Elephant
Bibliographic
Database

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Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org

References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent first.

2009. Shit happens (to be useful)! Use of elephant dung as habitat by amphibians . Biotropica 41, 406-407.
Abstract: Although elephants are commonly cited as an example of ecosystem engineering, cases involving Asian elephants are missing in the literature. In a dry environment of southeastern Sri Lanka, I examined 290 elephant dung piles and found a total of six frogs from three different species in 1.7 percent (N=5) of the dung piles. This suggests a facilitative role of elephants by providing habitat for amphibians.

Asner, G.P., Levick, S.R., Kennedy-Bowdoin, T., Knapp, D.E., Emerson, R., Jacobson, J., Colgon, M.S., Martin, M.E., 2009. Large-scale impacts of herbivores on the structural diversity of African savannas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106, 4947-4952.
Abstract: African savannas are undergoing management intensification, and decision makers are increasingly challenged to balance the needs of large herbivore populations with the maintenance of vegetation and ecosystem diversity. Ensuring the sustainability of Africa's natural protected areas requires information on the efficacy of management decisions at large spatial scales, but often neither experimental treatments nor large-scale responses are available for analysis. Using a new airborne remote sensing system, we mapped the three-dimensional (3-D) structure of vegetation at a spatial resolution of 56 cm throughout 1640 ha of savanna after 6-, 22-, 35-, and 41-year exclusions of herbivores, as well as in unprotected areas, across Kruger National Park in South Africa. Areas in which herbivores were excluded over the short term (6 years) contained 38%-80% less bare ground compared with those that were exposed to mammalian herbivory. In the longer-term (> 22 years), the 3-D structure of woody vegetation differed significantly between protected and accessible landscapes, with up to 11-fold greater woody canopy cover in the areas without herbivores. Our maps revealed 2 scales of ecosystem response to herbivore consumption, one broadly mediated by geologic substrate and the other mediated by hillslope-scale variation in soil nutrient availability and moisture conditions. Our results are the first to quantitatively illustrate the extent to which herbivores can affect the 3-D structural diversity of vegetation across large savanna landscapes.

Behr, B., Rath, D., Hildebrandt, T.B., Goeritz, F., Blottner, S., Portas, T.J., Bryant, B.R., Sieg, B., Knieriem, A., de Graaf, S.P., Maxwell, W.M., Hermes, R., 2009. Germany/Australia index of sperm sex sortability in elephants and rhinoceros. Reprod. Domest. Anim 44, 273-277.
Abstract: Flow cytometric sexing of spermatozoa followed by application in artificial insemination or in vitro fertilization provides a unique opportunity to predetermine the sex of offspring and might enhance the conservation management of endangered species in captivity such as the elephant and rhinoceros. To obtain an indication of the sortability of spermatozoa from these species, the relative DNA differences between X and Y chromosome bearing spermatozoa (fresh, frozen thawed, epididymal) from three rhinoceros species [white (Ceratotherium simum), black (Diceros bicornis), Indian (Rhinoceros unicornis)] and both elephant species, the Asian and the African elephant (Elephas maximus, Loxodonta Africana), were determined through separation of spermatozoa into X and Y chromosome bearing populations, using a modified high speed flow cytometer. The head profile areas of spermatozoa from all five species were measured using light microscopy. By multiplying the relative DNA differences and the head profile areas, the sperm sorting indices were calculated to be 47, 48 and 51 for white, black and Indian rhinoceros respectively. The calculated sorting index for the Asian elephant was 66. In the African elephant, we determined the highest sorting index of 76. These results indicate the practicability of flow cytometric sex sorting of spermatozoa from the tested rhinoceros species and both elephant species. The lower sorting indices in rhinos indicate that sex sorting of spermatozoa from the rhinoceros will be more challenging than in elephants

Blake, S., Deem, S.L., Mossimbo, E., Maisels, F., Walsh, P., 2009. Forest elephants: tree planters of the Congo. Biotropica 41, 459-468.
Abstract: The abundance of large vertebrates is rapidly declining, particularly in the tropics where over-hunting has left many forests structurally intact but devoid of large animals. An urgent question then, is whether these 'empty' forests can sustain their biodiversity without large vertebrates. Here we examine the role of forest elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) seed dispersal in maintaining the community structure of trees in the Ndoki Forest, northern Congo. Analysis of 855 elephant dung piles suggested that forest elephants disperse more intact seeds than any other species or genus of large vertebrate in African forests, while GPS telemetry data showed that forest elephants regularly disperse seeds over unprecedented distances compared to other dispersers. Our analysis of the spatial distribution of trees from a sample of 5667 individuals showed that dispersal mechanism was tightly correlated with the scale of spatial aggregation. Increasing amounts of elephant seed dispersal was associated with decreasing aggregation. At distances of < 200 m, trees whose seeds are dispersed only by elephants were less aggregated than the random expectation, suggesting Janzen-Connell effects on seed/seedling mortality. At the landscape scale, seed dispersal mode predicted the rate at which local tree community similarity decayed in space. Our results suggest that the loss of forest elephants (and other large-bodied dispersers) may lead to a wave of recruitment failure among animal-dispersed tree species, and favor regeneration of the species-poor abiotically dispersed guild of trees.

Brodie, J.F., Helmy, O.E., Brockelman, W.Y., Maron, J.L., 2009. Bushmeat poaching reduces the seed dispersal and population growth rate of a mammal-dispersed tree. Ecological Applications 19, 854-863.
Abstract: Myriad tropical vertebrates are threatened by overharvest. Whether this harvest has indirect effects on nonhunted organisms that interact with the game species is a critical question. Many tropical birds and mammals disperse seeds. Their overhunting in forests can cause zoochorous trees to suffer from reduced seed dispersal. Yet how these reductions in seed dispersal influence tree abundance and population dynamics remains unclear. Reproductive parameters in long-lived organisms often have very low elasticities; indeed the demographic importance of seed dispersal is an open question. We asked how variation in hunting pressure across four national parks with seasonal forest in northern Thailand influenced the relative abundance of gibbons, muntjac deer, and sambar deer, the sole dispersers of seeds of the canopy tree Choerospondias axillaris. We quantified how variation in disperser numbers affected C. axillaris seed dispersal and seedling abundance across the four parks. We then used these data in a structured population model based on vital rates measured in Khao Yai National Park (where poaching pressure is minimal) to explore how variation in illegal hunting pressure might influence C. axillaris population growth and persistence. Densities of the mammals varied strongly across the parks, from relatively high in Khao Yai to essentially zero in Doi Suthep-Pui. Levels of C. axillaris seed dispersal and seedling abundance positively tracked mammal density. If hunting in Khao Yai were to increase to the levels seen in the other parks, C. axillaris population growth rate would decline, but only slightly. Extinction of C. axillaris is a real possibility, but may take many decades. Recent and ongoing extirpations of vertebrates in many tropical forests could be creating an extinction debt for zoochorous trees whose vulnerability is belied by their current abundance.

Campos-Arceiz, A., Larrinaga, A.R., Weerasinghe, U.R., Takatsuki, S., Pastorini, J., Leimgruber, P., Fernand, P., Santamaria, L., 2009. Behavior rather than diet mediates seasonal differences in seed dispersal by Asian elephants. Ecology 89, 2684-2691.
Abstract: Digestive physiology and movement patterns of animal dispersers determine deposition patterns for endozoochorously dispersed seeds. We combined data from feeding trials, germination tests, and GPS telemetry of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to (1) describe the spatial scale at which Asian elephants disperse seeds; (2) assess whether seasonal differences in diet composition and ranging behavior translate into differences in seed shadows; and (3) evaluate whether scale and seasonal patterns vary between two ecologically distinct areas: Sri Lanka's dry monsoon forests and Myanmar's (Burma) mixed-deciduous forests. The combination of seed retention times (mean 39.5 h, maximum 114 h) and elephant displacement rates (average 1988 m in 116 hours) resulted in 50% of seeds dispersed over 1.2 km (mean 1222-2105 m, maximum 5772 m). Shifts in diet composition did not affect gut retention time and germination of ingested seeds. Elephant displacements were slightly longer, with stronger seasonal variation in Myanmar. As a consequence, seed dispersal curves varied seasonally with longer distances during the dry season in Myanmar but not in Sri Lanka. Seasonal and geographic variation in seed dispersal curves was the result of variation in elephant movement patterns, rather than the effect of diet changes on the fate of ingested seeds.

Cerling, T.E., Wittemyer, G., Ehleringer, J.R., Remien, C.H., Douglas-Hamilton, I., 2009. History of Animals using Isotope Records (HAIR): a 6-year dietary history of one family of African elephants
76. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 106, 8093-8100.
Abstract: The dietary and movement history of individual animals can be studied using stable isotope records in animal tissues, providing insight into long-term ecological dynamics and a species niche. We provide a 6-year history of elephant diet by examining tail hair collected from 4 elephants in the same social family unit in northern Kenya. Sequential measurements of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen isotope rations in hair provide a weekly record of diet and water resources. Carbon isotope ratios were well correlated with satellite-based measurements of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of the region occupied by the elephants as recorded by the global positioning system (GPS) movement record; the absolute amount of C(4) grass consumption is well correlated with the maximum value of NDVI during individual wet seasons. Changes in hydrogen isotope ratios coincided very closely in time with seasonal fluctuations in rainfall and NDVI whereas diet shifts to relatively high proportions of grass lagged seasonal increases in NDVI by approximately 2 weeks. The peak probability of conception in the population occurred approximately 3 weeks after peak grazing. Spatial and temporal patterns of resource use show that the only period of pure browsing by the focal elephants was located in an over-grazed, communally managed region outside the protected area. The ability to extract time-specific longitudinal records on animal diets, and therefore the ecological history of an organism and its environment, provides an avenue for understanding the impact of climate dynamics and land-use change on animal foraging behavior and habitat relations

Chafota, J., Owen-Smith, N., 2009. Episodic severe damage to canopy trees by elephants: interactions with fire, frost and rain. Journal of Tropical Ecology 25, 341-345.
Abstract: Elephants (Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach 1797)) can have a major transforming effect on savanna structure through felling, debarking or uprooting trees (Dublin et al. 1990, Laws 1970, Mapaure & Campbell 2002). However, it is difficult to separate their influence from that of other causes of tree mortality, including wind storms (Spinage & Guinness 1971), drought (Lewis 1991, van de Vijver et al. 1999), fire (Higgins et al. 2000), and in some situations frost (Childes & Walker 1987, Holdo 2006), especially when interactions among them may occur (de Beer et al. 2006, Laws et al. 1975, Pienaar et al. 1966). Furthermore, the consequences for woodland dynamics depend on the size classes of the trees affected, as well as on how the disturbance is concentrated in time and space. Mortality of canopy trees has a much greater and longer-lasting impact than losses among the regenerating stages of these trees. However, the consequences may be less adverse for ecosystem function and biodiversity if the disturbing effects are locally concentrated, generating a patch mosaic of stands at different stages of regeneration (Remmert 1991).

Chase, M.J., Griffin, C.R., 2009. Elephants caught in the middle: impacts of war, fences and people on elephant distribution and abundance in the Caprivi Strip, Namibia. American Journal of Ecology 47, 223-233.
Abstract: We conducted wet [26 March-4 April 2003 (Apr03)] and dry [1-8 November 2005 (Nov05)] season aerial surveys of African elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach) in the Caprivi Strip, Namibia to provide an updated status report on elephant numbers and distribution and assist with a historical analysis of elephant distribution and abundance in the Caprivi Strip. During the wet season when water was available in seasonal pans, elephants were widely distributed throughout the survey area. In contrast, during the dry season, a majority of elephant herds occurred within 30 km of the perennial Kwando, Linyanti and Okavango rivers and few herds occurred within the West Caprivi Game Reserve where water in the seasonal pans was limited. We estimated 5318 elephants for the 7731-km(2) survey area (0.71 elephants km(-2)) for the Apr03 wet season survey and 6474 elephants for the 8597-km(2) survey area (0.75 elephants km(-2)) for the Nov05 dry season survey. Based on our aerial surveys and reports of elephant numbers and distribution from historical aerial surveys and telemetry studies, civil war, veterinary fences and human activities appear to have effected changes in African elephant abundance, distribution and movements in the Caprivi Strip, Namibia since 1988 when the first comprehensive aerial surveys were conducted.

Clark, C.J., Poulsen, J.R., Malonga, R., Elkan, P.W., Jr., 2009. Logging concessions can extend the conservation estate for Central African tropical forests
56. Conserv. Biol. 23, 1281-1293.
Abstract: The management of tropical forest in timber concessions has been proposed as a solution to prevent further biodiversity loss. The effectiveness of this strategy will likely depend on species-specific, population-level responses to logging. We conducted a survey (749 line transects over 3450 km) in logging concessions (1.2 million ha) in the northern Republic of Congo to examine the impact of logging on large mammal populations, including endangered species such as the elephant (Loxodonta africana), gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), and bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus). When we estimated species abundance without consideration of transect characteristics, species abundances in logged and unlogged forests were not different for most species. When we modeled the data with a hurdle model approach, however, analyzing species presence and conditional abundance separately with generalized additive models and then combining them to calculate the mean species abundance, species abundance varied strongly depending on transect characteristics. The mean species abundance was often related to the distance to unlogged forest, which suggests that intact forest serves as source habitat for several species. The mean species abundance responded nonlinearly to logging history, changing over 30 years as the forest recovered from logging. Finally the distance away from roads, natural forest clearings, and villages also determined the abundance of mammals. Our results suggest that logged forest can extend the conservation estate for many of Central Africa's most threatened species if managed appropriately. In addition to limiting hunting, logging concessions must be large, contain patches of unlogged forest, and include forest with different logging histories

Coeling, A., 2009. The application of social network theory to animal behavior. Bioscience Horizons 2, 32-43.
Abstract: Social network analysis (SNA) is a mathematical technique for analysing social relationships and the patterns and implications of these relationships (Wasserman S, Faust K (1994) Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). It has only recently been discovered by behavioural biologists as a useful tool in the study of animal behaviour (Wey T, Blumstein DT, Shen W et al. (2008) Social network analysis of animal behaviour: a promising tool for the study of sociality. Anim Behav 75: 333-344). Video recording over a 2 month period was used to record the behaviour of the elephant group at Chester Zoo. SNA was applied in an investigation of the group structure and interactions of the group. Observations of individual and group behaviour were based upon 40 h of playback of the social interactions were recorded and analysed using AGNA (2003) and Pajek (2005) packages. The analysis showed that the many facets of individual behaviour could be understood in terms of social structure of the group. This study has demonstrated that SNA is a powerful approach to understanding group dynamics and is particularly applicable to the study of obligate social species. In conclusion, it is suggested that SNA is potentially a useful tool in the management of captive animal populations.

Dharani, N., Kinyamario, J.L., Wagacha, P.W., Rodrigues, A.J., 2009. Browsing impact of large herbivores on Acacia xanthophloea Benth in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology 47, 184-191.
Abstract: Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in growth of plant height, canopy cover and stem diameter of Acacia xanthophloea trees in fenced plot as compared with unfenced plot both in the wet and in the dry seasons. Finding of this study showed that although heavy browsing reduced the height and canopy of trees, it did not kill any trees and seedling regeneration took place simultaneously. Despite the presence of large herbivores that impact some considerable browsing pressure results indicate that the A. xanthophloea habitat type would continue to remain in balance in the presence of recruitment of seedlings and saplings. The conditions at the time of study indicate that the browsing on A. xanthophloea was not significant and was not serious enough to warrant management intervention at present.

Dickson, P., Adams, W.M., 2009. Science and uncertainty in South Africa's elephant culling debate. Environment and Planning C-Government and Policy 27,
110-123.
Abstract: We analyse the debate about the culling of elephants in South Africa's national parks. This pits the need to reduce elephant density and grazing pressure to prevent environmental damage against animal-welfare concerns about the killing of elephants. This complex debate is characterised by factual uncertainty and moral complexity. The procull storyline suggests that high elephant densities pose a risk to biodiversity. The anticull standpoint critiques this position as politically and economically motivated and lacking in adequate scientific support. Both procull and anticull positions draw on science as a source of authority, and on the precautionary principle as a framework for making decisions. They differ in their interpretation of the scientific evidence for serious impacts of high elephant densities, the relations between scientific, ethical, and economic arguments, and the way uncertainty and the idea of a precautionary approach are used. A decision to resume culling of elephants in South Africa was made in February 2008, but debate continues.

Freeman, E.W., Schulte, B.A., Brown, J.L., 2009. Investigating the impact of rank and ovarian activity on the social behavior of captive female African elephants . Zoo Biology 0, 1-14.
Abstract:
Over a third of captive female African elephants in North America fail to exhibit normal estrous cycles based on long-term serum progestagen analyses. Why acyclicity occurs is unknown; however, the majority of noncycling females are ranked by keepers as the dominant individual within the group. To investigate the relationship between ovarian cyclicity status and keeper-determined social rank, observations were conducted on 33 female African elephants (18 cycling, 15 noncycling). Based on keeper evaluations, five cycling elephants were ranked dominant, seven in the middle and six as subordinate. In contrast, 10 noncycling elephants were ranked as dominate and five as subordinate with none ranked as middle. When comparing the behavior of the elephants by their keeper-determined rank, the dominant females dominant were significantly more likely to approach, displace and push. Similarly, keeper-determined subordinate females more frequently presented their hind end and held their ears erect. Behaviors initiated by one elephant toward another did not vary between cycling and noncycling females, except when the interaction with social rank was tested. Dominant, noncycling females initiated a higher percentage of approach and displace behaviors than both cycling and noncycling, subordinate elephants. Subordinate, noncycling elephants displayed the highest percentage of ears erect. Social rank drives the interactions of ex situ female African elephants more than ovarian cyclicity status. Thus, behavioral interactions cannot be used to predict which cycling elephants are most likely to become acyclic.

Freeman, E.W., Whyte, I., Brown, J.L., 2009. Reproductive evaluation of elephants culled in Kruger National Park, South Africa between 1975 and 1995. African Journal of Ecology 47, 192-201.
Abstract: To reduce elephant densities and preserve biological diversity, 14,629 elephants were culled from Kruger National Park, South Africa (1967-1999). Data were catalogued between 1975 and 1996 on 2737 male and female elephants, including pregnancy and lactational status for 1620 females (>= 5 years of age) and, uterine and/or ovarian characteristics for 1279. This study used these data to investigate the effects of age and precipitation on reproduction. The youngest age of conception was 8 years (n = 6) and by 12 years of age all females were sexually mature. From the age of 14 years, the percentage of reproductively active females (pregnant and/or lactating) was > 90%; however, this percentage declined when females reached 50 years of age. Overall, one-tenth of females were nonreproductive (not pregnant or lactating) at any given time, mostly in the youngest (< 15 years) and oldest (> 50 years) age classes. Eighteen (3.3%) of the nonpregnant females had reproductive tract pathologies, including endometrial, uterine or ovarian cysts. There was a seasonal distribution of mating activity that correlated with the rainy season. As has been demonstrated in other populations of free-ranging African elephants, most of the females in Kruger National Park were reproductively active; however, age and climate affected reproductive activity.

Freeman, E.W., Schulte, B.A., Brown, J.L., 2009. Using behavioral observations and keeper questionnaires to assess social relationships among captive female African elephants
60. Zoo. Biol. 28, 1-14.
Abstract: Free-ranging African elephants are highly social animals that live in a society where age, size, kinship, and disposition all contribute to social rank. Although captive elephant herds are small and largely comprises of unrelated females, dominance hierarchies are common. The goal of this study was to delineate how the behavior of captive female African elephants varies with respect to age and social rank based on a combination of keeper questionnaires and behavioral observations. "Body movements" and "trunk to" behaviors of 33 nonpregnant female African elephants housed at 14 North American zoos were recorded over 8 hr. Keepers at each facility also rated each elephant based on a series of questions about interactions with herdmates. The assessment of social rank based on observations correlated strongly with ranks assigned by keepers via the questionnaires. Observations and questionnaire responses indicated that body weight of the female, and to a lesser extent age, were significantly related to rates and types of "body movements" and that these demographic factors dictate the captive elephant hierarchy, similar to that observed in the wild. Many of the observed "body movements," such as back away, displace, push, and present, were correlated with keeper questionnaire responses about elephant interactions. However, none of the "trunk to" behaviors were related to age, size, or questionnaire responses even though they occurred frequently. In conclusion, we demonstrated that short-term behavioral observations and keeper questionnaires provided similar behavioral profiles for female African elephants housed in North American zoos. Zoo Biol 28:1-14, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Freeman, E.W., Schulte, B.A., Brown, J.L., 2009. Investigating the impact of rank and ovarian activity on the social behavior of captive female African elephants . Zoo Biology 0, 1-14.
Abstract: Over a third of captive female African elephants in North America fail to exhibit normal estrous cycles based on long-term serum progestagen analyses. Why acyclicity occurs is unknown; however, the majority of noncycling females are ranked by keepers as the dominant individual within the group. To investigate the relationship between ovarian cyclicity status and keeper-determined social rank, observations were conducted on 33 female African elephants (18 cycling, 15 noncycling). Based on keeper evaluations, five cycling elephants were ranked dominant, seven in the middle and six as subordinate. In contrast, 10 noncycling elephants were ranked as dominate and five as subordinate with none ranked as middle. When comparing the behavior of the elephants by their keeper-determined rank, the dominant females dominant were significantly more likely to approach, displace and push. Similarly, keeper-determined subordinate females more frequently presented their hind end and held their ears erect. Behaviors initiated by one elephant toward another did not vary between cycling and noncycling females, except when the interaction with social rank was tested. Dominant, noncycling females initiated a higher percentage of approach and displace behaviors than both cycling and noncycling, subordinate elephants. Subordinate, noncycling elephants displayed the highest percentage of ears erect. Social rank drives the interactions of ex situ female African elephants more than ovarian cyclicity status. Thus, behavioral interactions cannot be used to predict which cycling elephants are most likely to become acyclic.

Freeman, E.W., Guagnano, G., Olson, D., Keele, M., Brown, J.L., 2009. Social factors influence ovarian acyclicity in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo. Biol. 28, 1-15.
Abstract: Nearly one-third of reproductive age African elephants in North America that are hormonally monitored fail to exhibit estrous cycle activity, which exacerbates the nonsustainability of the captive population. Three surveys were distributed to facilities housing female African elephants to determine how social and environmental variables contribute to cyclicity problems. Forty-six facilities returned all three surveys providing information on 90% of the SSP population and 106 elephants (64 cycling, 27 noncycling and 15 undetermined). Logistic analyses found that some physiological and social history variables were related to ovarian acyclicity. Females more likely to be acyclic had a larger body mass index and had resided longer at a facility with the same herdmates. Results suggest that controlling the weight of an elephant might be a first step to helping mitigate estrous cycle problems. Data further show that transferring females among facilities has no major impact on ovarian activity. Last, social status appears to impact cyclicity status; at 19 of 21 facilities that housed both cycling and noncycling elephants, the dominant female was acyclic. Further studies on how social and environmental dynamics affect hormone levels in free-living, cycling elephants are needed to determine whether acyclicity is strictly a captivity-related phenomenon

Gobush, K., Kerr, B., Wasser, S., 2009. Genetic relatedness and disrupted social structure in a poached population of African elephants
110. Mol. Ecol. 18, 722-734.
Abstract: We use genetic measures of relatedness and observations of female bonding to examine the demographic signature of historically heavy poaching of a population of free-ranging African elephants. We collected dung samples to obtain DNA and observed behaviour from 102 elephant families over a 25-month period in 2003-2005 in Mikumi National Park, Tanzania. Poaching reduced the population by 75% in the decade prior to the 1989 ivory trade ban; park records indicate that poaching dropped significantly in Mikumi following the ban. Using 10 microsatellite loci, DNA was genotyped in 203 elephants and pair-wise relatedness was calculated among adult females within and between groups. The Mikumi population is characterized by small group size, considerable variation in group relatedness, females with no first-order adult relatives and females that form only weak social bonds. We used gene-drop analysis and a model of a genetically intact pedigree to compare our observed Mikumi group relatedness to a simulated genetically intact unpoached expectation. The majority of groups in Mikumi contain 2 to 3 adults; of these, 45% were classified as genetically disrupted. Bonding, quantified with a pair-wise association index, was significantly correlated with relatedness; however only half of the females formed strong bonds with other females, and relatedness was substantially lower for a given bond strength as compared to an unpoached population. Female African elephants without kin demonstrated considerable behavioural plasticity in this disturbed environment, grouping with other females lacking kin, with established groups, or remaining alone, unable to form any stable adult female-bonds. We interpret these findings as the remaining effect of poaching disturbance in Mikumi, despite a drop in the level of poaching since the commercial trade in ivory was banned 15 years ago

Grus, W.E., Zhang, J., 2009. Origin of the genetic components of the vomeronasal system in the common ancestor of all extant vertebrates. Molecular Biology and Evolution 26, 407-419.
Abstract: Comparative genomics provides a valuable tool for inferring the evolutionary history of physiological systems, particularly when this information is difficult to ascertain by morphological traits. One such example is the vomeronasal system (VNS), a vertebrate nasal chemosensory system that is responsible for detecting intraspecific pheromonal cues as well as environmental odorants. The morphological components of the VNS are found only in tetrapods, but the genetic components of the system have been found in teleost fish, in addition to tetrapods. To determine when the genetic components of the VNS originated, we searched for the VNS-specific genes in the genomes of two early diverging vertebrate lineages: the sea lamprey from jawless fishes and the elephant shark from cartilaginous fishes. Genes encoding vomeronasal type 1 receptors (V1Rs) and Trpc2, two components of the vomeronasal signaling pathway, are present in the sea lamprey genome, and both are expressed in the olfactory organ, revealing that the genetic components of the present-day VNS existed in the common ancestor of all extant vertebrates. Additionally, all three VNS genes, Trpc2, V1Rs, and vomeronasal type 2 receptors (V2Rs), are found in the elephant shark genome. Because V1Rs and V2Rs are related to two families of taste receptors, we also searched the early diverging vertebrate genomes for taste system genes and found them in the shark genome but not in the lamprey. Coupled with known distributions of the genetic components of the vertebrate main olfactory system, our results suggest staggered origins of vertebrate sensory systems. These findings are important for understanding the evolution of vertebrate sensory systems and illustrate the utility of the genome sequences of early diverging vertebrates for uncovering the evolution of vertebrate-specific traits

Gubbi, S., Linkie, M., Leader-Williams, N., 2009. Evaluating the legacy of an integrated conservation and development project around a tiger reserve in India. Environmental Conservation 35, 331-339.
Abstract: Independent evaluations of the impact and legacy of large donor-funded integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) are critically important but rarely undertaken. The India Eco-Development Project around Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR-IEDP) in southern India received US$ 6.0 million, of which 43.2% was spent on community-based conservation activities. The PTR-IEDP was internally evaluated as 'successful'. Questionnaire surveys and on-site visits were used to independently evaluate its development impact and legacy, two years after the IEDP ended. Questionnaire surveys were administered to a random sample of 90 respondents from a treatment group who participated in and benefited from IEDP, and to 90 respondents from a control group who did not participate in IEDP. Among the treatment group, 71.1% of respondents were aware of IEDP's objectives, but receipt of community benefits did not influence their attitudes to conservation. Instead, their attitudes were best explained by previous experience of human-wildlife conflict, their age and their participation in an ecotourism-based profession. Furthermore, only 36.4% of the 55 community benefits sampled were still being used or maintained. Future investments in ICDPs, or any similar conservation and developmental projects need to carefully justify any of the developments they implement, and to use appropriate indicators and study design to measure project legacy.

