecological frameworks into conservation strategies.Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA. cjd34cornell.edu

   62.    Druce H., Pretorius K., Druce D. and Slotow R. 2006. The effect of mature elephant bull introductions on resident bull's group size and musth periods: Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa.South African Journal of Wildlife Research 36: 133-137.
Abstract: African elephants have been reintroduced into small, enclosed reserves in South Africa,many populations being established with orphans <10 years old.This has resulted in abnormal behaviour in some elephant populations, which was corrected in Pilanesberg National Park by introducing older bulls and culling certain problem elephants.In July 2003, three older bulls (29-41 years old) were introduced into Phinda Private Game Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, in order to normalize the bull age structure and in an attempt to reduce the abnormally long musth period of one particular resident bull. These introduced bulls were monitored intensively after release, as was the resident bull population, both before and after introduction of the older bulls.The introduced bulls all came into musth within eleven months postrelease.The older bulls do not appear to have had any influence on the musth periods of the oldest resident bull (36 years old at introduction). Detailed behavioural studies of the effects of management actions on elephant populations, within small, enclosed reserves provide information and resources for future management decisions.This study demonstrates that old bulls can be successfully introduced to very small areas provided that electrification of the entire perimeter is secure. Further, the introduction has no detectable medium-term (one year) effect on the behaviour of a relatively dense population of resident elephants, and the welfare of the elephants was not greatly affected.

   63.    Ferraro P.J. and Pattanayak S.K. 2006. Money for nothing? A