Hakeem, A.Y., Sherwood, C.C., Bonar, C.J., Butti, C., Hof, P.R., Allman, J.M., 2009. Von Economo neurons in the elephant brain. Anat. Rec. (Hoboken. ) 292, 242-248.
Abstract: Von Economo neurons (VENs), previously found in humans, all of the great ape species, and four cetacean species, are also present in African and Indian elephants. The VENs in the elephant are primarily found in similar locations to those in the other species. They are most abundant in the frontoinsular cortex (area FI) and are also present at lower density in the anterior cingulate cortex. Additionally, they are found in a dorsolateral prefrontal area and less abundantly in the region of the frontal pole. The VEN morphology appears to have arisen independently in hominids, cetaceans, and elephants, and may reflect a specialization for the rapid transmission of crucial social information in very large brains

Holdo, R.M., Holt, R.D., Fryxell, J.M., 2009. Grazers, browsers, and fire influence the extent and spatial pattern of tree cover in the Serengeti. Ecological Applications 19, 95-109.
Abstract: Vertebrate herbivores and fire are known to be important drivers of vegetation dynamics in African savannas. It is of particular importance to understand how changes in herbivore population density, especially of elephants, and fire frequency will affect the amount of tree cover in savanna ecosystems, given the critical importance of tree cover for biodiversity, ecosystem function, and human welfare. We developed a spatially realistic simulation model of vegetation, fire, and dominant herbivore dynamics, tailored to the Serengeti ecosystem of east Africa. The model includes key processes such as tree-grass competition, fire, and resource-based density dependence and adaptive movement by herbivores. We used the model to project the ecosystem 100 years into the future from its present state under different fire, browsing (determined by elephant population density), and grazing (with and without wildebeest present) regimes. The model produced the following key results: (1) elephants and fire exert synergistic negative effects on woody cover; when grazers are excluded, the impact of fire and the strength of the elephant-fire interaction increase; (2) at present population densities of 0.15 elephants/km2, the total amount of woody cover is predicted to remain stable in the absence of fire, but the mature tree population is predicted to decline regardless of the fire regime; without grazers present to mitigate the effects of fire, the size structure of the tree population will become dominated by seedlings and mature trees; (3) spatial heterogeneity in tree cover varies unimodally with elephant population density; fire increases heterogeneity in the presence of grazers and decreases it in their absence; (4) the marked rainfall gradient in the Serengeti directly affects the pattern of tree cover in the absence of fire; with fire, the woody cover is determined by the grazing patterns of the migratory wildebeest, which are partly rainfall driven. Our results show that, in open migratory ecosystems such as the Serengeti, grazers can modulate the impact of fire and the strength of the interaction between fire and browsers by altering fuel loads and responding to the distribution of grass across the landscape, and thus exert strong effects on spatial patterns of tree cover.

Holdo, R.M., Holt, R.D., Fryxell, J.M., 2009. Grazers, browsers, and fire influence the extent and spatial pattern of tree cover in the Serengeti
88. Ecol. Appl. 19, 95-109.
Abstract: Vertebrate herbivores and fire are known to be important drivers of vegetation dynamics in African savannas. It is of particular importance to understand how changes in herbivore population density, especially of elephants, and fire frequency will affect the amount of tree cover in savanna ecosystems, given the critical importance of tree cover for biodiversity, ecosystem function, and human welfare. We developed a spatially realistic simulation model of vegetation, fire, and dominant herbivore dynamics, tailored to the Serengeti ecosystem of east Africa. The model includes key processes such as tree-grass competition, fire, and resource-based density dependence and adaptive movement by herbivores. We used the model to project the ecosystem 100 years into the future from its present state under different fire, browsing (determined by elephant population density), and grazing (with and without wildebeest present) regimes. The model produced the following key results: (1) elephants and fire exert synergistic negative effects on woody cover; when grazers are excluded, the impact of fire and the strength of the elephant-fire interaction increase; (2) at present population densities of 0.15 elephants/km2, the total amount of woody cover is predicted to remain stable in the absence of fire, but the mature tree population is predicted to decline regardless of the fire regime; without grazers present to mitigate the effects of fire, the size structure of the tree population will become dominated by seedlings and mature trees; (3) spatial heterogeneity in tree cover varies unimodally with elephant population density; fire increases heterogeneity in the presence of grazers and decreases it in their absence; (4) the marked rainfall gradient in the Serengeti directly affects the pattern of tree cover in the absence of fire; with fire, the woody cover is determined by the grazing patterns of the migratory wildebeest, which are partly rainfall driven. Our results show that, in open migratory ecosystems such as the Serengeti, grazers can modulate the impact of fire and the strength of the interaction between fire and browsers by altering fuel loads and responding to the distribution of grass across the landscape, and thus exert strong effects on spatial patterns of tree cover

Hrabar, H., Hattas, D., du Toit, J.G., 2009. Differential effects of defoliation by mopane caterpillars and pruning by African elephants on the regrowth of Colophospermum mopane foliage. Journal of Tropical Ecology 25, 301-309.
Abstract: Plant responses to herbivory vary depending on herbivory type, yet the comparative effects of defoliation (e.g. by insects) and pruning (e.g. by large mammals) on a single tree species are poorly documented. We investigated this in the Northern Province of South Africa by comparing the regrowth of Colophospermum mopane trees previously defoliated by caterpillars or pruned by elephants, the two main browsers of C. mopane foliage. Shoots were up to 160% and 125% longer after natural (elephant) and simulated pruning and leaves ~25% longer in regrowth after natural pruning (n = 13-15 trees per treatment). Shoot density and chemical defences in leaves (tannin:protein ratio and total polyphenolic concentration) were, however, no different from control trees. Simulated defoliation resulted in statistically insignificant changes to regrowth in terms of leaf and shoot size (both slightly decreased) and shoot density (slightly increased). Natural (caterpillar) defoliation, however, resulted in regrowth with significantly decreased shoot and leaf size (about 50% and 20% of control lengths, respectively), as well as decreased leaf chemical defence. Shoot and leaf length were longer on trees flushing for the first time after pruning and late-season defoliation had a greater negative impact than mid-season defoliation. Despite the differences in regrowth characteristics after pruning and defoliation, mopane plants showed no apparent trade-off in investment between tolerance and resistance after either herbivory type, as neither regrowth nor chemical defence occurred at the expense of the other.

Jantou, V., Turmaine, M., West, G.D., Horton, M.A., McComb, D.W., 2009. Focused ion beam milling and ultramicrotomy of mineralised ivory dentine for analytical transmission electron microscopy
114. Micron. 40, 495-501.
Abstract: The use of focused ion beam (FIB) milling for preparation of sections of mineralised ivory dentine for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is investigated. Ivory dentine is essentially composed of fibrillar type-I collagen and apatite crystals. The aim of this project is to gain a clearer understanding of the relationship between the organic and inorganic components of ivory dentine using analytical TEM, in order to utilise these analytical techniques in the context of common skeletal diseases such as osteoporosis and arthritis. TEM sections were prepared in both single and dual beam FIB instruments, using two standard lift-out techniques, in situ and ex situ. The FIB sections were systematically compared with sections prepared by ultramicrotomy, the traditional preparation route in biological systems, in terms of structural and chemical differences. A clear advantage of FIB milling over ultramicrotomy is that dehydration, embedding and section flotation can be eliminated, so that partial mineral loss due to dissolution is avoided. The characteristic banding of collagen fibrils was clearly seen in FIB milled sections without the need for any chemical staining, as is commonly employed in ultramicrotomy. The FIB milling technique was able to produce high-quality TEM sections of ivory dentine, which are suitable for further investigation using electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) and energy-filtering TEM (EFTEM) to probe the collagen/apatite interface

Kun, A., Scheuring, I., 2009. Evolution of cooperation on dynamical graphs. Biosystems 96, 65-68.
Abstract:
There are two key characteristics of animal and human societies: (1) degree heterogeneity, meaning that not all individual have the same number of associates; and (2) the interaction topology is not static, i.e. either individuals interact with different set of individuals at different times of their life, or at least they have different associations than their parents. Earlier works have shown that population structure is one of the mechanisms promoting cooperation. However, most studies had assumed that the interaction network can be described by a regular graph (homogeneous degree distribution). Recently there are an increasing number of studies employing degree heterogeneous graphs to model interaction topology. But mostly the interaction topology was assumed to be static. Here we investigate the fixation probability of the cooperator strategy in the prisoner's dilemma, when interaction network is a random regular graph, a random graph or a scale-free graph and the interaction network is allowed to change.We show that the fixation probability of the cooperator strategy is lower when the interaction topology is described by a dynamical graph compared to a static graph. Even a limited network dynamics significantly decreases the fixation probability of cooperation, an effect that is mitigated stronger by degree heterogeneous networks topology than by a degree homogeneous one. We have also found that from the considered graph topologies the decrease of fixation probabilities due to graph dynamics is the lowest on scale-free graphs.

Landman, M., Kerley, G.I.H., Schoeman, D.S., 2009. Evidence-based conservation management of elephants: the case of the important plants in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. Journal of Zoology 277, 108-110.

Lee, J.C., Hsieh, H.M., Huang, L.H., Kuo, Y.C., Wu, J.H., Chin, S.C., Lee, A.H., Linacre, A., Tsai, L.C., 2009. Ivory identification by DNA profiling of cytochrome b gene. Int. J. Legal Med. 123, 117-121.
Abstract: Ivory can be visually identified in its native form as coming from an elephant species; however, determining from which of the three extant elephant species a section of ivory originates is more problematic. We report on a method that will identify and distinguish the protected and endangered elephant species, Elephas maximus or Loxodonta sp. To identify the species of elephant from ivory products, we developed three groups of nested PCR amplifications within the cytochrome b gene that generate amplification products using highly degraded DNA isolated from confiscated ivory samples dating from 1995. DNA from a total of 382 out of 453 ivory samples were successfully isolated and amplified leading to species identification. All sequences were searched against GenBank and found to match with E. maximus and Loxodonta sp. with at least 99% similarity. The samples that were tested came from eight Asian elephants, 14 African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis), and 360 African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana). This study demonstrates a high success rate in species identification of ivory by a nested PCR approach within the cytochrome b gene which provides the necessary information for the protection of endangered species conservation

Leighty, K.A., Soltis, J., Wesolek, C.M., Savage, A., Mellen, J., Lehnhardt, J., 2009. GPS determination of walking rates in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
79. Zoo. Biol. 28, 16-28.
Abstract: The movements of elephants in captivity have been an issue of concern for animal welfare activists and zoological professionals alike in recent years. In order to fully understand how movement rates reflect animal welfare, we must first determine the exact distances these animals move in the captive environment. We outfitted seven adult female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) at Disney's Animal Kingdom with collar-mounted global positioning recording systems to document their movement rates while housed in outdoor guest viewing habitats. Further, we conducted preliminary analyses to address potential factors impacting movement rates including body size, temperature, enclosure size, and social grouping complexity. We found that our elephants moved at an average rate of 0.409+/-0.007 km/hr during the 9-hr data collection periods. This rate translates to an average of 3.68 km traveled during the observation periods, at a rate comparable to that observed in the wild. Although movement rate did not have a significant relationship with an individual's body size in this herd, the movements of four females demonstrated a significant positive correlation with temperature. Further, females in our largest social group demonstrated a significant increase in movement rates when residing in larger enclosures. We also present preliminary evidence suggesting that increased social group complexity, including the presence of infants in the herd, may be associated with increased walking rates, whereas factors such as reproductive and social status may constrain movements

Leighty, K.A., Soltis, J., Savage, A., 2009. GPS assessment of the use of exhibit space and resources by African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
65. Zoo. Biol. 28, 1-11.
Abstract: In public discussions of animal rights and welfare, we as members and proponents of zoological institutions often face significant challenges addressing the concerns of our detractors due to an unfortunate deficiency in systematically collected and published data on the animals in our collections. In the case of elephants, there has been a paucity of information describing their use of space within captive environments. Here, using collar-mounted GPS recording devices, we documented the use of exhibit space and resources by a herd of five adult female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed at Disney's Animal Kingdom((R)). We found that dominant animals within the herd used a greater percentage of the available space and subordinate females avoided narrow or enclosed regions of the enclosure that we termed "restricted flow areas." In their use of other resources, dominant females demonstrated increased occupation of the watering hole over subordinate females, but all females demonstrated relatively equivalent use of the mud wallow. Overall, our results provide preliminary evidence that position within the dominancy hierarchy impacts the percentage of space occupied in a captive setting and may contribute to resource accessibility. These findings can be applied to future decisions on exhibit design and resource distribution for this species. Zoo Biol 28:1-11, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Lemieux, A.M., Clark, R.V., 2009. The international ban on ivory sales and its effects on elephant poaching in Africa. British Journal of Criminology 49, 451.
Abstract: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) secured an agreement in 1989 among its member states to ban the international
trade in ivory. This disruption of the international ivory market was intended to reverse a sharp decline in the African elephant population, which resulted from widespread poaching for ivory in the previous decade. The continent's overall population of elephants increased after the ban, but an analysis of elephant population data from 1979 to 2007 found that some of the 37 countries in Africa with elephants continued to lose substantial numbers of them. This pattern is largely explained by the presence of unregulated domestic ivory markets in and near countries with declines in elephant populations.

Levick, S.R., Asner, G.P., Kennedy-Bowdoin, T., Knapp, D.E., 2009. The relative influence of fire and herbivory on savanna three-dimensional vegetation structure. Biological Conservation 142, 1693-1700.
Abstract: The relative importance of fire and herbivory on vegetation structure has been the subject of much debate in savanna ecology. Fire regime and herbivore numbers are two key variables that managers of protected areas can manipulate to meet their conservation objectives. We deployed a new airborne remote sensing system (Carnegie Airborne Observatory) to the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, to map a unique herbivore/fire exclusion experiment on basaltic soils. We collected high resolution (56 cm) three-dimensional (3-D) vegetation structural data over areas that have been protected from herbivores (34 yr) and/or fire (7 yr), as well as those exposed to both disturbance agents. Canopy height distribution, as well as the distribution of foliage within the vertical canopy profile, differed significantly between all treatments and between each, treatment and the control area (Kolmogorov-Smimov, p < 0.001). Herbivory exerted a greater influence on vegetation 3-D structure and heterogeneity than did fire. At the broad scale, total percentage woody cover was 36 times greater in areas protected from herbivores, compared to the control area. At a finer scale, areas protected from herbivores contained 5 times more tall tree canopy (> 9 m) and up to 66 times more small tree canopy (3-6 m). Fire restricted growth of vegetation in the 0-3 m height range, both in the absence and presence of herbivores. Our findings highlight the active role that conservation managers can play in modifying vegetation structure and heterogeneity through herbivore and fire management, as well as the value of 3-D remote sensing for the assessment of conservation management outcomes.

Li, Z.L., Chen, M.Y., Wu, Z.L., Wang, Q., Dong, Y.H., 2009. [Perception and attitude of rural community to the construction of Asian elephant conservation corridors in Xishuangbanna]. Ying. Yong. Sheng Tai Xue. Bao. 20, 1483-1487.
Abstract: By using contingent valuation method (CVM), an investigation was made from November 2007 to March 2008 on the perception and attitude of 196 households in 5 villages within 2 planned Asian elephant conservation corridors in Xishuangbanna to the construction of the corridors. 80.61% of the interviewees conditionally supported the corridors construction. The main factors affecting the interviewees' support willingness included their education level, per capita income, and perceptions to Asian elephant protection, human-elephant relations, and corridor utilization patterns and its beneficiaries, among which, the interviewees' awareness of Asian elephant conservation, corridor utilization patterns, and corridor beneficiaries had strong influence on the support willingness, with the correlation coefficient being 0.231, 0.236, and -0.304, respectively. The rural community holding the land tenure played a key role in the corridors construction. To effectively design and planning the construction of biological conservation corridor, it is necessary to have a deep understanding on the perceptions and attitudes of rural community to the construction of the corridor and to obtain their support and participation for this construction

Lovett, J.C., 2009. Elephants and the conservation dilemma. African Journal of Ecology 47, 129-130.

Mapaure, I., Moe, S.R., 2009. Changes in the structure and composition of miombo woodlands mediated by elephants (Loxodonta africana) and fire over a 26-year period in north-western Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 47, 175-183.
Abstract:
Changes in structure and composition of miombo woodlands mediated by elephants and fire were studied in 26-year-old permanent transects established in 1972 in north-western Zimbabwe. Elephants caused 48% decline in proportions of large trees (> 11 cm diameter), significant reductions (30.9-90.9%) in tree heights, reductions in stem areas (43.5%) and densities (2.5%) of all trees. There were increases in proportions of small trees (64.8%), shrub canopy volumes (271%) and shrub densities (172%). These increases are attributed to natural recruitment because of longer fire-free periods and reduction of tree suppression effects on lower strata as a result of elephant-induced tree declines. Frequencies of occurrence of most species dropped by 28-89.6%. Brachystegia boehmii was replaced by Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia as the most dominant tree, largely because of high elephant preference for Brachystegia boehmii. A new suite of species, dominated by Combretaceae, increased in dominance resulting in local floristic changes. Reductions in old elephant (33.4%), old unknown (89.9%) and new elephant (13.7%) damage suggest that elephant occupancy of miombo woodlands has declined, possibly because of limited availability of preferred browse species. This study clearly shows that elephants and fire have contributed significantly to the changes in miombo woodlands in the area.

Metcalfe, S., Kepe, T., 2009. "Your elephant on our land": the struggle to manage wildlife mobility on Zambian communal land in the Kavango-Zambezi transfrontier . The Journal of Environment & Development 17, 99-117.

Moe, S.R., Rutina, L.P., Hytteborn, H., du Toit, J.T., 2009. What controls woodland regeneration after elephants have killed the big trees? Journal of Applied Ecology 46, 223-230.
Abstract: Top-down regulation of ecosystems by large herbivores is a topic of active debate between scientists and managers, and a prime example is the interaction between elephants Loxodonta africana and trees in African savannas. A common assumption among wildlife managers is that a local reduction in elephant numbers will ultimately allow woodland to self-restore to a desired former state. Such regeneration is, however, dependent on the survival of seedlings of impacted tree species. We conducted a field experiment to investigate seedling predation in the elephant-transformed Chobe riparian woodland of northern Botswana. We planted seedling gardens in (i) complete exclosures that excluded all herbivores except small rodents and invertebrates, (ii) semi-permeable exclosures that excluded ungulates but included primates, lagomorphs, all rodents, gallinaceous birds, etc, and (iii) completely open plots. Seedlings were of two tree species decreasing in the area (Faidherbia albida and Garcinia livingstonei) and two that are increasing (Combretum mossambicense and Croton megalobotrys). After 9 months, seedling survival ranged from > 75% for all species in the complete exclosure to < 20% for Faidherbia albida in the open plots. Survival of all seedlings except C. megalobotrys declined precipitously in open plots during the dry season when invertebrates are largely dormant but when impalas Aepyceros melampus (locally abundant ungulates) increase the browse components of their diets. Seedling survival in the open plots was negatively related to local impala density but unrelated to that of any other browser. Synthesis and applications. Our findings relate to the current debate about managing elephants to restore southern African savanna landscapes to desired historical states. Various seedling predators, including the ubiquitous impala Aepyceros melampus, regulate the regeneration of trees from seedlings, and our experiments support the hypothesis that tall closed-canopy woodlands originate during episodic windows of opportunity for seedling survival. To artificially recreate such a window would require the decimation of seedling predators as well as elephants, which is impractical at the landscape scale.

Morgan, B.J., 2009. Sacoglottis gabonensis- a keystone fruit for forest elephants in the Reserve de Faune du Petit Loango, Gabon. African Journal of Ecology 47, 154-163.
Abstract: This study suggests that the fruits of Sacoglottis gabonensis (Baill.) Urb. (Humiriaceae) are a keystone resource for forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis Matschie) in a coastal rain forest, the REserve de Faune du Petit Loango, Gabon (now part of Loango National Park). Faecal counts demonstrated that forest elephants used Sacoglottis-dominated forest more when Sacoglottis was abundant and electivity indices suggest that Sacoglottis is a preferred food. The flora of Petit Loango is characterized by the absence of herbaceous vegetation such as Marantaceae and Zingiberaceae, and during the prolonged dry season few fleshy fruits are present other than Sacoglottis fruits, which are produced in a glut during this time. While inter-annual fruiting reliability remains to be confirmed, fruit production in 1998 and high stem density relative to other study sites provide indirect evidence that Sacoglottis fruits are a reliable inter-annual resource at Petit Loango. It is thus proposed that Sacoglottis gabonensis fruits fulfil an important role as a keystone 'fallback' resource for forest elephants during the dry season at Petit Loango.

Mpanduji, D.G., East, M., Hofer, H., 2009. Analysis of habitat use by and preference of elephants in the Selous-Niassa wildlife corridor, southern Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology 47, 267-260.

Muccio, Z., Jackson, G.P., 2009. Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry
111. Analyst 134, 213-222.
Abstract: Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS) is a specialized technique used to provide information about the geographic, chemical, and biological origins of substances. The ability to determine the source of an organic substance stems from the relative isotopic abundances of the elements which comprise the material. Because the isotope ratios of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen can become locally enriched or depleted through a variety of kinetic and thermodynamic factors, measurement of the isotope ratios can be used to differentiate between samples which otherwise share identical chemical compositions. Several sample introduction methods are now available for commercial isotope ratio mass spectrometers. Combustion is most commonly used for bulk isotopic analysis, whereas gas and liquid chromatography are predominately used for the real-time isotopic analysis of specific compounds within a mixture. Here, highlights of advances in instrumentation and applications within the last three years are provided to illustrate the impact of this rapidly growing area of research. Some prominent new applications include authenticating organic food produce, ascertaining whether or not African elephants are guilty of night-time raids on farmers' crops, and linking forensic drug and soil samples from a crime scene to a suspected point of origin. For the sake of brevity, we focus this Minireview on the isotope ratio measurements of lighter-elements common to organic sources; we do not cover the equally important field of inorganic isotope ratio mass spectrometry

Muchapondwa, E., Carlsson, F., Ko¨hlin, G., 2009. Wildlife management in Zimbabwe: evidence from a contingent valuation study. South African Journal of Economics 76, 685-704.
Abstract: If communities living adjacent to the elephant see it as a burden, then they cannot be its stewards. To assess their valuation of it, a contingent valuation method study was conducted for one CAMPFIRE district in Zimbabwe. Respondents were classified according to their preferences over the elephant. The median willingness to pay for the preservation of 200 elephants is ZW$260 (US$4.73) for respondents who considered the elephant a public good and ZW$137 (US$2.49) for those favouring its translocation. The preservation of 200 elephants yields an annual net worth of ZW$10,828 (US$196) to CAMPFIRE households. However, the majority of households (62%) do not support elephant preservation. This is one argument against devolution of elephant conservation. External transfers constitute one way of providing additional economic incentives to local communities.

Ngene, S.M., Skidmore, A.K., Van Gils, H., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Omondi, P., 2009. Elephant distribution around a volcanic shield dominated by a mosaic of forest and savanna (Marsabit, Kenya). African Journal of Ecology 47, 234-245.
Abstract: We investigated the factors that influenced the distribution of the African elephant around a volcanic shield dominated by a mosaic of forest and savanna in northern Kenya. Data on elephant distribution were acquired from four female and five bull elephants, collared with satellite-linked geographical positioning system collars. Based on the eigenvalues (variances) of the correlation matrix, the six factors that contributed significantly to high total variances were distance from drinking water (24%), elevation (15%), shrubland (10%), forest (9%), distance from settlements (8%) and distance from minor roads (7%), contributing to 73% in the observed variation of the elephant distribution. The elephants were found at high forested elevations during the dry season but they moved to the lowlands characterized by shrubland during the wet season. Elevation acts as a proxy for the vegetation structure. The presence of elephants near permanent water points (13%) and seasonal rivers (11%) during the dry and wet seasons, respectively, demonstrates that water is the most important determinant of their distribution throughout the year. We conclude that the distribution of elephants in Marsabit Protected Area and its adjacent areas is influenced mainly by drinking water and vegetation structure.

Ogra, M., 2009. Attitudes toward resolution of human–wildlife conflict among forest-dependent agriculturalists near Rajaji National Park, India. Attitudes toward resolution of human-wildlife conflict among forest-dependent agriculturalists near Rajaji National Park, India 37, 161-177.
Abstract: Understanding local attitudes towards human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is key to developing successful conflict mitigation strategies. In this paper, in-depth interview and questionnaire data about resolution of HWC in Uttarakhand, India are examined from both qualitative and quantitative approaches (n = 70). Responses are differentiated between and within three subgroups: gender, literacy status, and relative wealth. Overall, the plurality of respondents said that fencing is the best solution, that the Forest Department should take leadership, and that villagers would be willing to participate in a cooperative management institution. However, cooperative action was only actively supported by 27.4% of respondents, suggesting that comanagement of this protected area will require significant capacity building and trust building activities. Intragroup differences show that all three factors are significant, and underscore the importance of addressing gender differences in attitudes about HWC in particular. Women were less likely than men to support compensation, more likely to prefer that the village take leadership, and less willing to participate in a cooperative management institution. The study illustrates the value of mixed-method research, and suggests a number of specific entry points for action.

Olivier, P.I., Ferreira, S.M., van Aarde, R.J., 2009. Dung survey bias and elephant population estimates in southern Mozambique. African Journal of Ecology 47, 202-213.
Abstract: We used dung surveys to estimate population size and extracted an age structure from boli diameters for the elephants living in the Maputo Elephant Reserve. Our estimate was based on published defecation rates, dung decay rates, distance-sampling techniques and 1,672 dung piles encountered on 204 line-transects. The reserve had at least 311 (95% CI: 198-490) elephants at a density of 0.60 (95% CI: 0.38-0.94) per km(2). However, observer bias reduced effective strip widths and inflated estimates and their confidence limits. The age structure extrapolated from dung measurements indicated few newborn calves compared with other populations. To detect population changes of 2-5% at 80% power, dung surveys should be carried out every second year for the next 20 years using 100 transects of at least 500 m each. Comparison with a 1995 dung survey suggests that the population is stable and that previous fears of a major population decline during the civil war have no foundation.

Owens, M.J., Owens, D., 2009. Early age reproduction in female savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) after severe poaching. African Journal of Ecology 47, 214-222.
Abstract: A 10-year study revealed that after severe poaching (> 93% killed) of elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Zambia's North Luangwa National Park (NLNP) during the 1970s and 1980s, the age of reproduction in females was greatly reduced. Fifty-eight per cent of births were delivered by females aged 8.5-14 years, an age at which elephants were reported to be sexually immature in nearby South Luangwa National Park (SLNP) before poaching. The mean age of females at first birth (AFB) (1993, 1994) was 11.3 years. Prior to poaching, the mean age AFB in SLNP was 16 years. The NLNP age structure and sex ratio were skewed, mean family unit size was reduced, and 37% of family units contained no females older than 15 years. Twenty-eight per cent of family units were comprised entirely of a single mother and her calf, and 8% of units consisted only of orphans who would have been considered sexually immature prior to poaching. Only 6% of survivors were older than 20 years, the age at which females in little-poached populations generally become most reproductively active. After a community-based conservation programme and the UN-CITES ban on the ivory trade were introduced, no elephants were recorded killed. In spite of a high reproductive rate, 6 years after poaching decreased, the density of the NLNP population had not increased, supporting predictions that the removal of older matriarchs from family units will have serious consequences on the recovery of this species.

Parker, D.M., Bernard, R.T.F., 2009. Levels of aloe mortality with and without elephants in the Thicket Biome of South Africa. African Journal of Ecology 47, 246-251.
Abstract: Studies concerning the influence of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) on vegetation have produced contradictory results; some show minimal or no effect while others report significant elephant-induced effects. Elephants are generalist megaherbivores but will selectively feed from preferred plant species. We investigated the mortality of aloe plants (highly preferred food items for elephants) at five sites with elephants (treatment) and five paired sites without elephants (control) in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. A significantly higher proportion of aloes were dead at treatment sites and significantly more aloes that had lost their crown (headless) were found at treatment sites compared with controls. We conclude that although the proportions of dead aloes at treatment sites were significantly higher, it remains unclear whether there is a need to be concerned with the potential small-scale extinction of aloes from parts of the Eastern Cape Province. The observed mortality may merely be an artefact of the loss of large herbivores through disease (e.g. rinderpest) and hunting in the past.

Pinter-Wollman, N., Isabell, L.A., Hart, L.A., 2009. Assessing translocation outcome: Comparing behavioral and physiological aspects of translocated and resident African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Biological Conservation 142, 1116-1124.
Abstract: Evaluating translocation outcomes is important for improving wildlife management and conservation actions. Often, when quick decisions need to be made and long-lived animals with slow reproductionrates are translocated, traditional assessment methods such as long-term survival and reproductive successcannot be used for assessing translocation outcomes. Thus, alternative, seldom used, measures suchas comparing the behavior and physiology of translocated animals to those of local residents should beemployed to assess the translocated animals' acclimation to their new home. Here we monitored the survival,physiology, and behavior of translocated African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and comparedthese measures to the local resident population at the release site. Adult male and female translocatedelephants' death rates were higher than those of the local population. Furthermore, the mortality rateof translocated adult males and calves was greater than expected based on their proportion in the translocatedelephant population. No difference was found in stress hormone levels between the two populations,but the body condition of the translocated elephants was significantly poorer than that of the localpopulation throughout the study period. The behavioral time budgets of the translocated elephants convergedwith those of the local population over time. Finally, translocated elephants utilized habitat thatwas similar to their source site (hills and permanent rivers) more than did the local population. Based on these findings we recommend careful consideration of timing, release location, and individuals targetedin future elephant translocations. More broadly, we introduce and explore seldom used translocation assessment techniques.

Pinter-Wollman, N., Isbell, L.A., Hart, L.A., 2009. The relationship between social behaviour and habitat familiarity in African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
117. Proc. Biol. Sci. 276, 1009-1014.
Abstract: Social associations with conspecifics can expedite animals' acclimation to novel environments. However, the benefits gained from sociality may change as the habitat becomes familiar. Furthermore, the particular individuals with whom animals associate upon arrival at a new place, familiar conspecifics or knowledgeable unfamiliar residents, may influence the type of information they acquire about their new home. To examine animals' social dynamics in novel habitats, we studied the social behaviour of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) translocated into a novel environment. We found that the translocated elephants' association with conspecifics decreased over time supporting our hypothesis that sociality provides added benefits in novel environments. In addition, we found a positive correlation between body condition and social association, suggesting that elephants gain direct benefits from sociality. Furthermore, the translocated elephants associated significantly less than expected with the local residents and more than expected with familiar, but not necessarily genetically related, translocated elephants. The social segregation between the translocated and resident elephants declined over time, suggesting that elephants can integrate into an existing social setting. Knowledge of the relationship between sociality and habitat familiarity is highly important in our constantly changing world to both conservation practice and our understanding of animals' behaviour in novel environments

Pinter-Wollman, N., 2009. Spatial behaviour of translocated African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in a novel environment: using behaviour to inform conservation actions. Behaviour 146, 1171-1192.
Abstract: When animals encounter a novel environment they can either reject it and leave or accept it and explore their new home. It is important to understand what governs animals' response to a novel place because of the fitness consequences and wildlife management implications
entailed. Here I examine the spatial behaviour of translocated African elephants (Loxodonta africana) upon arrival at a novel environment. I monitored the movement patterns of 12 radiocollared elephants for a year post-translocation. I documented the first account of both female
and male African elephants homing back to their natal habitat. More males than expected left the release site, but female-calf units also homed to their natal habitat, demonstrating that homing is not confined to one sex or age.When examining the spatial behaviour of elephants
that remained near the release site I did not find a relationship between habitat exploration and last distance from release site, elephant age, or social association. However, I did find a negative correlation between habitat exploration and distance from human activities. This
work provides biological insights regarding individual variation in spatial activity of animals in a novel environment and offers recommendations for future management actions.

Rees, P.A., 2009. The sizes of elephant groups in zoos: implications for elephant welfare. J. Appl. Anim Welf. Sci. 12, 44-60.
Abstract: This study examined the distribution of 495 Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and 336 African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in 194 zoos, most of which were located in Europe (49.1%) and North America (32.6%). Cows outnumbered bulls 4 to 1 (Loxodonta) and 3 to 1 (Elephas). Groups contained 7 or fewer: mean, 4.28 (sigma = 5.73). One fifth of elephants lived alone or with one conspecific. Forty-six elephants (5.5%) had no conspecific. Many zoos ignore minimum group sizes of regional zoo association guidelines. The American Zoo and Aquarium Association recommends that breeding facilities keep herds of 6 to 12 elephants. The British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums recommends keeping together at least 4 cows over 2 years old. Over 69% Asian and 80% African cow groups-including those under 2 years-consisted of fewer than 4 individuals. Recently, Europe and North America have made progress with some zoos no longer keeping elephants and with others investing in improved facilities and forming larger herds. The welfare of individual elephants should outweigh all other considerations; zoos should urgently seek to integrate small groups into larger herds

Rees, P.A., 2009. Activity budgets and the relationship between feeding and stereotypic behaviors in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Zoo
75. Zoo. Biol. 28, 79-97.
Abstract: Activity budgets were studied in eight Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Chester Zoo (UK) for 35 days, between January and November 1999. Recordings were made between 10:00 and 16:00 hr (with most behavior frequencies calculated between 10:00 and 14:00 hr). The elephants exhibited variation in activity depending on their age, sex, the time of day and the time of year. Only the five adult cows exhibited stereotypic behavior, with frequencies ranging from 3.9 to 29.4% of all observations. These elephants exhibited individual, diurnal and seasonal variation in stereotypic behavior. This has implications for studies that use short sampling periods and may make comparisons of data collected at different times of the day or year invalid. The six adult elephants spent 27.4-41.4% of the time feeding (between 10:00 and 14:00 hr), 22.9-42.0% standing still, 6.1-19.2% walking and 3.9-9.6% dusting. The hypothesis that the frequency of stereotypic behavior in adult cow elephants was negatively correlated with the frequency of feeding behavior was tested and was found to be true. Stereotypic behavior increased in frequency toward the end of the day-while waiting to return to the elephant house for food--and elephants spent more time stereotyping during the winter months than during the summer months. Elephants were inactive (i.e. exhibited behaviors other than locomotion) for between 70.1 and 93.9% of the time. Creating more opportunities for elephants to exhibit foraging behavior and the introduction of greater unpredictability into management regimes, especially feeding times, may reduce the frequency of stereotypic behavior and increase general activity levels

Remis, M.J., Hardin, R., 2009. Transvalued Species in an African Forest. Conserv. Biol.
Abstract: We combined ethnographic investigations with repeated ecological transect surveys in the Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Reserve (RDS), Central African Republic, to elucidate consequences of intensifying mixed use of forests. We devised a framework for transvaluation of wildlife species, which means the valuing of species on the basis of their ecological, economic, and symbolic roles in human lives. We measured responses to hunting, tourism, and conservation of two transvalued species in RDS: elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) and gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). Our methods included collecting data on encounter rates and habitat use on line transects. We recorded cross-cultural variation in ideas about and interactions with these species during participant observation of hunting and tourism encounters and ethnographic interviews with hunters, conservation staff, researchers, and tourists. Ecologically, gorillas used human-modified landscapes successfully, and elephants were more vulnerable than gorillas to hunting. Economically, tourism and encounters with elephants and gorillas generated revenues and other benefits for local participants. Symbolically, transvaluation of species seemed to undergird competing institutions of forest management that could prove unsustainable. Nevertheless, transvaluation may also offer alternatives to existing social hierarchies, thereby integrating local and transnational support for conservation measures. The study of transvaluation requires attention to transnational flows of ideas and resources because they influence transspecies interactions. Cross-disciplinary in nature, transvalution of species addresses the political and economic challenges to conservation because it recognizes the varied human communities that shape the survival of wildlife in a given site. Transvaluation of species could foster more socially inclusive management and monitoring approaches attuned to competing economic demands, specific species behaviors, and human practices at local scales

Roca, A.L., Ishida, Y., Nikolaidis, N., Kolokotronis, S.O., Fratpietro, S., Stewardson, K., Hensley, S., Tisdale, M., Boeskorov, G., Greenwood, A.D., 2009. Genetic variation at hair length candidate genes in elephants and the extinct woolly mammoth. BMC. Evol. Biol. 9, 232.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Like humans, the living elephants are unusual among mammals in being sparsely covered with hair. Relative to extant elephants, the extinct woolly mammoth, Mammuthus primigenius, had a dense hair cover and extremely long hair, which likely were adaptations to its subarctic habitat. The fibroblast growth factor 5 (FGF5) gene affects hair length in a diverse set of mammalian species. Mutations in FGF5 lead to recessive long hair phenotypes in mice, dogs, and cats; and the gene has been implicated in hair length variation in rabbits. Thus, FGF5 represents a leading candidate gene for the phenotypic differences in hair length notable between extant elephants and the woolly mammoth. We therefore sequenced the three exons (except for the 3' UTR) and a portion of the promoter of FGF5 from the living elephantid species (Asian, African savanna and African forest elephants) and, using protocols for ancient DNA, from a woolly mammoth. RESULTS: Between the extant elephants and the mammoth, two single base substitutions were observed in FGF5, neither of which alters the amino acid sequence. Modeling of the protein structure suggests that the elephantid proteins fold similarly to the human FGF5 protein. Bioinformatics analyses and DNA sequencing of another locus that has been implicated in hair cover in humans, type I hair keratin pseudogene (KRTHAP1), also yielded negative results. Interestingly, KRTHAP1 is a pseudogene in elephantids as in humans (although fully functional in non-human primates). CONCLUSION: The data suggest that the coding sequence of the FGF5 gene is not the critical determinant of hair length differences among elephantids. The results are discussed in the context of hairlessness among mammals and in terms of the potential impact of large body size, subarctic conditions, and an aquatic ancestor on hair cover in the Proboscidea

Rodriguez Delgado, C.L., Waters, P.D., Gilbert, C., Robinson, T.J., Graves, J.A., 2009. Physical mapping of the elephant X chromosome: conservation of gene order over 105 million years. Chromosome. Res.
Abstract: All therian mammals (eutherians and marsupials) have an XX female/XY male sex chromosome system or some variant of it. The X and Y evolved from a homologous pair of autosomes over the 166 million years since therian mammals diverged from monotremes. Comparing the sex chromosomes of eutherians and marsupials defined an ancient X conserved region that is shared between species of these mammalian clades. However, the eutherian X (and the Y) was augmented by a recent addition (XAR) that is autosomal in marsupials. XAR is part of the X in primates, rodents, and artiodactyls (which belong to the eutherian clade Boreoeutheria), but it is uncertain whether XAR is part of the X chromosome in more distantly related eutherian mammals. Here we report on the gene content and order on the X of the elephant (Loxodonta africana)-a representative of Afrotheria, a basal endemic clade of African mammals-and compare these findings to those of other documented eutherian species. A total of 17 genes were mapped to the elephant X chromosome. Our results support the hypothesis that the eutherian X and Y chromosomes were augmented by the addition of autosomal material prior to eutherian radiation. Not only does the elephant X bear the same suite of genes as other eutherian X chromosomes, but gene order appears to have been maintained across 105 million years of evolution, perhaps reflecting strong constraints posed by the eutherian X inactivation system

Roux, C., Bernard, R.T.F., 2009. Home range size, spatial distribution and habitat use of elephants in two enclosed game reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. African Journal of Ecology 47, 146-153.
Abstract: We studied space use and habitat selection by elephants in two enclosed reserves in the Eastern Cape Province (South Africa) that conserve components of the regionally important and poorly conserved Thicket Biome. Home ranges of bulls and herds occupied most of the reserves, and core areas were significantly smaller and centred on permanent water. There was no significant difference in home range size of bulls and herds and both were significantly smaller in winter than summer. Components of the Thicket Biome occurred in the home ranges and core areas of all elephants where it was either used according to its abundance or avoided. However, this should not be interpreted as indicating that elephants will not affect plants of the Thicket Biome since change will be cumulative and monitoring should be ongoing to ensure the conservation of this regionally important Biome.

Smit, I.P.J., Grant, C.C., 2009. Managing surface-water in a large semi-arid savanna park: effects on grazer distribution patterns. Journal for Nature Conservation 17, 61-71.
Abstract: The scientific and management perception of artificial surface-water provision has swung Like a pendulum from being to the benefit of herbivores, to being to the detriment of many vegetation and herbivore species. Using simulations, this study explores in a GIS how the water-landscape may change for water-dependent grazers under different surface-water management policies and climatic conditions in the Kruger National. Park, South Africa. The simulations revealed that the addition or removal of artificial water sources in Kruger will only significantly change the water-landscape during drought episodes, emphasising the importance of considering artificial water provision in a spatio-temporal context. More generally, this illustrates how climatic conditions and time-tags can often confound the effects of management intervention in highly variable systems, demostrating the importance of continuous and tong-term monitoring for evaluating management actions. Furthermore, it was shown how the wide-scale provision of water suppressed variability in surface-water availability, reducing spatial and temporal heterogeneity that is important for coexistence in, and resilience of, naturally fluctuating, nonequilibrium systems. This was especially evident during drought periods. Considering the results, water provision policies of semi-arid conservation areas supporting large water-dependent herbivore species should explicitly recognise and consequently aim to mimic spatio-temporal, variability in surface-water availability.

Smith, K.F., Behrens, M., Schloegel, L.M., Marano, N., Burgiel, S., Daszak, P., 2009. Reducing the risks of the wildlife trade . Science 324, 594-595.
Abstract:
The magnitude of the international wildlife trade is immense, with estimates of billions of live animals and animal products traded globally each year. This trade has facilitated the introduction of species to new regions, where they compete with native species for resources, alter ecosystems, damage infrastructure, and destroy crops. It has also led to the introduction of pathogens that threaten public health, agricultural production, and biodiversity .

Stiles, D., 2009. No proof CITES-backed ivory sales kill more elephants. Swara 1, 40-42.

Sutton, W.R., Larson, D.M., Jarvis, L.S., 2009. Assessing the costs of living with wildlife in developing countries using willingness to pay. Environment and Development Economics 13, 475-495.
Abstract: The costs of living with wildlife are assessed using Namibian subsistence farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for deterrents to attacks on crops and livestock. A utility-theoretic approach jointly estimates household WTP for deterrent programs in two 'currencies': maize and cash. This has a double payoff. Use of a non-cash staple increases respondent comprehension and provides more information about preferences, improving the accuracy of results. The household shadow value of maize is also identified. Significant costs from living with elephants and other types of wildlife are demonstrated. Compensation for farmers may be warranted on equity and efficiency grounds. Uncontrolled domestic cattle generate even higher costs to farmers than wildlife, highlighting the need to clarify property rights among these farmers.

Theuerkauf, J., Rouys, S., Henegouwen, H.L.B., Krell, F.T., Mazur, S., Muhlenberg, M., 2009. Colonization of Forest Elephant Dung by Invertebrates in the Bossematie Forest Reserve, Ivory Coast. Zoological Studies 48, 343-350.
Abstract: We studied the temporal succession and species richness of invertebrates in 18 droppings of African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) in the Bossematie Forest Reserve, Ivory Coast. We identified 19 species of the Scarabaeidae and of Hydrophilidae each, and 9 species of Histeridae. The Hydrophilidae colonized fresh dung but quickly disappeared when droppings began to dry. The Scarabaeidae mainly occurred in 12-40-h-old droppings. Colonization by the predatory Histeridae peaked after 10 h, but this group persisted longer in dung than did either the Hydrophilidae or Scarabaeidae. The Staphylinidae and Diptera quickly colonized droppings, whereas Blattodea nymphs and predatory Acarina occurred relatively later.

Thompson, M.E., Schwager, S.J., Payne, K.B., Turkalo, A.K., 2009. Acoustic estimation of wildlife abundance: methodology for vocal mammals in forested habitats. African Journal of Ecology.
Abstract: Habitat loss and hunting pressure threaten mammal populations worldwide, generating critical time constraints on trend assessment. This study introduces a new survey method that samples continuously and non-invasively over long time periods, obtaining estimates of abundance from vocalization rates. We present feasibility assessment methods for acoustic surveys and develop equations for estimating population size. As an illustration, we demonstrate the feasibility of acoustic surveys for African forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis). Visual surveys and vocalizations from a forest clearing in the Central African Republic were used to establish that low-frequency elephant calling rate is a useful index of elephant numbers (linear regressionP<0.001,radj.2=0.58). The effective sampling area was 3.22km2per acoustic sensor, a dramatic increase in coverage over dung survey transects. These results support the use of acoustic surveys for estimating elephant abundance over large remote areas and in diverse habitats, using a distributed network of acoustic sensors. The abundance estimation methods presented can be applied in surveys of any species for which an acoustic abundance index and detection function have been established. This acoustic survey technique provides an opportunity to improve management and conservation of many acoustically-active taxa whose populations are currently under-monitored.

Thompson, M.E., Schwager, S.J., Payne, K.B., 2009. Heard but not seen: an acoustic survey of the African forest elephant population at Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana. African Journal of Ecology.
Abstract: This study, designed to survey forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) at Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana, is the first to apply acoustic methods to elephant abundance estimation and to compare results with independent survey estimates. Nine acoustic sensors gathered sound continuously for 38days. Low-frequency calling rates have been established as useful elephant abundance indices at a Namibian watering hole and a central African forest clearing. In this study, we estimated elephant population size by applying an abundance index model and detection function developed in central Africa to data from simultaneous sampling periods on Kakum sensors. The sensor array recorded an average of 1.81 calls per 20-min sampling period from an effective detection area averaging 10.27km2. The resulting estimate of 294 elephants (95% CI: 259-329) falls within confidence bounds of recent dung-based surveys. An extended acoustic model, estimating the frequency with which elephants are silent when present, yields an estimate of 350 elephants (95% CI: 315-384). Acoustic survey confidence intervals are at least half as wide as those from dung-based surveys. This study demonstrates that acoustic surveying is a valuable tool for estimating elephant abundance, as well as for detecting other vocal species and anthropogenic noises that may be associated with poaching.

Thongtip, N., Mahasawangkul, S., Thitaram, C., Pongsopavijitr, P., Kornkaewrat, K., Pinyopummin, A., Angkawanish, T., Jansittiwate, S., Rungsri, R., Boonprasert, K., Wongkalasin, W., Homkong, P., Dejchaisri, S., Wajjwalku, W., Saikhun, K., 2009. Successful artificial insemination in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) using chilled and frozen-thawed semen. Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 7, 75.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Artificial insemination (AI) using frozen-thawed semen is well established and routinely used for breeding in various mammalian species. However, there is no report of the birth of elephant calves following AI with frozen-thawed semen. The objective of the present study was to investigate the fertilizing ability of chilled and frozen-thawed semen in the Asian elephant following artificial insemination (AI). METHODS: Semen samples were collected by from 8 bulls (age range, 12-to 42-years) by manual stimulation. Semen with high quality were either cooled to 4 degrees C or frozen in liquid nitrogen (-196 degrees C) before being used for AI. Blood samples collected from ten elephant females (age range, 12-to 52-years) were assessed for estrus cycle and elephants with normal cycling were used for AI. Artificial insemination series were conducted during 2003 to 2008; 55 and 2 AI trials were conducted using frozen-thawed and chilled semen, respectively. Pregnancy was detected using transrectal ultrasonography and serum progestagen measurement. RESULTS: One female (Khod) inseminated with chilled semen became pregnant and gave birth in 2007. The gestation length was 663 days and the sex of the elephant calf was male. One female (Sao) inseminated with frozen-thawed semen showed signs of pregnancy by increasing progestagen levels and a fetus was observed for 5 months by transrectal ultrasonography. CONCLUSION: This is the first report showing pregnancy following AI with frozen-thawed semen in the Asian elephant. Successful AI in the Asian elephant using either chilled or frozen-thawed semen is a stepping stone towards applying this technology for genetic improvement of the elephant population.

Tremblay, Y., Robinson, P.W., Costa, D.P., 2009. A parsimonious approach to modeling animal movement data. PLoS ONE 4, e4711.
Abstract: Animal tracking is a growing field in ecology and previous work has shown that simple speed filtering of tracking data is not sufficient and that improvement of tracking location estimates are possible. To date, this has required methods that are complicated and often time-consuming (state-space models), resulting in limited application of this technique and the potential for analysis errors due to poor understanding of the fundamental framework behind the approach. We describe and test an alternative and intuitive approach consisting of bootstrapping random walks biased by forward particles. The model uses recorded data accuracy estimates, and can assimilate other sources of data such as sea-surface temperature, bathymetry and/or physical boundaries. We tested our model using ARGOS and geolocation tracks of elephant seals that also carried GPS tags in addition to PTTs, enabling true validation. Among pinnipeds, elephant seals are extreme divers that spend little time at the surface, which considerably impact the quality of both ARGOS and light-based geolocation tracks. Despite such low overall quality tracks, our model provided location estimates within 4.0, 5.5 and 12.0 km of true location 50% of the time, and within 9, 10.5 and 20.0 km 90% of the time, for above, equal or below average elephant seal ARGOS track qualities, respectively. With geolocation data, 50% of errors were less than 104.8 km (<0.94 degrees), and 90% were less than 199.8 km (<1.80 degrees). Larger errors were due to lack of sea-surface temperature gradients. In addition we show that our model is flexible enough to solve the obstacle avoidance problem by assimilating high resolution coastline data. This reduced the number of invalid on-land location by almost an order of magnitude. The method is intuitive, flexible and efficient, promising extensive utilization in future research.

Trimble, M.J., Ferreira, S.M., van Aarde, R.J., 2009. Drivers of megaherbivore demographic fluctuations: inference from elephants. Journal of Zoology 1-9.
Abstract: Environmentally induced variation in survival and fecundity generates demographic fluctuations that affect population growth rate. However, a general pattern of the comparative influence of variation in fecundity and juvenile survival on elephant population dynamics has not been investigated at a broad scale. We evaluated the relative importance of conception, gestation, first year survival and subsequent survivorship for controlling demographic variation by exploring the relationship between past environmental conditions determined by integrated normalized difference vegetation index (INDVI) and the shape of age distributions at 17 sites across Africa. We showed that, generally, INDVI during gestation best explained anomalies in age structure. However, in areas with low mean annual rainfall, INDVI during the first year of life was critical. The results challenge Eberhardt's paradigm for population analysis that suggests that populations respond to limited resource availability through a sequential decrease in juvenile survival, reproductive rate and adult survival. Contrastingly, elephants appear to respond first through a reduction in reproductive rate. We conclude that this discrepancy is likely due to the evolutionary significance of extremely large body size - an adaptation that increases survival rate but decreases reproductive potential. Other megaherbivores may respond similarly to resource limitation due to similarities in population dynamics. Knowing how vital rates vary with changing environmental conditions will permit better forecasts of the trajectories of megaherbivore populations.

Valeix, M., Fritz, H., Canevet, V., Le Bel, S., Madzikanda, H., 2009. Do elephants prevent other African herbivores from using waterholes in the dry season? Biodiversity and Conservation 18 , 569-576.
Abstract: In some African protected areas, concerns have arisen about the influence of locally high elephant numbers on other forms of biodiversity. In arid and semi-arid savannas, surface-water resources are scarce and agonistic interactions between elephants and other herbivores have been reported at waterholes, yet surprisingly very little is known about the impact of elephants on the use of waterholes by other herbivores. Here, we test whether when there are elephants at a waterhole, other herbivores (1) do not change their drinking behaviour; (2) spend shorter time around the water because they are disturbed by elephants' presence and consequently have to leave the waterhole area probably without having met their water requirements, or (3) spend more time around the water probably owing to an increase in vigilance activities or because the presence of elephants may signal safety from predators. Results show that all species spend longer time around water when there are elephants at the waterhole, although the difference is not large. Consequently, this study strongly suggests that elephants do not prevent other herbivores from drinking (time at waterholes is not shortened when elephants are around). Further, if the additional time spent to drink is linked to an increased vigilance, the difference is not large, and hence unlikely to affect the population dynamics of other herbivores.

van Aarde, R.J., Ferreira, S.M., 2009. Elephant populations and CITES trade resolutions. Environmental Conservation 1-3.
Abstract: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulates trade in species and their products. The original listing of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Appendix II limited international trade, but their listing on Appendix I at the 7th CITES Conference of Parties (CoP) in 1989 (CITES 1989) banned international trade (Stiles 2004). In 1997, the 10th CITES CoP allowed sales of ivory from Botswana, Namibia and Zambia (CITES 1997) and the 12th CITES CoP conditionally refined further sales by these countries in 2007 (CITES 2007a). All these decisions relied on trends in numbers and poaching derived from the Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS; CITES 2007b) and Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants Programme (MIKE; CITES 2007c). Such information clearly ignores demographic and spatial variables that drive these trends in elephant populations. We propose that clusters of conservation areas are required as spatial and demographic
units on which to frame CITES decision-taking processes for elephants, and suggest that information on the demographic profiles of subpopulations within clusters should supplement census information from MIKE and ETIS.

Vanleeuwe, H., 2009. Counting elephants in Montane forests: some sources of error. African Journal of Ecology 47, 164-174.
Abstract: The dung count method is widely used to estimate elephant numbers in forests. It was developed in the lowland forests of Central Africa but it is also used in Montane forests in eastern Africa. Using data collected on Mount Kenya and computer simulations, this paper explores the following issues associated with dung surveys in Montane forests: High rainfall at 3000 m altitude on Mount Kenya was expected to accelerate dung pile decay but no significant difference was found between 3000 and 2500 m where less rain falls, possibly because high rainfall at 3000 m is counteracted by lower temperatures; Physical obstacles make it difficult to walk long, straight transects in Montane forests. Deviating from a straight line pushes the distribution of distance measurements from dung piles to the transect centre line (pdist) towards a negative exponential (NE), which complicates data analysis and may give inaccurate estimates. Using short transects largely alleviate this problem; Analysis of dung count simulations shows that the expected sightability curve of pdist pushes towards a NE with increasing numbers of obstacles blocking the view, even along perfectly straight transects; Extrapolating measured dung density to map area on Mount Kenya resulted in an underestimate of c. 13%. An unstratified correction of map area to ground area for Montane areas would be biased because of the strong tendency for elephants to avoid steeply sloping areas.

Vidya, T.N., Sukumar, R., Melnick, D.J., 2009. Range-wide mtDNA phylogeography yields insights into the origins of Asian elephants. Proc. Biol. Sci. 276, 893-902.
Abstract: Recent phylogeographic studies of the endangered Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) reveal two highly divergent mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages, an elucidation of which is central to understanding the species's evolution. Previous explanations for the divergent clades include introgression of mtDNA haplotypes between ancestral species, allopatric divergence of the clades between Sri Lanka or the Sunda region and the mainland, historical trade of elephants, and retention of divergent lineages due to large population sizes. However, these studies lacked data from India and Myanmar, which host approximately 70 per cent of all extant Asian elephants. In this paper, we analyse mtDNA sequence data from 534 Asian elephants across the species's range to explain the current distribution of the two divergent clades. Based on phylogenetic reconstructions, estimates of times of origin of clades, probable ancestral areas of origin inferred from dispersal-vicariance analyses and the available fossil record, we believe both clades originated from Elephas hysudricus. This probably occurred allopatrically in different glacial refugia, the alpha clade in the Myanmar region and the beta clade possibly in southern India-Sri Lanka, 1.6-2.1Myr ago. Results from nested clade and dispersal-vicariance analyses indicate a subsequent isolation and independent diversification of the beta clade in both Sri Lanka and the Sunda region, followed by northward expansion of the clade. We also find more recent population expansions in both clades based on mismatch distributions. We therefore suggest a contraction-expansion scenario during severe climatic oscillations of the Quaternary, with range expansions from different refugia during warmer interglacials leading to the varying geographical overlaps of the two mtDNA clades. We also demonstrate that trade in Asian elephants has not substantially altered the species's mtDNA population genetic structure

Wasser, S.K., Clark, B., Laurie, C., 2009. The ivory trail
42. Scientific American 301, 68-74, 76.

Weissenbock, N.M., Schwammer, H.M., Ruf, T., 2009. Estrous synchrony in a group of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) under human care. Anim Reprod. Sci. 113, 322-327.
Abstract: Synchrony of estrous, and consequently of conception and birth of young, may be of adaptive significance for certain mammals. Among the species in which estrous synchrony has been suspected several times are elephants, but clear evidence is still missing. We determined estrous cycles of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) (n=4) at the Vienna Zoo, Austria, between June 2003 and January 2006 by measuring serum progesterone levels from weekly blood samples. Except for the dominant female when she was intensively lactating, all animals showed clear cycles or progesterone release with a mean period of 105.3+/-15.37 days. For most of the study period, estrous cycles were asynchronous between females. However, after re-occurrence of the progesterone cycle in the dominant female following the first period of lactation, all four females showed high synchrony of progesterone release over the two subsequent cycles. Large changes in individual period lengths indicated that synchronization was due to the adjustment of cycle length in subdominants to that of the dominant female. We used a bootstrap procedure, based on resampling measured times of progesterone peaks, to determine if this apparent synchrony could have been caused by chance alone. This statistical analysis indicated that between-individual variances of the timing of progesterone peaks were much smaller that to be expected by chance (P=0.009). This finding represents the first evidence for estrous synchrony between elephants. We discuss various hypotheses to explain the biological function of cycle synchrony in elephants

Western, D., Russell, S., Cuthill, I., 2009. The status of wildlife in protected areas compared to non-protected areas of Kenya. PLoS ONE 4.
Abstract: We compile over 270 wildlife counts of Kenya's wildlife populations conducted over the last 30 years to compare trends in national parks and reserves with adjacent ecosystems and country-wide trends. The study shows the importance of discriminating human-induced changes from natural population oscillations related to rainfall and ecological factors. National park and reserve populations have declined sharply over the last 30 years, at a rate similar to non-protected areas and country-wide trends. The protected area losses reflect in part their poor coverage of seasonal ungulate migrations. The losses vary among parks. The largest parks, Tsavo East, Tsavo West and Meru, account for a disproportionate share of the losses due to habitat change and the difficulty of protecting large remote parks. The losses in Kenya's parks add to growing evidence for wildlife declines inside as well as outside African parks. The losses point to the need to quantify the performance of conservation policies and promote integrated landscape practices that combine parks with private and community-based measures.

Williams, A.C., Johnsingh, A.J.T., Krausman, P.R., 2009.  Population estimation and demography of the Rajaji National Park elephants, Northwest India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 104, 142-152.
Abstract: The Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) population in Rajaji National Park, north-west India is an important part of India's heritage, but has not been intensively studied until recently. Understanding the population dynamics is important for managers if the population is to remain viable. We used marked adult male Asian Elephants in a mark re-sight method to estimate the male segment of the population and the estimated number of female and associated young using their proportions relative to the adult male segment from classification data. We collected data on inter-calving period and calf survival from adult females present in groups with radio collared females. The number of adult males in the study area was estimated to be 31 (95% CI = 23-41). We computed the relative proportions of other age-sex classes to the adult males and estimated 188 elephants (95% CI = 139-248). Ninety per cent of the adult males had tusks (tuskers) and the adult male to adult female ratio was 1:1.87. This is one of the least skewed sex ratios reported for Asian Elephants and is comparable to areas in Sri Lanka where 95% of males are tuskless. Over 90% of the adult females were accompanied by juveniles or calves <5 years old. We estimated the inter-calving period to be around 4.23 years and the calf survival over the first year was almost 100%. One calf was killed when hit by a train. The high proportion of males, low inter-calving period, and high neonate survival of the Rajaji elephant population indicates that the population is demographically healthy. However, more adult elephants died in train accidents than due to natural causes and viability of this small population could be seriously threatened if losses to train accidents continue.

Wittemyer, G., Okello, J.B., Rasmussen, H.B., Arctander, P., Nyakaana, S., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Siegismund, H.R., 2009. Where sociality and relatedness diverge: the genetic basis for hierarchical social organization in African elephants. Proc Royal Soc Biol 276, 3513-3521.
Abstract: Hierarchical properties characterize elephant fission-fusion social organization whereby stable groups of individuals coalesce into higher order groups or split in a predictable manner. This hierarchical complexity is rare among animals and, as such, an examination of the factors driving its emergence offers unique insight into the evolution of social behaviour. Investigation of the genetic basis for such social affiliation demonstrates that while the majority of core social groups (second-tier affiliates) are significantly related, this is not exclusively the case. As such, direct benefits received through membership of these groups appear to be salient to their formation and maintenance. Further analysis revealed that the majority of groups in the two higher social echelons (third and fourth tiers) are typically not significantly related. The majority of third-tier members are matrilocal, carrying the same mtDNA control region haplotype, while matrilocality among fourth-tier groups was slightly less than expected at random. Comparison of results to those from a less disturbed population suggests that human depredation, leading to social disruption, altered the genetic underpinning of social relations in the study population. These results suggest that inclusive fitness benefits may crystallize elephant hierarchical social structuring along genetic lines when populations are undisturbed. However, indirect benefits are not critical to the formation and maintenance of second-, third- or fourth-tier level bonds, indicating the importance of direct benefits in the emergence of complex, hierarchical social relations among elephants. Future directions and conservation implications are discussed

Young, K.D., Ferreira, S.M., van Aarde, R.J., 2009. The influence of increasing population size and vegetation productivity on elephant distribution in the Kruger National Park. Austral Ecology 34, 329-342.
Abstract: Decisions to reduce the impacts of large herbivores on biodiversity in protected areas are often based on controlling their numbers. However, numbers per se may not be the foremost consideration when managing impacts. This is because density-related changes in distribution can also affect habitat utilization and hence, impact. In this study we tested whether changes in the distribution of African elephants are associated with increasing population size. We used spatially explicit count data collected during the dry seasons from 1998 to 2004 in South Africa's Kruger National Park. We did this at five spatial scales and in landscapes defined by vegetation, geology, climate and soils. We then investigated whether observed distributions and grid-cell-specific densities were associated with the remotely sensed Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) as a measure of productivity and therefore food resource availability at the landscape scale. Consistent with density mediated changes, we found that elephant grid-cell occupancy increased with population size, while grid-cell-specific density became less variable. In addition, the combined distribution of bull groups and breeding herds became less clumped with increasing population size. We further found that within landscapes elephants were present on grid-cells with higher NDVI values, but that the influence of NDVI during the dry season on densities among landscapes may be weak. These results suggest that NDVI was more indicative of structural habitat choices such as woody vegetation than food availability per se. Our study highlights the need to consider factors other than population size alone when formulating management decisions to reduce large herbivore impacts on biodiversity in protected areas.

Young, K.D., Ferreira, S.M., van Aarde, R.J., 2009. Elephant spatial use in wet and dry savannas of southern Africa. Journal of Zoology.
Abstract: The influence of elephants on woody vegetation cover varies from place to place. In part this may be due to the way elephants utilize space across landscapes and within their home ranges in response to the availability and distribution of food. We used location data from 18 cows at six study sites across an east to west rainfall gradient in southern Africa to test whether wet- and dry-season home-range sizes, evenness of space use within seasonal home ranges and range overlap between seasons and between years, differed between wet and dry savannas. We then tested whether the quantity, distribution and seasonal stability in vegetation productivity, a coarse measure of food for elephants, explained differences. Elephants in wet savannas had smaller wet- and dry-season home ranges and also returned to a higher proportion of previously visited grid cells between seasons and between years than elephants living in dry savannas. Wet-season home-range sizes were explained by seasonal vegetation productivity while dry-season home-range sizes were explained by heterogeneity in the distribution of vegetation productivity. The influence of the latter on dry-season home ranges differed among structural vegetation classes. Range overlap between seasons and between years was related to inter-seasonal and inter-annual stability in vegetation productivity, respectively. Evenness of elephant spatial use within home ranges did not differ between savanna types, but it was explained by seasonal vegetation productivity and heterogeneity in the distribution of vegetation productivity during the wet season. Differences in elephant spatial use patterns between wet and dry savannas according to vegetation structure and season may need to be included in the development of site-specific objectives and management approaches for African elephants.

Archie, E.A., Maldonado, J.E., Hollister-Smith, J.A., Poole, J.H., Moss, C.J., Fleischer, R.C., Alberts, S.C., 2008. Fine-scale population genetic structure in a fission-fusion society. Mol. Ecol. 17, 2666-2679.
Abstract: Nonrandom patterns of mating and dispersal create fine-scale genetic structure in natural populations - especially of social mammals - with important evolutionary and conservation genetic consequences. Such structure is well-characterized for typical mammalian societies; that is, societies where social group composition is stable, dispersal is male-biased, and males form permanent breeding associations in just one or a few social groups over the course of their lives. However, genetic structure is not well understood for social mammals that differ from this pattern, including elephants. In elephant societies, social groups fission and fuse, and males never form permanent breeding associations with female groups. Here, we combine 33 years of behavioural observations with genetic information for 545 African elephants (Loxodonta africana), to investigate how mating and dispersal behaviours structure genetic variation between social groups and across age classes. We found that, like most social mammals, female matrilocality in elephants creates co-ancestry within core social groups and significant genetic differentiation between groups (Phi(ST) = 0.058). However, unlike typical social mammals, male elephants do not bias reproduction towards a limited subset of social groups, and instead breed randomly across the population. As a result, reproductively dominant males mediate gene flow between core groups, which creates cohorts of similar-aged paternal relatives across the population. Because poaching tends to eliminate the oldest elephants from populations, illegal hunting and poaching are likely to erode fine-scale genetic structure. We discuss our results and their evolutionary and conservation genetic implications in the context of other social mammals

Baker, C.S., 2008. A truer measure of the market: the molecular ecology of fisheries and wildlife trade. Mol. Ecol. 17, 3985-3998.
Abstract: Wildlife and fisheries markets are end-points in the supply chain of both legitimate and illegitimate or unregulated trade in species and natural products. Molecular ecology provides powerful tools for surveillance and estimation of this trade. Here, I review the application of these tools to market surveys and species in trade, including species identification and molecular taxonomy, population assignment and 'mixed-stock' analysis, genetic tracking and capture-recapture by individual identification. I consider the analogy of markets to natural populations and also the unique features that require novel analytical approaches and sampling design. In the most developed of these applications, the molecular ecology of market surveys and confiscated trade shipments has provided independent estimates of illegal, unregulated or unreported exploitation for sharks, elephants and whales. Although each study has taken advantage of information from trade records or official government reports concerning the ostensible levels of exploitation, it is telling that the truer measure of exploitation seems to arise from the market end-point of the supply chain

Bechert, U., Southern, S., Chase, M. Minimally invasive molecular health analysis in elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  88. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: This paper describes the application of a new assay platform called Stress Response Profiling (SRP) to the analysis of health status in elephants. SRP assays use a large biomarker panel as an indicator of chronically perturbed physiologic homeostasis ("chronic stress"),1,2 which is a known predictor of increased morbidity, infertility and mortality rates.3-8 SRP assays have a broad-based sensitivity to diverse types of stressors in multiple species of vertebrates.2 A minimally invasive SRP assay is based on skin microsamples obtained using routine biopsy procedures.9 The skin SRP assay was applied to captive African elephants with clinically diagnosed gastrointestinal infections and to healthy wild elephants.10 The elephant health status was classified using a reference database of SR biomarker profiles corresponding to eight species of normal and stressed animals. The biomarker profiles were converted into pathway profiles indicating that the molecular mechanism of the elephant gastrointestinal infections preferentially involved responses to misfolded proteins and DNA lesions. To rapidly and economically screen samples from 70 free-ranging African elephants sampled in Northern Botswana, we used a multiplexed SRP assay called multi-SRP.1,2 Statistical analysis of the multi-SRP scores showed correlations with population density, movements, and human-elephant conflict reports. In
summary, this paper documents that SRP and multi-SRP assays are suitable for the elephant skin and relevant to both symptomatic diseases and asymptomatic effects of environmental and anthropogenic stressors. We anticipate that the SRP technology might have a wide range of potential applications in veterinary medicine and ecosystem conservation.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Southern, S.O., A.C. Allen, and N. Kellar. 2002. Molecular signature of physiological stress in dolphins based on protein expression profiling of skin. Administrative Report LJ-02-27, National Marine Fisheries Service, SW Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, California.
2. Southern, S.O., and G.W. Lilienthal. 2008. New technology for early detection of health threats. Proc. SPIE 69450F.
3. Camougrand, N., and M. Rigoulet. 2001. Aging and oxidative stress: studies of some genes involved both in aging and in response to oxidative stress. Respir. Physiol. 128:393-40.
4. Epel, E.S., J. Lin, F.H. Wilhelm, O.M. Wolkowitz, R. Cawthon, N.E. Adler, C. Dolbier, W.B. Mendes, and E.H. Blackburn. 2006. Cell aging in relation to stress arousal and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 31:277-87.
5. Feder, M.E., and G.E. Hofmann. 1999. Heat-shock proteins, molecular chaperones, and the stress response: evolutionary and ecological physiology. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 61:243-82.
6. Kapahi, P., M.E. Boulton, and T.B.L. Kirkwood. 1999. Positive correlation between mammalian life span and cellular resistance to stress. Free Radical Biol. Med. 26:495-500.
7. Selye, H.A. 1936. Syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents. Nature 138:32.
8. Wilson, J.F., and E.J. Kopitzke 2002. Stress and infertility Curr. Womens Health Rep. 2: 194

Blake, S., Deem, S.L., Strindberg, S., Maisels, F., Momont, L., Isia, I.B., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Karesh, W.B., Kock, M.D., 2008. Roadless wilderness area determines forest elephant movements in the Congo Basin. PLoS. One. 3, e3546.
Abstract: A dramatic expansion of road building is underway in the Congo Basin fuelled by private enterprise, international aid, and government aspirations. Among the great wilderness areas on earth, the Congo Basin is outstanding for its high biodiversity, particularly mobile megafauna including forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis). The abundance of many mammal species in the Basin increases with distance from roads due to hunting pressure, but the impacts of road proliferation on the movements of individuals are unknown. We investigated the ranging behaviour of forest elephants in relation to roads and roadless wilderness by fitting GPS telemetry collars onto a sample of 28 forest elephants living in six priority conservation areas. We show that the size of roadless wilderness is a strong determinant of home range size in this species. Though our study sites included the largest wilderness areas in central African forests, none of 4 home range metrics we calculated, including core area, tended toward an asymptote with increasing wilderness size, suggesting that uninhibited ranging in forest elephants no longer exists. Furthermore we show that roads outside protected areas which are not protected from hunting are a formidable barrier to movement while roads inside protected areas are not. Only 1 elephant from our sample crossed an unprotected road. During crossings her mean speed increased 14-fold compared to normal movements. Forest elephants are increasingly confined and constrained by roads across the Congo Basin which is reducing effective habitat availability and isolating populations, significantly threatening long term conservation efforts. If the current road development trajectory continues, forest wildernesses and the forest elephants they contain will collapse

Burke, T., Page, B., Van, D.G., Millspaugh, J., Slotow, R., 2008. Risk and ethical concerns of hunting male elephant: behavioural and physiological assays of the remaining elephants. PLoS. One. 3, e2417.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Hunting of male African elephants may pose ethical and risk concerns, particularly given their status as a charismatic species of high touristic value, yet which are capable of both killing people and damaging infrastructure. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We quantified the effect of hunts of male elephants on (1) risk of attack or damage (11 hunts), and (2) behavioural (movement dynamics) and physiological (stress hormone metabolite concentrations) responses (4 hunts) in Pilanesberg National Park. For eleven hunts, there were no subsequent attacks on people or infrastructure, and elephants did not break out of the fenced reserve. For three focal hunts, there was an initial flight response by bulls present at the hunting site, but their movements stabilised the day after the hunt event. Animals not present at the hunt (both bulls and herds) did not show movement responses. Physiologically, hunting elephant bulls increased faecal stress hormone levels (corticosterone metabolites) in both those bulls that were present at the hunts (for up to four days post-hunt) and in the broader bull and breeding herd population (for up to one month post-hunt). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: As all responses were relatively minor, hunting male elephants is ethically acceptable when considering effects on the remaining elephant population; however bulls should be hunted when alone. Hunting is feasible in relatively small enclosed reserves without major risk of attack, damage, or breakout. Physiological stress assays were more effective than behavioural responses in detecting effects of human intervention. Similar studies should evaluate intervention consequences, inform and improve best practice, and should be widely applied by management agencies

Chatterjee, R., 2008. Protecting farmlands and conserving elephants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 7029.

Druce, D.J., Shannon, G., Page, B.R., Grant, R., Slotow, R., 2008. Ecological thresholds in the savanna landscape: developing a protocol for monitoring the change in composition and utilisation of large trees. PLoS. One. 3, e3979.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Acquiring greater understanding of the factors causing changes in vegetation structure -- particularly with the potential to cause regime shifts -- is important in adaptively managed conservation areas. Large trees (> or =5 m in height) play an important ecosystem function, and are associated with a stable ecological state in the African savanna. There is concern that large tree densities are declining in a number of protected areas, including the Kruger National Park, South Africa. In this paper the results of a field study designed to monitor change in a savanna system are presented and discussed. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Developing the first phase of a monitoring protocol to measure the change in tree species composition, density and size distribution, whilst also identifying factors driving change. A central issue is the discrete spatial distribution of large trees in the landscape, making point sampling approaches relatively ineffective. Accordingly, fourteen 10 m wide transects were aligned perpendicular to large rivers (3.0-6.6 km in length) and eight transects were located at fixed-point photographic locations (1.0-1.6 km in length). Using accumulation curves, we established that the majority of tree species were sampled within 3 km. Furthermore, the key ecological drivers (e.g. fire, herbivory, drought and disease) which influence large tree use and impact were also recorded within 3 km. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The technique presented provides an effective method for monitoring changes in large tree abundance, size distribution and use by the main ecological drivers across the savanna landscape. However, the monitoring of rare tree species would require individual marking approaches due to their low densities and specific habitat requirements. Repeat sampling intervals would vary depending on the factor of concern and proposed management mitigation. Once a monitoring protocol has been identified and evaluated, the next stage is to integrate that protocol into a decision-making system, which highlights potential leading indicators of change. Frequent monitoring would be required to establish the rate and direction of change. This approach may be useful in generating monitoring protocols for other dynamic systems

Druce, H.C., Pretorius, K., Slotow, R., 2008. The response of an elephant population to conservation area expansion: Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa. Biological Conservation 141, 3127-3138.
Abstract: Continuous human population expansion pressure on conservation ecosystems restricts wildlife areas, and necessitates active management. In areas of changing land-use and increasing human-animal conflict, responses of wildlife to direct human interventions can inform managers and planners. During August 2004, the boundary fences between Phinda Private Game Reserve and two neighbouring reserves were removed. This study examined behavioural responses of the resident elephants. older, recently introduced bulls moved into the new area during the first month after fence removal, while younger resident bulls and family groups took between five and eight months. Initially family groups only moved into the new area at night and spent minimal time there, while older bulls spent longer periods of time, regardless of time of day. One year after fence removal, most of the elephants had only expanded their home ranges slightly into the new area. one of the findings of this study is that elephants appear to act cautiously in exploring new areas and responded by moving into the area slowly and over a relatively long time period. This cautious behaviour reduced through time as animals became more familiar with the area. The spatial scale of response of the elephants was relatively small, while the temporal scale of response was relatively large. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Foley, C., Pettorelli, N., Foley, L., 2008. Severe drought and calf survival in elephants. Biol. Lett. 4, 541-544.
Abstract: Climate change in Africa is expected to lead to a higher occurrence of severe droughts in semi-arid and arid ecosystems. Understanding how animal populations react to such events is thus crucial for addressing future challenges for wildlife management and conservation. We explored how gender, age, mother's experience and family group characteristics determined calf survival in an elephant population during a severe drought in Tanzania in 1993. Young males were particularly sensitive to the drought and calf loss was higher among young mothers than among more experienced mothers. We also report high variability in calf mortality between different family groups, with family groups that remained in the National Park suffering heavy calf loss, compared with the ones that left the Park. This study highlights how severe droughts can dramatically affect early survival of large herbivores and suggests that extreme climatic events might act as a selection force on vertebrate populations, allowing only individuals with the appropriate behaviour and/or knowledge to survive

Gobush, K.S., Mutayoba, B.M., Wasser, S.K., 2008. Long-term impacts of poaching on relatedness, stress physiology, and reproductive output of adult female african elephants. Conserv. Biol. 22, 1590-1599.
Abstract: Widespread poaching prior to the 1989 ivory ban greatly altered the demographic structure of matrilineal African elephant (Loxodonta africana) family groups in many populations by decreasing the number of old, adult females. We assessed the long-term impacts of poaching by investigating genetic, physiological, and reproductive correlates of a disturbed social structure resulting from heavy poaching of an African elephant population in Mikumi National Park, Tanzania, prior to 1989. We examined fecal glucocorticoid levels and reproductive output among 218 adult female elephants from 109 groups differing in size, age structure, and average genetic relatedness over 25 months from 2003 to 2005. The distribution in group size has changed little since 1989, but the number of families with tusked old matriarchs has increased by 14.2%. Females from groups that lacked an old matriarch, first-order adult relatives, and strong social bonds had significantly higher fecal glucocorticoid values than those from groups with these features (all females R(2)= 0.31; females in multiadult groups R(2)= 0.46). Females that frequented isolated areas with historically high poaching risk had higher fecal glucocorticoid values than those in low poaching risk areas. Females with weak bonds and low group relatedness had significantly lower reproductive output (R(2)[U]=0.21). Females from disrupted groups, defined as having observed average group relatedness 1 SD below the expected mean for a simulated unpoached family, had significantly lower reproductive output than females from intact groups, despite many being in their reproductive prime. These results suggest that long-term negative impacts from poaching of old, related matriarchs have persisted among adult female elephants 1.5 decades after the 1989 ivory ban was implemented

Gross, M., 2008. Kenya's conservation challenge. Curr. Biol. 18, R576-R577.

Jackson, T., van Aarde, R., 2008. CSI:Africa. Africa Geographic 16, 35-39.
Abstract: In 1989, prompted by the wholesale slaughter of elephants for their tusks, CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) implemented a worldwide ban on the trade in ivory. Nearly 20 years later, elephant populations in some parts of Africa have stabilised, some are even increasing, and yet, seizures of ivory destined for the black market continue. While imposing tougher punishments on poachers, middlemen and dealers is an obvious measure, first prize would be preventing the elephants from being killed in the first place. To do this effectively, however, you need to know which populations are at risk. So, how can we find out where all the ivory is coming from? The answers, Tim Jackson finds, range from the seemingly low-tech collection of elephant dung to the very latest developments in DNA analysis.

Lin, L., Feng, L.M., Pan, W.J., Guo, X.M., Zhao, J.W., Luo, A.D., Zhang, L., 2008. Habitat selection and the change in distribution of Asian elephants in Mengyang Protected Area, Yunnan, China. ACTA THERIOLOGICA 53, 364-374.
Abstract: Elephants were confined to Mengyang Protected Area in China and their distribution range had reduced greatly compared to past records. A preliminary study of habitat selection by Asian elephants Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 and their distribution was conducted in Mengyang Protected Area and its surrounds using site visits and transect surveys from July 2003 to December 2006. Although no variable significantly influenced their habitat selection, elephants still showed preference for altitudes between 900 and 1200 in, gradients < 30 degrees, and orientations to the south-east, south and south-west. Human activities, including habitat transformation and degradation, disturbance by large infrastructure and poaching were considered to be the main factors inducing elephant distribution changes.

Lotfy, W.M., Brant, S.V., DeJong, R.J., Le, T.H., Demiaszkiewicz, A., Rajapakse, R.P., Perera, V.B., Laursen, J.R., Loker, E.S., 2008. Evolutionary origins, diversification, and biogeography of liver flukes (Digenea, Fasciolidae). American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 248-255.
Abstract: Fasciolid flukes are among the largest and best known digenetic trematodes and have considerable historical and veterinary significance. Fasciola hepatica is commonly implicated in causing disease in humans. The origins, patterns of diversification, and biogeography of fasciolids are all poorly known. We have undertaken a molecular phylogenetic study using 28S, internal transcribed spacer 1 and 2 (ITS-1 and ITS-2) of nuclear ribosomal DNA, and mitochondrial nicotinamide dehydrogenase subunit 1 (nad1) that included seven of the nine recognized species in the family. The fasciolids examined comprise a monophyletic group with the most basal species recovered from African elephants. We hypothesize fasciolids migrated from Africa to Eurasia, with secondary colonization of Africa. Fasciolids have been conservative in maintaining relatively large adult body size, but anatomical features of their digestive and reproductive systems are available. These flukes have been opportunistic, with respect to switching to new snail (planorbid to lymnaeid) and mammalian hosts and from intestinal to hepatic habitats within mammals

Lynch, V.J., Tanzer, A., Wang, Y., Leung, F.C., Gellersen, B., Emera, D., Wagner, G.P., 2008. Adaptive changes in the transcription factor HoxA-11 are essential for the evolution of pregnancy in mammals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 105, 14928-14933.
Abstract: Evolutionary change in gene regulation can result from changes in cis-regulatory elements, leading to differences in the temporal and spatial expression of genes or in the coding region of transcription factors leading to novel functions or both. Although there is a growing body of evidence supporting the importance of cis-regulatory evolution, examples of protein-mediated evolution of novel developmental pathways have not been demonstrated. Here, we investigate the evolution of prolactin (PRL) expression in endometrial cells, which is essential for placentation/pregnancy in eutherian mammals and is a direct regulatory target of the transcription factor HoxA-11. Here, we show that (i) endometrial PRL expression is a derived feature of placental mammals, (ii) the PRL regulatory gene HoxA-11 experienced a period of strong positive selection in the stem-lineage of eutherian mammals, and (iii) only HoxA-11 proteins from placental mammals, including the reconstructed ancestral eutherian gene, are able to up-regulate PRL from the promoter used in endometrial cells. In contrast, HoxA-11 from the reconstructed therian ancestor, opossum, platypus, and chicken are unable to up-regulate PRL expression. These results demonstrate that the evolution of novel gene expression domains is not only mediated by the evolution of cis-regulatory elements but can also require evolutionary changes of transcription factor proteins themselves

Meyers, D.A., Isaza, R., MacNeill, A. Evaluation of acute phase proteins for diagnosis of inflammation in Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus). Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  128. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: In many domestic species, routine hematology assays are useful diagnostic tools to diagnose inflammatory conditions. Unlike other species, these hematologic tests apparently are insensitive indicators of inflammation in elephants.1 We studied a novel group of blood proteins, called acute phase proteins, which increase during inflammatory conditions, for their usefulness in diagnosing elephants with inflammatory diseases. Although these proteins currently are useful in humans and domestic animals, each species has a different set of important proteins that must be individually investigated.2 We tested several acute phase proteins (C-reactive protein, alpha-1 glycoprotein, alpha-1 antitrypsin, serum amyloid A, haptoglobin, fibrinogen, ceruloplasmin, and albumin) as well as complete blood counts, chemistry panels, serum protein electrophoresis, and 3-D gel electrophoresis to determine their usefulness for diagnosing different types of inflammatory conditions in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Animals with inflammatory conditions were classified as those individuals with known illnesses such as mycobacteriosis, arthritis, nail bed abscesses, and malignant tumors. Control animals were thoseanimals that were suspected to not have any inflammation and be healthy at the time of testing as determined by physical examination and obtaining a thorough medical history.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Lyashchenko, K., R. Greenwald, J. Esfandiari, J. Olsen, R. Ball, G. Dumonceaux, F. Dunker, C. Buckley, M.
Richard, S. Murray, J.B. Payeur, P. Anderson, J.M. Pollock, S. Mikota, M. Miller, D. Sofranko, and W.R.
Waters. 2006. Tuberculosis in Elephants: Antibody responses to defined antigens of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, potential for early diagnosis, and monitoring of treatment. Clin. Vacc. Immunol. 13: 722-732.
2. Murata H., N. Shimada, M. Yoshioka. 2004. Current research on acute phase proteins in veterinary diagnosis:
an overview. Vet J. 168: 28-40.

Miller, J., McClean, M. Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) after a single rectal dose. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  224-225. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Captive African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) are susceptible to many types of gram negative bacterial infections such as Escherichia coli, Mycoplasma  spp., Salmonella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. Enrofloxacin (Baytril®, Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee Mission, KS 66201) is a potentially effective antibiotic for
treatment of these bacterial infections in elephants. Very limited data exists on the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in elephants2 and most of the dosage regimes for gastrointestinal absorption are based on horse dosages since they share a similar  gastrointestinal tract. Three African elephants from Wildlife Safari in Winston, Oregon, two females both 37-yr-old and one male 26-yr-old, were used to determine whether therapeutic levels of enrofloxacin could be achieved thru rectal administration of liquid injectable enrofloxacin (Baytril 100®, 100 mg/ml, Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee Mission, KS 66201) at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg. A pretreatment baseline blood sample was collected. Following administration, blood samples were collected at 45 min, 1.5hr, 2.5hr, 5hr, 9hr, 23hr, 36hr to determine plasma enrofloxacin levels. Plasma enrofloxacin levels were measured at North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Plasma ciprofloxacin levels were measured concurrently. Results indicate plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin did not reach adequate bacteriocidal levels for any of the the following common bacterial isolates in captive elephants: Mycoplasma
spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. The study determined that a rectally administered dosage of 2.5 mg/kg of liquid injectable enrofloxacin was insufficient to obtain therapeutic levels in African elephants. The low plasma levels of enrofloxacin in all three elephants may be a result of poor absorption in the distal large intestine. A future study will determine if oral administration will provide a more efficient mode of drug delivery and absorption in African elephants. It is also possible that the current dosage of 2.5 mg/kg is too low to achieve adequate therapeutic levels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the elephant and veterinary staff at Wildlife Safari for their participation in conducting this study. Thanks to Doctors: Modesto McClean, Jason Bennett, Andi Chariffe, Tessa Lohe, Benji Alacantar. Also thanks to Dinah Wilson, Carol Matthews, Anthony Karels, Mary Iida, Shawn Finnell, Patches Stroud, Katie Alayan.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Haines, G.R., et. al. 2000. Serum concentrations and pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after intravenous and intragastric administration to mares. Can. J.Vet. Res. 64(3):171-177.
2. Sanchez, C.R., et. al. 2005. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of enrofloxacin administered orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Am. J. Vet. Res. 66:1948-1953.

Moncrieff, G.R., Kruger, L.M., Midgley, J.J., 2008. Stem mortality of Acacia nigrescens induced by the synergistic effects of elephants and fire in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Journal of Tropical Ecology 24, 655-662.
Abstract: One manner in which elephants utilize trees is by removing their bark. This type of utilization is concentrated on the largest trees in the landscape. The role of bark removal in increasing the vulnerability of large trees to fire and the mechanism through which fire damage is mediated were investigated in Kruger National Park. South Africa, by experimentally removing bark and burning Acacia nigrescens stems with diameters ranging between 30 and 68 mm. Also, field surveys were conducted subsequent to natural fires in order to investigate mortality patterns of large trees with dbh greater than 15 cm with bark removed by elephants. An increasing probability of mortality was associated with increasing amounts of bark removal but only if trees were burned. When trees had bark removed but were not burnt, simulating damage only to cambium and phloem, none of the 12 treated stems died in the 4-mo period over which the experimentran. Moreover, low levels of cambium damage were detected in large burned stems. This suggests that bark removal increases fire-induced xylem damage and that this damage contributes towards stein mortality. In a survey of 437 large trees. bark removal by elephants was frequent on large stems (44%) and larger trees have greater amounts of bark removed. Post-fire mortality of large trees was significantly associated with increasing bark removal and stem diameter. These results indicate that bark removal by elephants increases the vulnerability of stems to fire, resulting in mortality of large stems otherwise protected from fire.

Nathan, R., Getz, W.M., Revilla, E., Holyoak, M., Kadmon, R., Saltz, D., Smouse, P.E., 2008. A movement ecology paradigm for unifying organismal movement research. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 105, 19052-19059.
Abstract: Movement of individual organisms is fundamental to life, quilting our planet in a rich tapestry of phenomena with diverse implications for ecosystems and humans. Movement research is both plentiful and insightful, and recent methodological advances facilitate obtaining a detailed view of individual movement. Yet, we lack a general unifying paradigm, derived from first principles, which can place movement studies within a common context and advance the development of a mature scientific discipline. This introductory article to the Movement Ecology Special Feature proposes a paradigm that integrates conceptual, theoretical, methodological, and empirical frameworks for studying movement of all organisms, from microbes to trees to elephants. We introduce a conceptual framework depicting the interplay among four basic mechanistic components of organismal movement: the internal state (why move?), motion (how to move?), and navigation (when and where to move?) capacities of the individual and the external factors affecting movement. We demonstrate how the proposed framework aids the study of various taxa and movement types; promotes the formulation of hypotheses about movement; and complements existing biomechanical, cognitive, random, and optimality paradigms of movement. The proposed framework integrates eclectic research on movement into a structured paradigm and aims at providing a basis for hypothesis generation and a vehicle facilitating the understanding of the causes, mechanisms, and spatiotemporal patterns of movement and their role in various ecological and evolutionary processes. "Now we must consider in general the common reason for moving with any movement whatever." (Aristotle, De Motu Animalium, 4th century B.C.)

Nogues-Bravo, D., Rodriguez, J., Hortal, J., Batra, P., Araujo, M.B., 2008. Climate change, humans, and the extinction of the woolly mammoth. PLoS. Biol. 6, e79.
Abstract: Woolly mammoths inhabited Eurasia and North America from late Middle Pleistocene (300 ky BP [300,000 years before present]), surviving through different climatic cycles until they vanished in the Holocene (3.6 ky BP). The debate about why the Late Quaternary extinctions occurred has centred upon environmental and human-induced effects, or a combination of both. However, testing these two hypotheses-climatic and anthropogenic-has been hampered by the difficulty of generating quantitative estimates of the relationship between the contraction of the mammoth's geographical range and each of the two hypotheses. We combined climate envelope models and a population model with explicit treatment of woolly mammoth-human interactions to measure the extent to which a combination of climate changes and increased human pressures might have led to the extinction of the species in Eurasia. Climate conditions for woolly mammoths were measured across different time periods: 126 ky BP, 42 ky BP, 30 ky BP, 21 ky BP, and 6 ky BP. We show that suitable climate conditions for the mammoth reduced drastically between the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene, and 90% of its geographical range disappeared between 42 ky BP and 6 ky BP, with the remaining suitable areas in the mid-Holocene being mainly restricted to Arctic Siberia, which is where the latest records of woolly mammoths in continental Asia have been found. Results of the population models also show that the collapse of the climatic niche of the mammoth caused a significant drop in their population size, making woolly mammoths more vulnerable to the increasing hunting pressure from human populations. The coincidence of the disappearance of climatically suitable areas for woolly mammoths and the increase in anthropogenic impacts in the Holocene, the coup de grace, likely set the place and time for the extinction of the woolly mammoth

Okello, J.B., Masembe, C., Rasmussen, H.B., Wittemyer, G., Omondi, P., Kahindi, O., Muwanika, V.B., Arctander, P., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Nyakaana, S., Siegismund, H.R., 2008. Population genetic structure of savannah elephants in Kenya: conservation and management implications. J. Hered. 99, 443-452.
Abstract: We investigated population genetic structure and regional differentiation among African savannah elephants in Kenya using mitochondrial and microsatellite markers. We observed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) nucleotide diversity of 1.68% and microsatellite variation in terms of average number of alleles, expected and observed heterozygosities in the total study population of 10.20, 0.75, and 0.69, respectively. Hierarchical analysis of molecular variance of mtDNA variation revealed significant differentiation among the 3 geographical regions studied (F(CT) = 0.264; P < 0.05) and a relatively lower differentiation among populations within regions (F(SC) = 0.218; P < 0.0001). Microsatellite variation significantly differentiated among populations within regions (F(SC) = 0.019; P < 0.0001) but not at the regional levels (F(CT) = 0.000; P > 0.500). We attribute the high differentiation at the mitochondrial genome to the matrilineal social structure of elephant populations, female natal philopatry, and probably ancient vicariance. Lack of significant regional differentiation at the nuclear loci vis-a-vis strong differences at mtDNA loci between regions is likely the effect of subsequent homogenization through male-mediated gene flow. Our results depicting 3 broad regional mtDNA groups and the observed population genetic differentiation as well as connectivity patterns should be incorporated in the planning of future management activities such as translocations

Okello, J.B., Wittemyer, G., Rasmussen, H.B., Arctander, P., Nyakaana, S., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Siegismund, H.R., 2008. Effective population size dynamics reveal impacts of historic climatic events and recent anthropogenic pressure in African elephants. Mol. Ecol. 17, 3788-3799.
Abstract: Two hundred years of elephant hunting for ivory, peaking in 1970-1980s, caused local extirpations and massive population declines across Africa. The resulting genetic impacts on surviving populations have not been studied, despite the importance of understanding the evolutionary repercussions of such human-mediated events on this keystone species. Using Bayesian coalescent-based genetic methods to evaluate time-specific changes in effective population size, we analysed genetic variation in 20 highly polymorphic microsatellite loci from 400 elephants inhabiting the greater Samburu-Laikipia region of northern Kenya. This area experienced a decline of between 80% and 90% in the last few decades when ivory harvesting was rampant. The most significant change in effective population size, however, occurred approximately 2500 years ago during a mid-Holocene period of climatic drying in tropical Africa. Contrary to expectations, detailed analyses of four contemporary age-based cohorts showed that the peak poaching epidemic in the 1970s caused detectable temporary genetic impacts, with genetic diversity rebounding as juveniles surviving the poaching era became reproductively mature. This study demonstrates the importance of climatic history in shaping the distribution and genetic history of a keystone species and highlights the utility of coalescent-based demographic approaches in unravelling ancestral demographic events despite a lack of ancient samples. Unique insights into the genetic signature of mid-Holocene climatic change in Africa and effects of recent poaching pressure on elephants are discussed

Okello, M.M., D'Amour, D.E., 2008. Agricultural expansion within Kimana electric fences and implications for natural resource conservation around Amboseli National Park, Kenya. Journal of Arid Environments 72, 2179-2192.
Abstract:
Fencing has become a key strategy in mitigating human-wildlife coflicts and promoting agricultural production in Kenya. However, it can have negative long-term consequences for wildlife conservation as well as human development, especially if the fence is poorly maintained. Such is the case of the Kimana and Namelok fences in the Kimana Group Ranch. This study assessed the influence of fences on agricultural expansion, environmental and wildlife conservation. In both fences, irrigated agriculture was a dominant land use and occurred along riverbanks, causing drying downstream. Most farmers in both fences were noticing a decline in water quantity and time of access to it, as well as increasing human-wildlife conflicts. Wildlife sightings within both fences provided evidence that the inadequate fence maintenance allows wildlife to freely access the fenced areas. Both wildlife and humans were blamed for fence deterioration in both fences. Irrigated agriculture inside both fences is expanding at an unmanageable rate. While the fences have spurred socio-economic activities in the area, they are not only ineffective in reducing human-wild life coflicts but have given rise to other critical conflicts. Fencing appears to be a short-term remedy for human-wildlife conflicts and it is crucial to explore other mitigation strategies.

Packard, G.C., Birchard, G.F., 2008. Traditional allometric analysis fails to provide a valid predictive model for mammalian metabolic rates. J. Exp. Biol. 211, 3581-3587.
Abstract: The field of biological allometry was energized by the publication in 1997 of a theoretical model purporting to explain 3/4-power scaling of metabolic rate with body mass in mammals. This 3/4-power scaling exponent, which was first reported by Max Kleiber in 1932, has been derived repeatedly in empirical research by independent investigators and has come to be known as 'Kleiber's Law'. The exponent was estimated in virtually every instance, however, by fitting a straight line to logarithmic transformations of data and by then re-expressing the resulting equation in the arithmetic scale. Because this traditional method may yield inaccurate and misleading estimates for parameters in the allometric equation, we re-examined the comprehensive data set that led Savage and colleagues to reaffirm the view that the metabolic rate of mammals scales to the 3/4-power of body mass. We found that a straight line fitted to logged data for the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of mammals ranging in size from a 2.4 g shrew to a 3672 kg elephant does not satisfy assumptions underlying the analysis and that the allometric equation obtained by back-transformation underestimates BMR for the largest species in the sample. Thus, the concept of 3/4-power scaling of metabolic rate to body mass is not well supported because the underlying statistical model does not apply to mammalian species spanning the full range in body size. Our findings have important implications with respect to methods and results of other studies that used the traditional approach to allometric analysis

Perelygin, A.A., Zharkikh, A.A., Astakhova, N.M., Lear, T.L., Brinton, M.A., 2008. Concerted evolution of vertebrate CCR2 and CCR5 genes and the origin of a recombinant equine CCR5/2 gene. J. Hered. 99, 500-511.
Abstract: Chemokine receptors (CCRs) play an essential role in the initiation of an innate immune host response. Several of these receptors have been shown to modulate the outcome of viral infections. The recent availability of complete genome sequences from a number of species provides a unique opportunity to analyze the evolution of the CCR genes. A phylogenetic analysis revealed that the CCR2 gene evolved in concert with the paralogous CCR5 gene, but not with another paralogous gene, CCR3, in the opossum, platypus, rabbit, guinea pig, cat, and rodent lineages. In addition, evidence of concerted evolution of the CCR2 and CCR5 genes was observed in chicken and lizard genomes. A unique CCR5/2 gene that originated by unequal crossing over between the CCR2 and CCR5 genes was detected in the domestic horse. The CCR2, CCR5, and CCR5/2 genes were mapped to ECA16q21 using fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). Single-nucleotide polymorphisms identified in the equine CCR5 gene and characterized within 5 horse breeds provide haplotype markers for future case/control studies investigating the genetic bases of horse susceptibility to infectious diseases

Pringle, R.M., 2008. Elephants as agents of habitat creation for small vertebrates at the patch scale. Ecology. 89, 26-33.
Abstract: Ecologists increasingly recognize the ability of certain species to influence ecological processes by engineering the physical environment, but efforts to develop a predictive understanding of this phenomenon are in their early stages. While many believe that the landscape-scale effects of ecosystem engineers will be to increase habitat diversity and therefore the abundance and richness of other species, few generalities exist about the effects of engineering at the scale of the engineered patch. According to one hypothesis, activities that increase structural habitat complexity within engineered patches will have positive effects on the abundance or diversity of other organisms. Here I show that, by damaging trees and increasing their structural complexity, browsing elephants create refuges used by a common arboreal lizard. Observational surveys and a lizard transplant experiment revealed that lizards preferentially occupy trees with real or simulated elephant damage. A second experiment showed that lizards vacate trees when elephant-engineered refuges are removed. Furthermore, local lizard densities increased with (and may be constrained by) local densities of elephant-damaged trees. This facilitative effect of elephants upon lizards via patch-scale habitat modification runs contrary to previously documented negative effects of the entire ungulate guild on lizards at the landscape scale, suggesting that net indirect effects of large herbivores comprise opposing trophic and engineering interactions operating at different spatial scales. Such powerful megaherbivore-initiated interactions suggest that anthropogenic changes in large-mammal densities will have important cascading consequences for ecological communities

Rasmussen, H.B., Ganswindt, A., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Vollrath, F., 2008. Endocrine and behavioral changes in male African elephants: linking hormone changes to sexual state and reproductive tactics. Horm. Behav. 54, 539-548.
Abstract: Hormones play a crucial role in mediating genetic and environmental effects into morphological and behavioral phenotypes. In systems with alternative reproductive tactics (ART) shifts between tactics are hypothesized to be under proximate hormonal control. Most studies of the underlying endocrine changes behind ART have focused on fish and amphibians rather than mammals and few have investigated the potential interaction between different endocrine axes in regulating shifts between conditional dependent tactics. Using a combination of endocrine and behavioral data from male African elephants we expand on our previously published analysis and show that the initial increase in androgens predates the behavioral shifts associated with reproductively active periods, supporting the role of androgens in activating sexually active periods in males. A strong interactive effect between androgens and glucocorticoids was found to determine the presence or absence of temporal gland secretion and urine dribbling, signals associated with the competitive reproductive tactic of musth, with elevated glucocorticoids levels suppressing the occurrence of musth signals. In addition external environmental conditions affected hormone levels. The presence of receptive females resulted in elevated androgens in dominant musth males but increased glucocorticoids in subordinate non-musth males. The presented data on hormones, behavior and reproductive tactics strongly support an underlying endocrine mechanism for mediating the translation of intrinsic as well as extrinsic local conditions into the conditional dependent reproductive tactics in male elephants via interactions between the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal and -adrenal axes

Riginos, C., Grace, J.B., 2008. Savanna tree density, herbivores, and the herbaceous community: bottom-up vs. top-down effects. Ecology. 89, 2228-2238.
Abstract: Herbivores choose their habitats both to maximize forage intake and to minimize their risk of predation. For African savanna herbivores, the available habitats range in woody cover from open areas with few trees to dense, almost-closed woodlands. This variation in woody cover or density can have a number of consequences for herbaceous species composition, cover, and productivity, as well as for ease of predator detection and avoidance. Here, we consider two alternative possibilities: first, that tree density affects the herbaceous vegetation, with concomitant "bottom-up" effects on herbivore habitat preferences; or, second, that tree density affects predator visibility, mediating "top-down" effects of predators on herbivore habitat preferences. We sampled sites spanning a 10-fold range of tree densities in an Acacia drepanolobium-dominated savanna in Laikipia, Kenya, for variation in (1) herbaceous cover, composition, and species richness; (2) wild and domestic herbivore use; and (3) degree of visibility obstruction by the tree layer. We then used structural equation modeling to consider the potential influences that tree density may have on herbivores and herbaceous community properties. Tree density was associated with substantial variation in herbaceous species composition and richness. Cattle exhibited a fairly uniform use of the landscape, whereas wild herbivores, with the exception of elephants, exhibited a strong preference for areas of low tree density. Model results suggest that this was not a response to variation in herbaceous-community characteristics, but rather a response to the greater visibility associated with more open places. Elephants, in contrast, preferred areas with higher densities of trees, apparently because of greater forage availability. These results suggest that, for all but the largest species, top-down behavioral effects of predator avoidance on herbivores are mediated by tree density. This, in turn, appears to have cascading effects on the herbaceous vegetation. These results shed light on one of the major features of the "landscape of fear" in which African savanna herbivores exist

Schmitt, D., Charmason, S., Wiedner, E. Use of luteinizing hormone ELISAs  in breeding elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  120-121. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Successful artificial insemination (AI) of elephants depends heavily on determining the unique luteinizing hormone (LH) surges that occur during the follicular phase of the elephant's estrous cycle. Natural breeding of elephants also can benefit from a rapid and accurate determination of the two LH surges found in elephants. There are three ELISAs available for determining the LH
surge; two are commercially-available assays and one is a laboratory in-house assay. Each vary in their cost, time to complete the assay, and ease of performing the procedures. Detection of the initial non-ovulatory peak in luteinizing hormone (LH1) is best accomplished by use of an in house LH assay, or use of the LH assay available from Dr. Nancy Dahl (UC-Davis, Davis, CA
95616 USA), both of which are quantitative assays for detection of LH. For cow-side use during estrus, the qualitative ELISA Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit (Symbiotics Corporation, Kansas City, MO 64163 USA) detects LH in elephants within 20 min. This assay requires a minimum of laboratory precision to detect the ovulatory LH peak (LH2).
Introduction
Elephants are the only species known to exhibit a double LH peak during a single estrous cycle.2,4 Increased success of artificial insemination in elephants occurred partly in response to the ability to detect the LH1 surge about 21 days prior to the ovulatory LH2 surge that occurs at the end of a two to three day estrus.1 The first reports regarding detection of the double LH
surges were performed in laboratories using custom ELISA technology that require exacting procedures and two days to complete the quantitative assays.2,4 A semi-quantitative elephant LH ELISA that can be performed in the field in about 2.5 hr was developed at UC-Davis.3 A qualitative LH assay was developed for use in dogs and cats that uses a latex strip ELISA. The time for development of the test is 20 min and detects a LH surge greater than 1 ng/ml using serum. Elephants have LH1 and LH2 surges in the 4-16 ng/ml range,2,4 well within the detectable range for all of the assays described. The detection of the LH1 peak usually is from daily samples submitted weekly; this allows some efficiency of assay resources and provides at least a two-wk notice of LH2. However, accurate and timely detection of LH2 is needed at least daily and at times twice daily during estrus. The use of an LH assay which can be performed 'cow-side' and accurately detect LH2 is essential for successful AI and can be helpful in determining estrus status for natural breeding. The Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit from Symbiotics was developed for use in dogs and cats, but is effective in other species, including elephants, and meets these requirements.
Discussion
Detection of LH1 provides information for predicting the LH2 surge and performance of assays that require more laboratory time and precision are useful since detection of LH1 is not as timesensitive as LH2 detection. Both of the quantitative assays have unique advantages. An inhouse assay can be set up, but requires greater preparation time, precision of laboratory procedures is more demanding, often takes two days to perform, and is more susceptible to environmental variables. The assay developed by UC-Davis costs about $5.00 per well, takes about 2.5 hr to perform and is more stable. However, for quantitative results the overhead costs of the standard curve requires about 16 wells ($90), plus two wells for each unknown sample. The UC-Davis assay can be set up as a qualitative test with high and low controls and no standard curve. This requires from three to six wells for a single sample. The Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit has a control built into each test strip and costs about $25.00 per sample. Because 'cow-side' testing possible using the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit, I recommend its use for detection of LH2, although the UC-Davis Elephant ELISA is competitively priced and can be performed in a nearby temporary laboratory. Because timing is
critical in detecting LH2 and performing subsequent AI, I recommend using the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit at the time of estrus, preceded by either one of the other assays for detecting LH1, depending on availability of laboratory labor and equipment.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Brown, J. L., F. Goritz, N. Pratt-Hawkes, R. Hermes, M. Galloway, L. H. Graham, C. Gray, S. L. Walker, A. Gomez, R. Moreland, S. Murray, D. L. Schmitt, J. G. Howard, J. Lehnhardt, B. Beck, A. Bellem, R. Montali, and T. B. Hildebrandt. 2004. Successful artificial insemination of an Asian elephant at the National Zoological Park. Zoo Biol. 23: 45-63.
2. Brown, J. L., D. L. Schmitt, A. Bellem, L. H. Graham, and J. Lehnhardt. 1999. Hormone secretion in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus): Characterization of ovulatory and anovulatory luteinizing hormone surges. Biol. Reprod. 61: 1294-1299.
3. Dahl, N. J., D. Olson, D. L. Schmitt, D. R. Blasko, R. S. Kristipati, and J. F. Roser. 2004. Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the elephant (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus). Zoo Biol. 23: 65-78.
4. Kapustin, N., J. K. Critser, D. Olson, and P. V. Malven. 1996. Nonluteal estrous cycles of 3-week duration are initiated by anovulatory luteinizing hormone peaks in African elephants. Biol. Reprod. 55:1147-1154.

Shannon, G., Page, B.R., Mackey, R.L., Duffy, K.J., Slotow, R., 2008. Activity budgets and sexual segregation in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Mammalogy 89, 467-476.
Abstract: The activity budget hypothesis is 1 of 4 main hypotheses proposed to explain sexual segregation by large herbivores. Because of their smaller body size, females are predicted to have higher mass-specific energy requirements and lower digestive efficiency than males. As a result, females are expected to forage longer to satisfy their nutritional demands. Maintaining the cohesion of a mixed-sex group with differing activity budgets and asynchronous behavioral patterns is increasingly difficult, ultimately leading to spatial segregation of males and females. We tested this hypothesis using data (2002-2005) from 3 distinct populations of African elephants (Loxodonta africana), a species that exhibits marked sexual segregation. Group and individual behaviors were assessed at discrete points in time throughout the day, with a minimum of 10 min between consecutive records. Focal samples of individual male and female elephants also were recorded, with behavioral data logged every minute for 15 min. Data were grouped into 5 behavioral categories: drinking, resting, walking, feeding, and other. Neither activity rhythms nor feeding time varied significantly between the sexes and behavioral patterns were very similar. We propose that social and environmental factors influence behavioral rhythms to a greater extent than does body size, whereas increasing feeding time is only 1 method by which elephants can improve nutritional return. This is especially pertinent when considering their generalist foraging approach, substantial energy demands, and hindgut fermentation. We conclude that the activity budget hypothesis is unlikely to be the causal mechanism in the sexual segregation of African elephants, a finding that concurs with recent experimental and field research on a range of sexually dimorphic herbivores.

Shannon, G., Druce, D.J., Page, B., Eckhardt, H.C., Grant, R., Slotow, R., 2008. The utilization of large savanna trees by elephant in southern Kruger National Park . Journal of Tropical Ecology 24, 281-289.
Abstract: The utilization of large savanna trees by elephant in southern Kruger National Park Graeme Shannon, Dave J. Druce, Bruce R. Page, Holger C. Eckhardt, Rina Grant and Rob SlotowJournal of Tropical Ecology (2008) 24: 281-289.
Elephants are believed to be one of the main ecological drivers in the conversion of savanna woodlands to grassland. We assessed the impacts of elephant on large trees (=5 m in height) in the southern section of the Kruger National Park. Tree dimensions and utilization by elephant were recorded for 3082 individual trees across 22 transects (average length of 3 km and 10 m wide). Sixty per cent of the trees exhibited elephant utilization and 4% were dead as a direct result of elephant foraging behaviour. Each height class of tree was utilized in proportion to abundance. However, the size of the tree and the species influenced the intensity of utilization and foraging approach. Sclerocarya birrea was actively selected for and experienced the highest proportional utilization (75% of all trees). Interestingly, the proportion of large trees that were utilized and pushed over increased with distance from permanent water, a result which has implications for the provision of water in the KNP. We conclude that mortality is likely to be driven by a combination of factors including fire, drought and disease, rather than the actions of elephant alone. Further investigation is also required regarding the role of senescence and episodic mortality.

Steinmetz, H.W., Eulenberger, U., Hatt, J.M. Daily clinical examinations in a herd of captive asian elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  124. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The captive population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is not self-sustaining.2 Poor reproduction and high juvenile mortality are key factors in the decreasing population. Infection with endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV) is one of the major causes of death in the captive population, and has resulted in the loss of at least 40 captive animals.1 EEHV has been
responsible for the peracute death of two juvenile males at Zurich Zoo, Switzerland. Mortality due to peracute infection with EEHV mainly is seen in juveniles. Early detection of characteristic clinical signs of EEHV and immediate initiation of therapy are of crucial
importance due to its rapid progression. Based on past fatal EEHV experiences, Zurich Zoo modified its daily clinical health monitoring program to increase staff awareness of EEHV infection. Examinations have been incorporated into the daily routine and include daily evaluation of behaviour, appetite, colour of mucosal membranes and the measurement of body temperature; these examinations are performed by keepers. In our experiences, characteristic signs of acute EEHV infection are lethargy, anorexia, mild
colic, and cyanosis of the mucosal membranes. Results of temperature measurements have shown that best estimations of body temperature are done by measurement of the temperature in the centre of a fecal ball 5-9 min after defecation. Mean values of 36.5°C (± 0.2°C SD) are within published reference values, although adult elephants have shown significantly lower body temperature than juveniles. Establishment of individual reference values for each elephant is essential to detect unusual temperature peaks that may indicate possible EEHV viremia. The present study has shown that daily health examinations increase the awareness of keepers for
early signs of EEHV infection (e.g., peaks in body temperature and cyanotic mucosal membranes).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank B. Aeschbach and all elephant keepers for taking special care of our elephants. The work and organization of Ms. G. Hürlimann is gratefully appreciated.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S. 2007. Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV). http://www.elephantcare.org/herpes.htm. cited: 10.04.2008:
2. Wiese, R. J. 2000. Asian elephants are not self-sustaining in North America. Zoo Biol. 19: 299-309.

Thomas, B., Holland, J.D., Minot, E.O., 2008. Elephant (Loxodonta africana) home ranges in Sabi Sand Reserve and Kruger National Park: a five-year satellite tracking study. PLoS. One. 3, e3902.
Abstract: During a five-year GPS satellite tracking study in Sabi Sand Reserve (SSR) and Kruger National Park (KNP) we monitored the daily movements of an elephant cow (Loxodonta africana) from September 2003 to August 2008. The study animal was confirmed to be part of a group of seven elephants therefore her position is representative of the matriarchal group. We found that the study animal did not use habitat randomly and confirmed strong seasonal fidelity to its summer and winter five-year home ranges. The cow's summer home range was in KNP in an area more than four times that of her SSR winter home range. She exhibited clear park habitation with up to three visits per year travelling via a well-defined northern or southern corridor. There was a positive correlation between the daily distance the elephant walked and minimum daily temperature and the elephant was significantly closer to rivers and artificial waterholes than would be expected if it were moving randomly in KNP and SSR. Transect lines established through the home ranges were surveyed to further understand the fine scale of the landscape and vegetation representative of the home ranges

Thongtip, N., Saikhun, J., Mahasawangkul, S., Kornkaewrat, K., Pongsopavijitr, P., Songsasen, N., Pinyopummin, A., 2008. Potential factors affecting semen quality in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 6, 9.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: One of the major obstacles in using artificial insemination to manage genetics of elephant population in captivity is the large variations in semen quality among ejaculates within the same and among individuals. The objectives of this study were to determine the influences of (1) age (2) seasonality (3) and circulating testosterone (SrTest), triiodothyronine (SrT3) and tetraiodothyronine (SrT4), as well as seminal (4) testosterone (SpTest), zinc (SpZn) and protein (SpTP) on semen quality in the Asian elephant METHODS: Analyses, including motility, viability and morphology were performed in semen samples collected twice monthly from 13 elephant bulls (age range, 10-to 72-years) by manual stimulation between July 2004 and June 2005. Serum samples obtained monthly were assessed for SrTest, SrT3, SrT4, and seminal plasma samples were evaluated for, SpTest, SpZn and SpTP. RESULTS: The highest semen quality was observed at age 23 to 43 years. Percentages of progressive motility and viable sperm were lowest at age 51 to 70 years (P < 0.05); on the other hand, sperm concentration was lowest at age 10 to 19 years (P < 0.05). Percentage of sperm with normal morphology was highest at age 23 to 43 years. The levels of SrT3, SrTest, SpTest and SpZn were lowest at age 51 to 70 years, whereas SrT4 was lowest at age 23 to 43 years. Seasonality significantly affected semen characteristics in which percentage of viable sperm and cell concentration were highest during rainy season and lowest during summer months (P < 0.05). However, percentage of sperm with normal morphology was highest in summer and lowest in rainy season (P < 0.05). Seasonality significantly influenced SrTest with elevated concentrations observed in rainy season and winter (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: This study indicates that age and seasonality had influence on semen characteristics in the Asian elephant. The knowledge obtained in this study will improve our understanding of the reproductive biology of this species

Tshikae, B.P., Davis, A.L., Scholtz, C.H., 2008. Trophic associations of a dung beetle assemblage (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) in a woodland savanna of Botswana. Environ. Entomol. 37, 431-441.
Abstract: Species richness and abundance of dung beetles were assessed across a range of bait types that acted as surrogates for the food resources available in Chobe National Park, Botswana. These bait types were comprised of the dung of pig (omnivore), cattle (ruminant herbivore dropping fine-fiberd pads), sheep (pellet-dropping ruminant herbivore), and elephant (monogastric, nonruminant herbivore producing coarse-fibered droppings), and chicken livers (carrion). Species richness was similar between traps baited with pig, cattle, and elephant dung but was relatively lower in those baited with sheep dung and carrion. In traps baited with pig dung, abundance was relatively greater than in all other bait types. A cluster analysis of species abundance distributions for the 30 most abundant species identified four different patterns of bait type association at a 60% level of similarity. All but 1 of the 15 species in cluster A were attracted primarily to the dung of omnivores and pad-dropping ruminant herbivores (pig and cattle). All seven species of cluster B were attracted primarily to coarse-fibered, nonruminant herbivore dung (elephant). All four species of cluster C were primarily carrion and pig dung associated, whereas all four species of cluster D were carrion specialists. In conclusion, the most abundant species were attracted to all bait types, but most species were largely specialized to different dung types or carrion, with dung attracting the majority of the fauna in terms of both species richness and abundance

Tyack, P.L., 2008. Convergence of calls as animals form social bonds, active compensation for noisy communication channels, and the evolution of vocal learning in mammals. J. Comp Psychol. 122, 319-331.
Abstract: The classic evidence for vocal production learning involves imitation of novel, often anthropogenic sounds. Among mammals, this has been reported for dolphins, elephants, harbor seals, and humans. A broader taxonomic distribution has been reported for vocal convergence, where the acoustic properties of calls from different individuals converge when they are housed together in captivity or form social bonds in the wild. Vocal convergence has been demonstrated for animals as diverse as songbirds, parakeets, hummingbirds, bats, elephants, cetaceans, and primates. For most species, call convergence is thought to reflect a group-distinctive identifier, with shared calls reflecting and strengthening social bonds. A ubiquitous function for vocal production learning that is starting to receive attention involves modifying signals to improve communication in a noisy channel. Pooling data on vocal imitation, vocal convergence, and compensation for noise suggests a wider taxonomic distribution of vocal production learning among mammals than has been generally appreciated. The wide taxonomic distribution of this evidence for vocal production learning suggests that perhaps more of the neural underpinnings for vocal production learning are in place in mammals than is usually recognized

Valeix, M., Fritz, H., Matsika, R., Matsvimbo, F., Madzikanda, H., 2008. The role of water abundance, thermoregulation, perceived predation risk and interference competition in water access by African herbivores. African Journal of Ecology 46, 402-410.
Abstract: In African savannas, surface water can become limiting and an understanding of how animals address the trade-offs between different constraints to access this resource is needed. Here, we describe water access by ten African herbivore species in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. and we explore four possible determinants of the observed behaviours: water abundance, thermoregulation, perceived predation risk and interference competition. On average, herbivores were observed to drink in 80% of visits to a waterhole. The probability of drinking was higher in 2003 (474 mm) than in 2004 (770 mm), and at the end of the dry season than at its beginning. For larger species, this probability may also be related to risks of interference competition with elephants or other herbivores. For smaller species, this probability may also be related to the perceived risk of predation. We also investigate the time spent accessing water to drink. The influence of herd size and the presence of young on the time spent accessing water for most species suggests that perceived predation risk plays a role. Themoregulation also affects this time: during the hottest periods, herbivores spend less time in open areas. unless when wind is strong, probably owing to evapotranspired heat loss.

Viijoen, J.J., Ganswindt, A., du Toit, J.T., Langbauer, W.R., 2008. Translocation stress and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels in free-ranging African savanna elephants. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 38, 146-152.
Abstract: There are local populations of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) which have increased to levels where they are implicated in altering vegetation types. The local reduction of elephant numbers for wildlife management objectives can involve contraception, killing excess animals, or translocation to alternative habitats. The effects these management decisions can have on the physiological stress response of free-ranging African savanna elephants are still not fully understood. We examined the effect of translocation on faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels of an African elephant family group, which was translocated within the Kruger National Park, South Africa. We found that translocation resulted in a significant increase in faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels (up to 646 ng/g wet weight) compared to (1) pre-translocation levels in this group, (2) post-translocation levels in this group, and (3) levels measured in undisturbed 'control' groups in the area. However, the faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels had returned to <100 ng/g by the time the translocated animals had navigated their way back to their previous home range, covering 300 km in 23 days.

Wasser, S.K., Joseph, C.W., Drori, O., Stephen, K.E., Mailand, C., Mutayoba, B., Stephens, M., 2008. Combating the illegal trade in African elephant ivory with DNA forensics. Conserv. Biol. 22, 1065-1071.
Abstract: International wildlife crime is burgeoning in this climate of global trade. We contend that the most effective way to contain this illegal trade is to determine where the wildlife is being removed. This allows authorities to direct law enforcement to poaching hot spots, potentially stops trade before the wildlife is actually killed, prevents countries from denying their poaching problems at home, and thwarts trade before it enters into an increasingly complex web of international criminal activity. Forensic tools have been limited in their ability to determine product origin because the information they can provide typically begins only at the point of shipment. DNA assignment analyses can determine product origin, but its use has been limited by the inability to assign samples to locations where reference samples do not exist. We applied new DNA assignment methods that can determine the geographic origin(s) of wildlife products from anywhere within its range. We used these methods to examine the geographic origin(s) of 2 strings of seizures involving large volumes of elephant ivory, 1 string seized in Singapore and Malawi and the other in Hong Kong and Cameroon. These ivory traffickers may comprise 2 of the largest poaching rings in Africa. In both cases all ivory seized in the string had common origins, which indicates that crime syndicates are targeting specific populations for intense exploitation. This result contradicts the dominant belief that dealers are using a decentralized plan of procuring ivory stocks as they became available across Africa. Large quantities of ivory were then moved, in multiple shipments, through an intermediate country prior to shipment to Asia, as a risk-reduction strategy that distances the dealer from the poaching locale. These smuggling strategies could not have been detected by forensic information, which typically begins only at the shipping source

Wiedner, E.B., Gray, C., Rich, P., Jacobson, G.L., Isaza, R., Schmitt, D., Lindsay, W.A., 2008. Nonsurgical repair of an umbilical hernia in two Asian elephant calves (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 39, 248-251.
Abstract: Umbilical hernias were diagnosed in two captive-born, female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) calves several weeks after birth. Daily manual reduction of the hernias for 5 wk in the first case and for 5 mo in the second resulted in complete closure of the defects. Nonsurgical repair of uncomplicated, fully reducible umbilical hernias in Asian elephants can be an alternative to surgery

Wittemyer, G., Polansky, L., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Getz, W.M., 2008. Disentangling the effects of forage, social rank, and risk on movement autocorrelation of elephants using Fourier and wavelet analyses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 105, 19108-19113.
Abstract: The internal state of an individual-as it relates to thirst, hunger, fear, or reproductive drive-can be inferred by referencing points on its movement path to external environmental and sociological variables. Using time-series approaches to characterize autocorrelative properties of step-length movements collated every 3 h for seven free-ranging African elephants, we examined the influence of social rank, predation risk, and seasonal variation in resource abundance on periodic properties of movement. The frequency domain methods of Fourier and wavelet analyses provide compact summaries of temporal autocorrelation and show both strong diurnal and seasonal based periodicities in the step-length time series. This autocorrelation is weaker during the wet season, indicating random movements are more common when ecological conditions are good. Periodograms of socially dominant individuals are consistent across seasons, whereas subordinate individuals show distinct differences diverging from that of dominants during the dry season. We link temporally localized statistical properties of movement to landscape features and find that diurnal movement correlation is more common within protected wildlife areas, and multiday movement correlations found among lower ranked individuals are typically outside of protected areas where predation risks are greatest. A frequency-related spatial analysis of movement-step lengths reveal that rest cycles related to the spatial distribution of critical resources (i.e., forage and water) are responsible for creating the observed patterns. Our approach generates unique information regarding the spatial-temporal interplay between environmental and individual characteristics, providing an original approach for understanding the movement ecology of individual animals and the spatial organization of animal populations

Woolley, L.A., Millspaugh, J.J., Woods, R.J., van Rensburg, S.J., Mackey, R.L., Page, B., Slotow, R., 2008. Population and individual elephant response to a catastrophic fire in Pilanesberg National Park. PLoS. One. 3, e3233.
Abstract: In predator-free large herbivore populations, where density-dependent feedbacks occur at the limit where forage resources can no longer support the population, environmental catastrophes may play a significant role in population regulation. The potential role of fire as a stochastic mass-mortality event limiting these populations is poorly understood, so too the behavioural and physiological responses of the affected animals to this type of large disturbance event. During September 2005, a wildfire resulted in mortality of 29 (18% population mortality) and injury to 18, African elephants in Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa. We examined movement and herd association patterns of six GPS-collared breeding herds, and evaluated population physiological response through faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (stress) levels. We investigated population size, structure and projected growth rates using a simulation model. After an initial flight response post-fire, severely injured breeding herds reduced daily displacement with increased daily variability, reduced home range size, spent more time in non-tourist areas and associated less with other herds. Uninjured, or less severely injured, breeding herds also shifted into non-tourist areas post-fire, but in contrast, increased displacement rate (both mean and variability), did not adjust home range size and formed larger herds post-fire. Adult cow stress hormone levels increased significantly post-fire, whereas juvenile and adult bull stress levels did not change significantly. Most mortality occurred to the juvenile age class causing a change in post-fire population age structure. Projected population growth rate remained unchanged at 6.5% p.a., and at current fecundity levels, the population would reach its previous level three to four years post-fire. The natural mortality patterns seen in elephant populations during stochastic events, such as droughts, follows that of the classic mortality pattern seen in predator-free large ungulate populations, i.e. mainly involving juveniles. Fire therefore functions in a similar manner to other environmental catastrophes and may be a natural mechanism contributing to population limitation. Welfare concerns of arson fires, burning during "hot-fire" conditions and the conservation implications of fire suppression (i.e. removal of a potential contributing factor to natural population regulation) should be integrated into fire management strategies for conservation areas

Archie, E.A., Hollister-Smith, J.A., Poole, J.H., Lee, P.C., Moss, C.J., Maldonado, J.E., Fleischer, R.C., Alberts, S.C., 2007. Behavioural inbreeding avoidance in wild African elephants. Molecular Ecology 16, 4138-4148.
Abstract: The costs of inbreeding depression, as well as the opportunity costs of inbreeding avoidance, determine whether and which mechanisms of inbreeding avoidance evolve. In African elephants, sex-biased dispersal does not lead to the complete separation of male and female relatives, and so individuals may experience selection to recognize kin and avoid inbreeding. However, because estrous females are rare and male-male competition for mates is intense, the opportunity costs of inbreeding avoidance may be high, particularly for males. Here we combine 28 years of behavioural and demographic data on wild elephants with genotypes from 545 adult females, adult males, and calves in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, to test the hypothesis that elephants engage in sexual behaviour and reproduction with relatives less often than expected by chance. We found support for this hypothesis: males engaged in proportionally fewer sexual behaviours and sired proportionally fewer offspring with females that were natal family members or close genetic relatives (both maternal and paternal) than they did with nonkin. We discuss the relevance of these results for understanding the evolution of inbreeding avoidance and for elephant conservation.

Babweteera, F., Savill, P., Brown, N., 2007. Balanites wilsoniana: Regeneration with and without elephants. Biological Conservation 134, 40-47.
Abstract: Tropical forest trees that produce large fruits and/or large seeds are believed to be dependant on a few and often rare large vertebrates for dispersal. However, little is known about the population dynamics of such trees when they lose their specialised dispersers. This study examines the juvenile spatial distribution of Balanites wilsoniana, Dawe & Spraque, which is believed to be dependant solely on elephants for dispersal, in forests with and without elephants. Using camera traps, elephants were confirmed to be the only frugivores feeding and thus dispersing Balanites wilsoniona fruits. There was a high density of seedlings beneath adult trees in one forest without elephants, which was attributed to low seed and seedling predation in this forest. Nevertheless, it was only in the forest with elephants that juveniles were established away from adult trees. Analysis of the spatial distribution of these juveniles by size revealed that saplings and poles are more likely to be found away from adult trees thus providing evidence that dispersal enhances juvenile survival. This study underlines the importance of seed dispersal for trees that cannot maintain their populations through seedlings germinating and surviving beneath adult conspecifics. The study also demonstrates that loss of vertebrates has ramifications for tree species dynamics above and beyond loss of seed dispersers.

Barnes, R.F.W., Dubiure, U.F., Danquah, E., Boafo, Y., Nandjui, A., Hema, E.M., Manford, M., 2007. Crop-raiding elephants and the moon. African Journal of Ecology 45, 112-115.
Abstract: The problem of crop-raiding elephants has become particularly acute around the Kakum Conservation Area (KCA) in southern Ghana where the surrounding communities suffer severe losses each year (Dudley, Mensah-Ntiamoah & Kpelle, 1992; Barnes, Azika & Asamoah-Boateng, 1995). The frequency of crop-raiding by elephants is affected by the ecological conditions within their forest refuge and by the farming landscape outside (Barnes, 2002; Barnes et al., 2003; Danquah, 2003; Chiyo et al., 2005). In addition, physical features of the environment play a role. For example, Dickinson (1998) suspected that the Kakum elephants raided less frequently at the full moon. Here we test Dickinson's (1998) hypothesis for the Kakum elephants using data from an investigation of crop-raiding around KCA (Barnes et al., 2003, 2005). An exploratory analysis of the data revealed that rainfall was another physical variable that influenced crop-raiding, and here we show how rainfall and lunar phase together predict the risk from elephants.

Bates, L.A., Sayialel, K.N., Nijiraini, N.W., Moss, C.J., Poole, J.H., Byrne, R.W., 2007. Elephants classify human ethnic groups by odor and garment color. Current Biology 17, 1-5.
Abstract: PrFont34Bin0BinSub0Frac0Def1Margin0Margin0Jc1Indent1440Lim0Lim1Animals can benefit from classifying predators or other dangers into categories, tailoring their escape strategies to the type and nature of the risk. Studies of alarm vocalizations have revealed various levels of sophistication in classification [1-5]. In many taxa, reactions to danger are inflexible, but some species can learn the level of threat presented by the local population of a predator [6-8] or by specific, recognizable individuals [9, 10]. Some species distinguish several species of predator, giving differentiated warning calls and escape reactions; here, we explore an animal's classification of subgroups within a species. We show that elephants distinguish at least two Kenyan ethnic groups and can identify them by olfactory and color cues independently. In the Amboseli ecosystem, Kenya, young Maasai men demonstrate virility by spearing elephants (Loxodonta africana), but Kamba agriculturalists pose little threat. Elephants showed greater fear when they detected the scent of garments previously worn by Maasai than by Kamba men, and they reacted aggressively to the color associated with Maasai. Elephants are therefore able to classify members of a single species into subgroups that pose different degrees of danger.

Bates, L.A., Byrne, R.W., 2007. Creative or created: using anecdotes to investigate animal cognition. Methods 42, 12-21.
Abstract: In non-human animals, creative behaviour occurs spontaneously only at low frequencies, so is typically missed by standardised observational methods. Experimental approaches have tended to rely overly on paradigms from child development or adult human cognition, which may be inappropriate for species that inhabit very different perceptual worlds and possess quite different motor capacities than humans. The analysis of anecdotes offers a solution to this impasse, provided certain conditions are met. To be reliable, anecdotes must be recorded immediately after observation, and only the records of scientists experienced with the species and the individuals concerned should be used. Even then, interpretation of a single record is always ambiguous, and analysis is feasible only when collation of multiple records shows that a behaviour pattern occurs repeatedly under similar circumstances. This approach has been used successfully to study a number of creative capacities of animals: the distribution, nature and neural correlates of deception across the primate order; the occurrence of teaching in animals; and the neural correlates of several aptitudes--in birds, foraging innovation, and in primates, innovation, social learning and tool-use. Drawing on these approaches, we describe the use of this method to investigate a new problem, the cognition of the African elephant, a species whose sheer size and evolutionary distance from humans renders the conventional methods of comparative psychology of little use. The aim is both to chart the creative cognitive capacities of this species, and to devise appropriate experimental methods to confirm and extend previous findings

Bicer, S., Reiser, P.J., 2007. Variations in apparent mass of mammalian fast-type myosin light chains correlate with species body size, from shrew to elephant
424. Am. J. Physiol Regul. Integr. Comp Physiol 292, R527-R534.
Abstract: A recent study (Bicer S and Reiser PJ. J Muscle Res Cell Motil 25: 623-633, 2004) suggested considerable variation in the apparent molecular mass (M(a)), deduced from electrophoretic mobility, in fast-type myosin light chains (MLCF), especially MLC1F, among mammalian species. Furthermore, there was an indication that MLC1F M(a) generally correlates with species body mass, over an approximately 4,000-fold range in body mass. The results also suggested that M(a) of other low-molecular-weight myofibrillar proteins is less variable and not as strongly correlated with body mass among the same species. The objective of this study was to test the hypotheses that the M(a) of MLCs does, in fact, vary and correlate with species body mass. The electrophoretic mobilities of MLCF isoforms from 19 species, varying in size approximately 500,000-fold, were quantitated. The results confirm that the M(a) of MLC1F and MLC2F vary significantly among mammals, spanning a very broad range in body mass; the MLC1F M(a) varies more than that of other low-molecular-weight myofibrillar proteins; and there is a significant correlation between species body mass and MLC1F M(a). Differences in MLC1F M(a) among five species can be accounted for by differences in the reported amino acid sequence, especially the length of a common polyalanine region near the NH(2)-terminal actin-binding site. The possibility that the differences in MLC1F sequence among mammalian species, in and adjacent to the actin-binding region, are related to differences in modulation of cross-bridge kinetics in species with diverse locomotion kinetics is discussed

Blake, S., Strindberg, S., Boudjan, P., Makombo, C., Bila-Isia, I., Ilambu, O., Grossmann, F., Bene-Bene, L., de, S.B., Mbenzo, V., S'hwa, D., Bayogo, R., Williamson, L., Fay, M., Hart, J., Maisels, F., 2007. Forest elephant crisis in the Congo Basin. PLoS. Biol. 5, e111.
Abstract: Debate over repealing the ivory trade ban dominates conferences of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Resolving this controversy requires accurate estimates of elephant population trends and rates of illegal killing. Most African savannah elephant populations are well known; however, the status of forest elephants, perhaps a distinct species, in the vast Congo Basin is unclear. We assessed population status and incidence of poaching from line-transect and reconnaissance surveys conducted on foot in sites throughout the Congo Basin. Results indicate that the abundance and range of forest elephants are threatened from poaching that is most intense close to roads. The probability of elephant presence increased with distance to roads, whereas that of human signs declined. At all distances from roads, the probability of elephant occurrence was always higher inside, compared to outside, protected areas, whereas that of humans was always lower. Inside protected areas, forest elephant density was correlated with the size of remote forest core, but not with size of protected area. Forest elephants must be prioritised in elephant management planning at the continental scale

Brown, J.L., Somerville, M., Riddle, H.S., Keele, M., Duer, C.K., Freeman, E.W., 2007. Comparative endocrinology of testicular, adrenal and thyroid function in captive Asian and African elephant bulls. Gen. Comp Endocrinol. 151, 153-162.
Abstract: Concentrations of serum testosterone, cortisol, thyroxine (free and total T4), triiodothyronine (free and total T3) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) were measured to assess adrenal and thyroid function as they relate to testicular activity and musth in captive elephants. Blood samples were collected approximately weekly from Asian (n=8) and African (n=12) bulls at seven facilities for periods of 4 months to 9.5 years. Age ranges at study onset were 8-50 years for Asian and 10-21 years for African elephants. Based on keeper logs, seven Asian and three African bulls exhibited behavioral and/or physical (temporal gland secretion, TGS, or urine dribbling, UD) signs of musth, which lasted 2.8+/-2.5 months in duration. Serum testosterone was elevated during musth, with concentrations often exceeding 100 ng/ml. Patterns of testosterone secretion and musth varied among bulls with no evidence of seasonality (P>0.05). Only three bulls at one facility exhibited classic, well-defined yearly musth cycles. Others exhibited more irregular cycles, with musth symptoms often occurring more than once a year. A number of bulls (1 Asian, 9 African) had consistently low testosterone (<10 ng/ml) and never exhibited significant TGS or UD. At facilities with multiple bulls (n=3), testosterone concentrations were highest in the oldest, most dominant male. There were positive correlations between testosterone and cortisol for six of seven Asian and all three African males that exhibited musth (range, r=0.23-0.52; P<0.05), but no significant correlations for bulls that did not (P>0.05). For the three bulls that exhibited yearly musth cycles, TSH was positively correlated (range, r=0.22-0.28; P<0.05) and thyroid hormones (T3, T4) were negatively correlated (range, r=-0.25 to -0.47; P<0.05) to testosterone secretion. In the remaining bulls, there were no clear relationships between thyroid activity and musth status. Overall mean testosterone and cortisol concentrations increased with age for all bulls combined, whereas thyroid activity declined. In summary, a number of bulls did not exhibit musth despite being of adequate physical maturity. Cortisol and testosterone were correlated in most bulls exhibiting musth, indicating a possible role for the adrenal gland in modulating or facilitating downstream responses. Data were generally inconclusive as to a role for thyroid hormones in male reproduction, but the finding of discrete patterns in bulls showing clear testosterone cycles suggests they may facilitate expression or control of musth in some individuals

Buij, R., McShea, W.J., Campbell, P., Lee, M.E., Dallmeier, F., Guimondou, S., Mackaga, L., Guisseougou, N., Mboumba, S., Hines, J.E., Nichols, J.D., Alonso, A., 2007. Patch-occupancy models indicate human activity as major determinant of forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis seasonal distribution in an industrial corridor in Gabon. Biological Conservation 135, 189-201.
Abstract: The importance of human activity and ecological features in influencing African forest elephant ranging behaviour was investigated in the Rabi-Ndogo corridor of the Gamba Complex of Protected Areas in southwest Gabon. Locations in a wide geographical area with a range of environmental variables were selected for patch-occupancy surveys using elephant dung to assess seasonal presence and absence of elephants. Patch-occupancy procedures allowed for covariate modelling evaluating hypotheses for both occupancy in relation to human activity and ecological features, and detection probability in relation to vegetation density. The best fitting models for old and fresh dung data sets indicate that (1) detection probability for elephant dung is negatively related to the relative density of the vegetation, and (2) human activity, such as presence and infrastructure, are more closely associated with elephant distribution patterns than are ecological features, such as the presence of wetlands and preferred fresh fruit. Our findings emphasize the sensitivity of elephants to human disturbance, in this case infrastructure development associated with gas and oil production. Patch-occupancy methodology offers a viable alternative to current transect protocols for monitoring programs with multiple covariates.

Bulte, E.H., Damania, R., Van Kooten, G.C., 2007. The effects of one-off ivory sales on elephant mortality. Journal of Wildlife Management 71, 613-618.
Abstract: We revisited the debate about whether the 1999 one-off sale of ivory promoted elephant (Loxodonta africana) poaching in Africa. Complementing earlier work based on ivory seizure data, we considered data on elephant mortality in Zimbabwe and Kenya. Our findings present a mixed picture. At the local level there was some evidence that the one-off sale resulted in extra elephant killing, but this effect was relatively small (and probably short-lived). Although the data were too scanty to draw strong conclusions, decision-making about elephant management and the ivory trade has to continue and will necessarily be based on imperfect information for a long time to come. Our findings suggest that further experimenting with one-off sales may be beneficial from a conservation and development perspective.

Carbone, C., Teacher, A., Rowcliffe, J.M., 2007. The Costs of Carnivory. PLoS Biol 5, 1-6.
Abstract: Mammalian carnivores fall into two broad dietary groups: smaller carnivores (,20 kg) that feed on very small prey (invertebrates and small vertebrates) and larger carnivores (.20 kg) that specialize in feeding on large vertebrates. We develop a model that predicts the mass-related energy budgets and limits of carnivore size within these groups. We show that the transition from small to large prey can be predicted by the maximization of net energy gain; larger carnivores achieve a higher net gain rate by concentrating on large prey. However, because it requires more energy to pursue and subdue large prey, this leads to a 2-fold step increase in energy expenditure, as well as increased intake. Across all species, energy expenditure and intake both follow a three-fourths scaling with body mass. However, when each dietary group is considered individually they both display a shallower scaling. This suggests that carnivores at the upper limits of each group are constrained by intake and adopt energy conserving strategies to counter this. Given predictions of expenditure and estimates of intake, we predict a maximum carnivore mass of approximately a ton, consistent with the largest extinct species. Our approach provides a framework for understanding carnivore energetics, size, and extinction dynamics.

Clauss, M., Streich, W.J., Schwarm, A., Ortmann, S., Hummel, J., 2007. The relationship of food intake and ingesta passage predicts feeding ecology in two different megaherbivore groups. Oikos 116, 209-216.
Abstract: Digestion, especially of plant material, is a time-dependent process. In herbivores, an increase in food intake is usually correlated to an acceleration of ingesta passage through the gut, and could hence depress digestive efficiency. Therefore, the nature of the relationship between food intake and ingesta passage (i.e. whether the increase in ingesta passage due to the increase in food intake is mild or drastic) should determine the flexibility of the feeding strategy of herbivore and omnivore species. Using two megaherbivore groups, the elephants and the hippopotamuses, as examples from opposing ends of the range of potential adaptations to this problem, we demonstrate that the species-specific relationship of food intake and ingesta passage can precisely predict feeding ecology and activity budgets. In hippos, the distinct acceleration in ingesta passage due to increased intake limits the additional energy gained from eating more forage, and explains the comparatively low food intake and short feeding times generally observed in these animals. In elephants, increased food intake only leads to a very moderate increase of ingesta passage, thus theoretically allowing to optimize energy gain by eating more, which is in accord with the high food intake and long feeding times observed in these animals. We suggest that the characterization of the intake-passage relationship in herbi- and omnivorous species is of much higher ecological relevance than the determination of a supposedly species-specific "passage time/mean retention time.".

Corlett, R.T., 2007. The impact of hunting on the mammalian fauna of tropical Asian forests. Biotropica 39, 292-303.
Abstract: People have hunted mammals in tropical Asian forests for at least 40,000 yr. This period has seen one confirmed global extinction (the giant pangolin, Manis palaeojavanica) and range restrictions for several large mammals, but there is no strong evidence for unsustainable hunting pressure until the last 2000-3000 yr, when elephants, rhinoceroses, and several other species were progressively eliminated from the large parts of their ranges. Regional declines in most species have occurred largely within the last 50 yr. Recent subsistence hunting has typically focused on pigs and deer (hunted with dogs and spears or with snares), monkeys and other arboreal mammals (often caught with blowpipes), and porcupines and other rodents (smoked or dug out of burrows). Over the last 50 yr, the importance of hunting for subsistence has been increasingly outweighed by hunting for the market. The hunted biomass is dominated by the same species as before, sold mostly for local consumption, but numerous additional species are targeted for the colossal regional trade in wild animals and their parts for food, medicines, raw materials, and pets. Many populations of mammalian dispersers of large seeds and understory browsers have been depleted or eliminated, while seed predators have had a more variable fate. Most of this hunting is now illegal, but the law enforcement is generally weak. However, examples of successful enforcement show that hunting impacts can be greatly reduced where there is sufficient political will. Ending the trade in wild animals and their parts should have the highest regional conservation priority.

Dai, X., Shannon, G., Slotow, R., Page, B., Duffy, K.J., 2007. Short-Duration Daytime Movements Of A Cow Herd Of African Elephants. Journal of Mammalogy 88, 151-157.
Abstract: We examined daytime movements of a herd of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) at 10-min, 15-min, and 20-min intervals in Pongola Game Reserve, South Africa. This group tended to proceed in a consistent direction during consecutive movements, especially during long moves. Serial movement lengths and serial movement angles were autocorrelated at 10-min and 15-min intervals but not at 20-min intervals, indicating that 20-min intervals may be a suitable temporal scale to avoid oversampling. Herd movements followed a Lévy-modulated correlated random walk. In addition, looping movements were detected. Spatial scale of the loops averaged about 1 km. Movement strategies that include both Lévy walks and correlated random walks are thought to optimize foraging.

Edkins, M.T., Kruger, L.M., Harris, K., Midgley, J.J., 2007. Baobabs and elephants in Kruger National Park: nowhere to hide. African Journal of Ecology doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00798.x.
Abstract: Baobab size class distributions were surveyed in the Limpopo National Park (LNP), Mozambique, and the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa. There are very few elephants in the LNP and the baobab population there had a reverse J-shaped size class distribution with many small baobabs. In contrast, the elephant-impacted baobab population of KNP displayed a mono-modal size-class distribution, with a lack in recruitment. Within KNP, elephant impact (percentage bark stripped up to the height of 3 m) decreased with increasing rockiness and slope steepness. We interpret this to suggest that steep rocky slopes are inaccessible to elephants and therefore these sites may act as a refuge for baobabs. In such inaccessible areas, the baobab population has a similar size-class distribution to that of the populations in the LNP. However, these baobab refugia are restricted in the northern KNP landscape and are therefore probably not large enough to sustain a viable baobab population.

Hildebrandt, T., Drews, B., Gaeth, A.P., Goeritz, F., Hermes, R., Schmitt, D., Gray, C., Rich, P., Streich, W.J., Short, R.V., Renfree, M.B., 2007. Foetal age determination and development in elephants. Proc. Biol. Sci. 274, 323-331.
Abstract: Elephants have the longest pregnancy of all mammals, with an average gestation of around 660 days, so their embryonic and foetal development have always been of special interest. Hitherto, it has only been possible to estimate foetal ages from theoretical calculations based on foetal mass. The recent development of sophisticated ultrasound procedures for elephants has now made it possible to monitor the growth and development of foetuses of known gestational age conceived in captivity from natural matings or artificial insemination. We have studied the early stages of pregnancy in 10 captive Asian and 9 African elephants by transrectal ultrasound. Measurements of foetal crown-rump lengths have provided the first accurate growth curves, which differ significantly from the previous theoretical estimates based on the cube root of foetal mass. We have used these to age 22 African elephant foetuses collected during culling operations. Pregnancy can be first recognized ultrasonographically by day 50, the presumptive yolk sac by about day 75 and the zonary placenta by about day 85. The trunk is first recognizable by days 85-90 and is distinct by day 104, while the first heartbeats are evident from around day 80. By combining ultrasonography and morphology, we have been able to produce the first reliable criteria for estimating gestational age and ontological development of Asian and African elephant foetuses during the first third of gestation.

Holdo, R.M., 2007. Elephants, fire, and frost can determine community structure and composition in Kalahari Woodlands. Ecol. Appl. 17, 558-568.
Abstract: Fire, elephants, and frost are important disturbance factors in many African savannas, but the relative magnitude of their effects on vegetation and their interactions have not been quantified. Understanding how disturbance shapes savanna structure and composition is critical for predicting changes in tree cover and for formulating management and conservation policy. A simulation model was used to investigate how the disturbance regime determines vegetation structure and composition in a mixed Kalahari sand woodland savanna in western Zimbabwe. The model consisted of submodels for tree growth, tree damage caused by disturbance, mortality, and recruitment that were parameterized from field data collected over a two-year period. The model predicts that, under the current disturbance regime, tree basal area in the study area will decline by two-thirds over the next two decades and become dominated by species unpalatable to elephants. Changes in the disturbance regime are predicted to greatly modify vegetation structure and community composition. Elephants are the primary drivers of woodland change in this community at present-day population densities, and their impacts are exacerbated by the effects of fire and frost. Frost, in particular, does not play an important role when acting independently but appears to be a key secondary factor in the presence of elephants and/or fire. Unlike fire and frost, which cannot suppress the woodland phase on their own in this ecosystem, elephants can independently drive the vegetation to the scrub phase. The results suggest that elephant and fire management may be critical for the persistence of certain woodland communities within dry-season elephant habitats in the eastern Kalahari, particularly those dominated by Brachystegia spiciformis and other palatable species

Houghton, P.J., Howes, M.J., Lee, C.C., Steventon, G., 2007. Uses and abuses of in vitro tests in ethnopharmacology: visualizing an elephant. J. Ethnopharmacol. 110, 391-400.
Abstract: Although in vivo models give a more accurate reflection of the activity of substances used in traditional medicine, their use in many countries is severely restricted due to economic and ethical concerns, and this has resulted in the widespread use of in vitro tests in ethnopharmacological studies. Such tests are very useful where the identity of compounds responsible for the biological activity of an extract is being investigated and where limited supplies of material are available, but it is important to consider a variety of factors before making over-predictive claims of that activity in one particular system explains the traditional use. The use of only one bioassay gives a very incomplete picture of the effect of the extract on the whole system involved. A symptom may be due to a number of disease states and, consequently, a variety of mechanisms may serve as targets for bioassays. In a similar way, it is very unusual for there to be only one target for a particular disease so a variety of test systems must be employed. Examples are given of batteries of test systems used to test plants and other materials with a reputation of being useful in wound-healing, diabetes, cancer and to treat cognitive decline associated with old age. In addition, consideration must be given to factors such as absorption into the body and metabolism of any substances present, either to decrease or increase the effect of the 'actives'

Kinahan, A.A., Pimma, S.L., van Aarde, R.J., 2007. Ambient temperature as a determinant of landscape use in the savanna elephant, Loxodonta africana. Journal of Thermal Biology 32, 47-58.
Abstract: Elephants occur in landscapes where temperatures can reach 50 degrees C. Due to their large size they may face physiological problems of dissipating heat during such high temperatures. In spite of this, no one seems to have considered ambient temperature as limiting landscape choices in elephants. We recorded hourly landscape use in free-ranging elephants using GPS collars. We also placed temperature data loggers in each of the landscapes, to obtain corresponding ambient temperatures for each hour. Our results suggest that elephants may select landscapes based on the rate at which temperatures changed and also for shade. We suggest that these selected variables provide a thermal benefit to individuals. As such, we propose that landscape use in elephants may be constrained by their thermal physiological requirements as well as other resources such as food and water.

King, L.E., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Vollrath, F., 2007. African elephants run from the sound of disturbed bees. Current Biology 17, 832-833.
Abstract: Encroaching human development into former wildlife areas [1] is compressing African elephants into ever smaller home ranges, causing increased levels of human-elephant conflict [2]. African honeybees have been proposed as a possible deterrent to elephants [3]. We have performed a sound playback experiment to study this hypothesis. We found that a significant majority of elephants, in a sample of 18 well-known families and subgroups of varying sizes, reacted negatively - immediately walking or running away - when they heard the buzz of disturbed bees, while they ignored the control sound of natural white-noise. Whether the observed response was the result of individual conditioning or of learning by social facilitation remains to be established. Our study strongly supports the hypothesis that bees - and perhaps even their buzz alone - may be deployed to keep elephants at bay.

Kirkpatrick, J.F., 2007. Measuring the effects of wildlife contraception: the argument for comparing apples with oranges. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 19, 548-552.
Abstract: There are few wildlife populations existing today that can be supported without some form of management. Wildlife fertility control, as one option, has moved from the research stage to actual application with a number of species, including wild horses, urban deer, captive exotic species and even African elephants, but this approach remains controversial in many quarters. Strident debate has arisen over the possible effects of contraception on behaviour, genetics, stress and even management economics, among other parameters. Part of the debate arises from the fact that critics often fail to recognise that some form of alternative management will be applied, and a second problem arises when critics fail to identify and demand the same concern for the consequences of the alternative management approaches. Thus, any rational debate on the merits or possible effects of contraceptive management of wildlife must also recognise all alternative management approaches and apply the same concern and questions to these alternative approaches--including 'no management'--as are currently being applied to fertility control. Only then will the stewards of wildlife be in a position to make wise and informed decisions about management options

Koenig, R., 2007. Wildlife studies. Researchers explore alternatives to elephant culling. Science 315, 1349.

Kullberg, M., Hallström, B., Arnason, U., Janke, A., 2007. Expressed sequence tags as a tool for phylogenetic analysis of placental mammal evolution. PLoS ONE E publication Aug 22;2(1):e775.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: We investigate the usefulness of expressed sequence tags, ESTs, for establishing divergences within the tree of placental mammals. This is done on the example of the established relationships among primates (human), lagomorphs (rabbit), rodents (rat and mouse), artiodactyls (cow), carnivorans (dog) and proboscideans (elephant). METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We have produced 2000 ESTs (1.2 mega bases) from a marsupial mouse and characterized the data for their use in phylogenetic analysis. The sequences were used to identify putative orthologous sequences from whole genome projects. Although most ESTs stem from single sequence reads, the frequency of potential sequencing errors was found to be lower than allelic variation. Most of the sequences represented slowly evolving housekeeping-type genes, with an average amino acid distance of 6.6% between human and mouse. Positive Darwinian selection was identified at only a few single sites. Phylogenetic analyses of the EST data yielded trees that were consistent with those established from whole genome projects. CONCLUSIONS: The general quality of EST sequences and the general absence of positive selection in these sequences make ESTs an attractive tool for phylogenetic analysis. The EST approach allows, at reasonable costs, a fast extension of data sampling from species outside the genome projects.

Mailand, C., Wasser, S.K., 2007. Isolation of DNA from small amounts of elephant ivory. Nat Protoc 2, 2228-2232.
Abstract: This protocol describes a method for the extraction of DNA from elephant ivory. These techniques are being used to assign geographic origin to poached ivory by comparing the ivory genotype to a geographic-based gene frequency map, developed separately. The method has three components: ivory pulverization, decalcification and DNA extraction. Pulverization occurs in a freezer mill while the sample is deep frozen in liquid nitrogen, preventing degradation of DNA during the process. Decalcification involves repeated agitation of the sample in 0.5 M ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid over a 4-d period. Extraction follows a modified Qiagen protocol for the extraction of DNA from animal tissue. This method can be used on all forms of ivory. However, DNA recovery is highest when the outermost layer of the tusk, the cementum, is used. When applied to extract DNA from 11 samples, in duplicate, the entire protocol can be completed in 6 d, although much of this time consists of pause points that do not require effort. The protocol provides 0.8 +/- 0.11 ng microl(-1) (mean +/- s.e., n = 48) of DNA per sample.

Manimohan, P., Thomas, K.A., Nisha, V.S., 2007. Agarics on elephant dung in Kerala State, India. Mycotaxon 99, 147-157.
Abstract: Nineteen species representing twelve genera and five agaric families were found associated with elephant dung and are documented here along with a key to the species. The agarics are: Agrocybe guruvayoorensis, Bolbitius coprophilus, Conocybe brunneoaurantiaca, C. pseudopubescens, C. volvata, Copelandia cyanescens, Entoloma anamikum, Macrocybe gigantea, cf. Panacolina rhombisperma, Panaeolus antillarum, P. rickenii, Pholiotina indica, Psilocybe coprophila, Ps. pegleriana, Ps. subaeruginascens, Ps. subcubensis, Stropharia bicolor, S. rugosoannulata, and Volvariella volvacea. Of the species encountered during the study, Agrocybe guruvayoorensis, Conocybe volvata, Conocybe pseudopubescens, Pholiotina indica, Stropharia bicolor are known to grow only on elephant dung.

Mills, A., Milewski, A., 2007. Geophagy and nutrient supplementation in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania, with particular reference to selenium, cobalt and molybdenum. Journal of Zoology 271,  110-118.
Abstract: Wildlife and livestock in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, commonly practise geophagy. We investigated the nutrient content of nine earth licks and adjacent topsoils in the NCA, and for comparative purposes, two salt pans in north-eastern Tanzania, licks in central Tanzania and a lick near Puerto Maldonado, Peru. The licks had no consistent pattern of nutrient enrichment relative to unutilized topsoils, although the Na content of licks was greater than that of the adjacent topsoils at all but one site. The three largest licks in the NCA (Gibbs Farm, Seneto and Ascent Road) were enriched relative to topsoils and global averages in Se (maximum of 4.7 mg kg), Co (maximum of 107 mg kg) and/or Mo (maximum of 7.4 mg kg). We suggest that licks do provide supplemental Na, but that Se, Co and/or Mo at the largest licks provide easily overlooked nutritional benefits and are perhaps the primary target for geophagy at these sites. Subsoil zones of clay deposition are likely to be enriched in various elements through illuviation or mineral precipitation from solution. Animals may use the taste of NaCl as a clue for locating such zones where they are likely to find a greater quantity of micronutrients relative to other soils. These findings have consequences for conservation and pastoralism in that these large licks may be key resources, providing micronutrients that are essential for maintaining the health and fecundity of animal as well as human populations in the region.

Morley, R.C., van Aarde, R.J., 2007. Estimating abundance for a savanna elephant population using mark-resight methods: a case study for the Tembe Elephant Park, South Africa. Journal of Zoology 271, 418-427.
Abstract:  Elephants living in dense woodlands are difficult to count. Many elephant populations in Africa occur in such conditions. Estimates of these populations based on total counts, aerial counts and dung counts often lack information on precision and accuracy. We use standard mark-recapture field methods to obtain estimates of population size with associated confidence limits. We apply this approach to a closed elephant population in the Tembe Elephant Park (300 km(2)), South Africa. A registration count completed in 4 months gives a known population size. We evaluate mark-recapture models against the known population size. Individual identification profiles obtained for elephants during the registration count and mark-recapture events indicate that at least 167 elephants live in the park. We consider this value as an estimate of the minimum number alive. We include 189 sightings of bulls and 37 sightings of breeding herds in the mark-recapture modelling. Of the models we test (Petersen, Schnabel, Schumacher, Jolly-Seber, Bowden's, Poisson and negative binomial), Bowden's gives an estimate closest to the registration count. Assumptions of the model are not violated. For all models except one (negative binomial), our estimates improve with increased sampling intensity. Confidence intervals do not improve with increased effort except for the Schnabel model. Mark-recapture methods should be considered as reliable estimators of population size for elephants occurring in dense woodlands and forests when other methods cannot be relied on.

Morrell, V., 2007. Endangered species. Elephants take center ring at CITES. Science 316, 1678-1679.

Odadi, W.O., Young, T.P., Okeyo-Owuor, J.B., 2007. Effects of wildlife on cattle diets in Laikipia rangeland, Kenya. Rangeland Ecology and Management 60, 179-185.
Abstract: The impacts of wild herbivores on cattle diet selection were investigated in an East African rangeland during August 2001 and February 2002. The study compared cattle diets in plots exclusively accessible to cattle (C) and those accessible to megaherbivores (elephants and giraffes), non-megaherbivore wild herbivores > 15 kg (zebras, hartebeests, Grant's gazelles, oryx, elands, and buffaloes) and cattle (MWC); or non-megaherbivore wild herbivores and cattle (WC). There were no treatment differences in selection of most grass species in either sampling period (P > 0.05). However, selection of forbs differed among treatments during February when conditions were relatively dry and percent Of bites taken by cattle on this forage class increased (P < 0.005) from 1.8% +/- 0.3 to 7.7% +/- 1.6 (mean +/- SE). During this period, cattle took a lower percent of bites on forbs in MWC (4.3% +/- 1.7; P = 0.01) and WC (5.9% +/- 2.2; P = 0.03) than in C (12.5% +/- 0.9). These patterns were generally driven by Commelina spp., which comprised 65% +/- 9.4 of total bites on forbs. Notably, these differences were associated with differences in cover of forbs, which was positively correlated with percent of bites on forbs (r(2) = 0.86, P < 0.01). Because forbs may be critical components of cattle diets in such rangelands during relatively dry periods, these dietary changes may indicate potential seasonal costs of wildlife to cattle production. Looking for ways to offset such costs may be worthwhile for livestock properties that accommodate wildlife.

Orlando, L., Pages, M., Calvignac, S., Hughes, S., Hanni, C., 2007. Does the 43 bp sequence from an 800,000 year old Cretan dwarf elephantid really rewrite the textbook on mammoths? Biology Letters 3, 57-59.
Abstract: Pigmy elephants inhabited the islands from the Mediterranean region during the Pleistocene period but became extinct in the course of the Holocene. Despite striking distinctive anatomical characteristics related to insularity, some similarities with the lineage of extant Asian elephants have suggested that pigmy elephants could be most probably seen as members of the genus Elephas. Poulakakis et al. (2006) have recently challenged this view by recovering a short mtDNA sequence from an 800 000 year old fossil of the Cretan pigmy elephant (Elephas creticus). According to the authors of this study, a deep taxonomic revision of Cretan dwarf elephants would be needed, as the sequence exhibits clear affinities with woolly mammoth haplotypes. However, we point here many aspects that seriously weaken the strength of the ancient DNA evidence reported.

Pan, D., 2007. Hippo signaling in organ size control. Genes Dev. 21, 886-897.
Abstract: The control of organ (or organism) size is a fundamental aspect of life that has long captured human imagination. What makes an elephant grow a million times larger than a mouse? How do our two hands develop independently of each other yet reach very similar size? How does a liver precisely regenerate its original mass when two-thirds of it is removed? The recent discovery of a novel signaling network in Drosophila, known as the Hippo (Hpo) pathway, might provide an important entry point to these fascinating questions. The Hpo pathway consists of several negative growth regulators acting in a kinase cascade that ultimately phosphorylates and inactivates Yorkie (Yki), a transcriptional coactivator that positively regulates cell growth, survival, and proliferation. Components of the Hpo pathway are highly conserved throughout evolution, suggesting that this pathway may function as a global regulator of tissue homeostasis in all metazoan animals. Here, I provide a historical review of this potent growth-regulatory pathway and highlight outstanding questions that will likely be the focus of future investigation

Plumptre, A.J., Kujirakwinja, D., Treves, A., Owiunji, I., Rainer, H., 2007. Transboundary conservation in the greater Virunga landscape: Its importance for landscape species. Biological Conservation 134, 279-287.
Abstract: Several of the protected areas within the Albertine Rift are contiguous with protected areas across international boundaries. This is particularly true for the Greater Virunga. Landscape, which includes Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and ten contiguous protected areas in Uganda and Rwanda. The larger bodied animal species that occur in this landscape have moved freely across what are now international borders for millennia and some species probably need this larger landscape if their populations are to remain viable. An analysis was carried out to identify these 'landscape species' and the importance of this cross-border movement is assessed in the light of civil wars in the region. For 13 years the International Gorilla Conservation Programme has been working in the Virunga Volcanoes and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park to foster transboundary collaboration. The results have shown that regular meetings and planning of activities by wardens can lead to better conservation even with countries at war with each other. More recently the Wildlife Conservation Society has started a programme to support transboundary collaboration further north in the landscape so that all contiguous protected areas are working together. The results show that mountain gorilla numbers have on the whole increased during the past 25 years despite civil wars in the region and this can largely be attributed to their ability to generate income from tourism but also to enhanced transboundary collaboration between Congo, Rwanda and Uganda. Ungulate numbers on the other hand have declined drastically since the 1960s but it is shown that the connectivity in the landscape has been important in reducing the impact of the civil war on elephants.

Pringle, R.M., Young, T.P., Rubenstein, D.I., McCauley, D.J., 2007. Herbivore-initiated interaction cascades and their modulation by productivity in an African savanna. PNAS 104, 193-197.
Abstract: Despite conceptual recognition that indirect effects initiated by large herbivores are likely to have profound impacts on ecological community structure and function, the existing literature on indirect effects focuses largely on the role of predators. As a result, we know neither the frequency and extent of herbivore-initiated indirect effects nor the mechanisms that regulate their strength. We examined the effects of ungulates on taxa (plants, arthropods, and an insectivorous lizard) representing several trophic levels, using a series of large, long-term, ungulate-exclusion plots that span a landscape-scale productivity gradient in an African savanna. At each of six sites, lizards, trees, and the numerically dominant order of arthropods (Coleoptera) were more abundant in the absence of ungulates. The effect of ungulates on arthropods was mediated by herbaceous vegetation cover. The effect on lizards was simultaneously mediated by both tree density (lizard microhabitat) and arthropod abundance (lizard food). The magnitudes of the experimental effects on all response variables (trees, arthropods, and lizards) were negatively correlated with two distinct measures of primary productivity. These results demonstrate strong cascading effects of ungulates, both trophic and nontrophic, and support the hypothesis that productivity regulates the strength of these effects. Hence, the strongest indirect effects (and thus, the greatest risks to ecosystem integrity after large mammals are extirpated) are likely to occur in low-productivity habitats.

Rohland, N., Malaspinas, A.S., Pollack, J.L., Slatkin, M., Matheus, P., 2007. Proboscidean mitogenomics: Chronology and mode of elephant evolution using mastodon as outgroup. PLoS Biol 5,  e207. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050207.
Abstract: We have sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome of the extinct American mastodon (Mammut americanum) from an Alaskan fossil that is between 50,000 and 130,000 y old, extending the age range of genomic analyses by almost a complete glacial cycle. The sequence we obtained is substantially different from previously reported partial mastodon mitochondrial DNA sequences. By comparing those partial sequences to other proboscidean sequences, we conclude that we have obtained the first sequence of mastodon DNA ever reported. Using the sequence of the mastodon, which diverged 24-28 million years ago (mya) from the Elephantidae lineage, as an outgroup, we infer that the ancestors of African elephants diverged from the lineage leading to mammoths and Asian elephants approximately 7.6 mya and that mammoths and Asian elephants diverged approximately 6.7 mya. We also conclude
that the nuclear genomes of the African savannah and forest elephants diverged approximately 4.0 mya, supporting the view that these two groups represent different species. Finally, we found the mitochondrial mutation rate of proboscideans to be roughly half of the rate in primates during at least the last 24 million years.

Schulte, B.A., Freeman, E.W., Goodwin, T.E., Hollister-Smith, J., Rasmussen, L.E.L., 2007. Honest signalling through chemicals by elephants with applications for care and conservation. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 102, 344-363.
Abstract: Chemical signals are difficult to fake because they are often directly associated with phenotype and physiological condition, and hence likely to be honest signals for intraspecific communication. Chemical signals may be modified after release by the sender or by the environment. The proximate and ultimate signal meanings are dependent not only on the condition of the sender, but also on the physiological status of the receiver. Understanding the relationships and linkage among signal modality, signal function and receiver response is an essential first step before using natural signals for animal care and conservation. Our studies on chemical communication in Asian and African elephants combine observational and experimental work in captive and wild settings to further this understanding. Recent discoveries of pheromones in Asian elephants and the biochemistry of these compounds provide strong evidence that such chemical signals are honest indicators of reproductive status. Chemically identifying the signals and verifying their functional context with statistically robust behavioural studies are essential aspects for understanding the communication system. Additionally, the investigative process of discovering, identifying and verifying the function of chemical signals among captive elephants offers safe and stimulating enrichments. The knowledge garnered from such studies has potential conservation benefits for managing wild elephant populations. A firm foundation of scientific information is required for successful behavioural investigations and applied conservation and enrichment components.

Sinclair, A.R., Mduma, S.A., Hopcraft, J.G., Fryxell, J.M., Hilborn, R., Thirgood, S., 2007. Long-term ecosystem dynamics in the Serengeti: lessons for conservation. Conserv. Biol. 21, 580-590.
Abstract: Data from long-term ecological studies further understanding of ecosystem dynamics and can guide evidence-based management. In a quasi-natural experiment we examined long-term monitoring data on different components of the Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem to trace the effects of disturbances and thus to elucidate cause-and-effect connections between them. The long-term data illustrated the role of food limitation in population regulation in mammals, particularly in migratory wildebeest and nonmigratory buffalo. Predation limited populations of smaller resident ungulates and small carnivores. Abiotic events, such as droughts and floods, created disturbances that affected survivorship of ungulates and birds. Such disturbances showed feedbacks between biotic and abiotic realms. Interactions between elephants and their food allowed savanna and grassland communities to co-occur. With increased woodland vegetation, predators' capture of prey increased. Anthropogenic disturbances had direct (hunting) and indirect (transfer of disease to wildlife) effects. Slow and rapid changes and multiple ecosystem states became apparent only over several decades and involved events at different spatial scales. Conservation efforts should accommodate both infrequent and unpredictable events and long-term trends. Management should plan on the time scale of those events and should not aim to maintain the status quo. Systems can be self-regulating through food availability and predator-prey interactions; thus, culling may not be required. Ecosystems can occur in multiple states; thus, there may be no a priori need to maintain one natural state. Finally, conservation efforts outside protected areas must distinguish between natural change and direct human-induced change. Protected areas can act as ecological baselines in which human-induced change is kept to a minimum

Smit, I.P.J., Grant, C.C., Whyte, I.J., 2007. Landscape-scale sexual segregation in the dry season distribution and resource utilization of elephants in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Diversity And Distributions 13, 225-236.
Abstract:  This study compared the dry season distribution of elephant bull groups and mixed herds and the resources driving these distributions within Kruger National Park, South Africa. It is important to understand what resources drive the distribution of elephants as this may be of relevance to understanding and managing their impact. It is also important to distinguish between resource use by bull groups and mixed herds because their impact on the habitat may differ. Our results indicated that sexual segregation, both in space and in resource selection, did occur in Kruger Park. Bulls roamed more widely in the park, and although their distribution and resource use overlapped with mixed herds, they also occurred in areas that mixed herds apparently did not, or could not, utilize in the dry season. This gave rise to areas used exclusively by bulls but no areas used exclusively by mixed herds. Lower collective feeding requirements as a result of smaller group size, wider habitat tolerance, and increased mobility as a result of bigger body size, as well as conflict avoidance with musth bulls in areas with mixed herds, might have been some of the reasons for bull groups roaming more widely and for the establishment of separate bull areas. Rivers were an important resource driving both the distribution of the mixed herds and bull groups, but with the mixed herds occurring closer to these resource hot spots than the bull groups. Tree cover proved important for mixed herds, probably because of the importance of shade and the higher nutritional requirements of the smaller-sized cows and calves. Artificial waterholes might have opened up previously unutilized areas for bulls in the dry season, especially on the grassy basaltic plains in the north of the park. However, the distribution of the mixed herds suggested that they did not occur in higher densities in areas surrounding waterholes.

Sreekumar, E., Janki, M.B., Arathy, D.S., Hariharan, R., Premraj, C.A., Rasool, T.J., 2007. Molecular characterization and expression of interferon-gamma of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 118, 75-83.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterial organisms has emerged as one of the major diseases in captive elephants. In vitro Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) assay is being used as an ancillary test for early detection of TB in domestic and captive wild animals. In the present study, basic sequence information and immunological cross-reactivity of this major cytokine of Asian elephants were explored. At predicted amino acid level, IFN-gamma of Asian elephant showed maximum identity to that of horse (73%). Other IFN-gamma amino acid sequences that showed high level identity were that of giant panda (72%), dog (71%), nine-banded armadillo (69%), cattle (63%) and human (62%). IFN-gamma promoter sequences of Asian elephant, human, cattle and mouse showed high level conservation of the putative transcription factor binding sites, TATA box and transcriptional start site. The functionally important human IFN-gamma promoter elements, such as AP-2IRE-BE, YY1-gammaIFN-BED, ATFCS and AP-1gammaINF binding sites, were absolutely conserved in the corresponding elephant sequence. There was only a single nucleotide variation in the other two important elements, NFAT-gammaINF and IFN-gammaPE, indicating the highly conserved regulation of IFN-gamma expression across different species. Phylogenetic analysis based on IFN-gamma protein sequences revealed a closer relation of Asian elephants and nine-banded armadillo. This shows a closer evolution of these members of Afrotheria and Xenarthra, respectively; and supports the previous reports based on mitochondrial DNA studies. In Western blot analysis, IFN-gamma of Asian elephant expressed in Escherichia coli was detected using an anti-bovine IFN-gamma monoclonal antibody, indicating immunological cross-reactivity

Teixeira, C.P., Schetini de Azevedo, C., Mendl, M., Cipreste, C.F., Young, R.J., 2007. Revisiting translocation and reintroduction programmes: the importance of considering stress. Animal Behaviour 73,  1-13.
Abstract: It is widely known that the adverse effects of stress must be considered in animal conservation programmes. However, a full consideration of how and where stress occurs in animal conservation programmes has not been undertaken, especially in translocation and reintroduction programmes. The literature concerning these types of programmes shows high levels of mortality, despite researchers' consideration of the effects of stress. However, an analysis of the literature shows that many conservation biologists have only a superficial knowledge about stress. For example, most do not understand the importance of subclinical stress or the fact that the effect of successive stressors can be additive or accumulative. While most conservation biologists know that stress is bad for animal health, few have considered its adverse effects on cognitive abilities, which an animal needs to survive in the wild (e.g. memory). In this paper we conclude with suggestions for improving the efficiency of animal conservation programmes in terms of the number of animals surviving after reintroduction or translocation. The most important conclusion from this review of the literature is that there needs to be a greater interchange of information between animal welfare and animal conservation scientists.

Valeix, M., Chamaille-Jammes, S., Fritz, H., 2007. Interference competition and temporal niche shifts: elephants and herbivore communities at waterholes. Oecologia. 153, 739-748.
Abstract: Scarcity of resources may result in high levels of animal aggregation; interference competition can occur in such a scenario and play a role in resource acquisition. Here, we test the hypothesis that animals could minimize interference competition by shifting their temporal niches in relation to competitors. In Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, we monitored waterholes in order to study agonistic interactions between elephants and other herbivore species. We also used a long-term data set from a yearly survey of waterhole attendance by herbivores to evaluate the influence of the presence of elephants on the use of waterholes by other herbivore species. Our results show that in drier years, waterholes are crowded with elephants early in the afternoon. In general, the species most affected by interference competition with elephants shift their temporal niches at the waterholes, thus maintaining a constant temporal overlaps with elephants. The species less affected by interference competition with elephants show no temporal niche shifts and increase their temporal overlap with elephants at waterholes, as predicted from a noncompetition hypothesis. This study provides evidence that interference competition with a behaviorally dominant large species influences the temporal niches of smaller species, and suggests that the potential costs associated with interference between elephants and other herbivores at waterholes are linked to shifts in diurnal activities rather than interactions and water acquisition itself

Valeix, M., Fritz, H., Dubois, S., Kanengoni, K., Alleaume, S., Said, S., 2007. Vegetation structure and ungulate abundance over a period of increasing elephant abundance in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, 87-93.
Abstract: This study investigates whether increases in elephant populations may influence the structure of African savannas, and consequently may affect other herbivores through changes in habitats. Two contrasting periods in terms of elephant population densities were compared in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe: the early 1980s and the late 1990s. Elephant population density and other ungulate population densities were estimated for a c. 400-km(2) area from road counts. Vegetation structure at the landscape scale was assessed using aerial photographs for the same area. All browsers and grazers declined between the early 1980s and the late 1990s, whereas elephants experienced a 16-fold increase. At the landscape scale, vegetation structure changed little with no evidence of an opening of the habitats. These results do not support any kind of medium-term facilitation between elephants and other herbivores. They rather suggest a negative effect of elephants on other herbivore species when elephants arc present at high densities. This study rules out a scenario where the decrease of the different herbivore populations was caused by large changes in vegetation structure due to elephant activity.

van Aarde, R.J., Jackson, T.P., 2007. Megaparks for metapopulations: Addressing the causes of locally high elephant numbers in southern Africa. Biological Conservation 134, 289-297.
Abstract: Conservation management options for southern African elephants range from local to regional scales. Here we review these options and argue in favour of actions that will deal with the causes rather than symptoms of elephant numbers that are locally high. Metapopulation theory ensures population persistence, while our approach extends this in order to stabilise elephant numbers regionally. By allowing for the development and maintenance of regional sinks, we may also limit numbers in sources. This application of the metapopulation metaphor is a powerful ecological platform from which to manage elephant numbers and impact through southern Africa. Our approach engages the causes of the apparently high abundance of elephants in parts of southern Africa. It moves away from the practice of dealing only with numbers (symptoms) when managing the impact of elephants on other species. While providing an ecological basis for the development of elephant management options, this needs to be melded with social, political and economic realities through southern Africa. In this regard we are encouraged by the ongoing development of several Transfrontier Conservation programmes and Peace Parks across the region.

Wasser, S.K., Mailand, C., Booth, R., Mutayoba, B., Kisamo, E., Clark, B., Stephens, M., 2007. Using DNA to track the origin of the largest ivory seizure since the 1989 trade ban. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 104 , 4228-4233.
Abstract: The illegal ivory trade recently intensified to the highest levels ever reported. Policing this trafficking has been hampered by the inability to reliably determine geographic origin of contraband ivory. Ivory can be smuggled across multiple international borders and along numerous trade routes, making poaching hotspots and potential trade routes difficult to identify. This fluidity also makes it difficult to refute a country's denial of poaching problems. We extend an innovative DNA assignment method to determine the geographic origin(s) of large elephant ivory seizures. A Voronoi tessellation method is used that utilizes genetic similarities across tusks to simultaneously infer the origin of multiple samples that could have one or more common origin(s). We show that this joint analysis performs better than sample-by-sample methods in assigning sample clusters of known origin. The joint method is then used to infer the geographic origin of the largest ivory seizure since the 1989 ivory trade ban. Wildlife authorities initially suspected that this ivory came from multiple locations across forest and savanna Africa. However, we show that the ivory was entirely from savanna elephants, most probably originating from a narrow east-to-west band of southern Africa, centered on Zambia. These findings enabled law enforcement to focus their investigation to a smaller area and fewer trade routes and led to changes within the Zambian government to improve antipoaching efforts. Such outcomes demonstrate the potential of genetic analyses to help combat the expanding wildlife trade by identifying origin(s) of large seizures of contraband ivory. Broader applications to wildlife trade are discussed

Weiss, B., Faus, H., Haendler, B., 2007. Phylogenetic conservation of the androgen receptor AR45 variant form in placental mammals. Gene 399, 105-111.
Abstract: A cDNA coding for a tissue-specific AR45 variant form of the androgen receptor (AR) has recently been identified in humans, with highest expression levels found in heart. The deduced protein comprises the DNA-binding domain, hinge region and ligand-binding domain of the AR, but not the N-terminal domain which is replaced by a unique, short, seven amino-acid-long stretch. This sequence is encoded by the mutually exclusive exon 1B, located between exons 1 and 2 of the human AR gene. As transcript variants of the steroid receptor family have been shown to have important implications for hormone function, we set out to analyse the genomes of different organisms for potential AR45 expression. We found exon 1B to be conserved in the syntenic chromosomal region of non-human primates such as the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, the orang-utan Pongo pygmaeus, the macaque Macaca mulatta and the marmoset Callithrix jacchus, and of the elephant Loxondonta africana, the pig Sus scrofa and the dog Canis familiaris. Quantification of AR45 transcript levels in heart, skeletal muscle and lung of Macaca fascicularis showed the heart to be the main organ of expression. A complete AR45 cDNA was furthermore isolated from the heart of this species. Comparative analysis of the identified AR45 exon 1B regions and of the deduced amino acids revealed a high conservation among species. The four N-terminal residues were identical in all eight species, whereas a few changes were seen in the other three residues in the marmoset, elephant and pig. In contrast, we observed more divergence in the mouse Mus musculus and rat Rattus norvegicus syntenic regions. Here a stop codon was found downstream of the potential start codon in the putatively deduced protein sequence and it can be inferred that no protein corresponding to AR45 exists in these two species. The existence of AR45 in different placental mammals with the exception of mouse and rat suggests a disappearance in rodents late in evolution, before the separation of the mouse and rat lineages, about 16 million years ago. In view of the potential function of AR45 as a regulator of AR function, and considering the multiple roles of androgens in normal physiology and in several diseases, these findings have important implications with regard to subtle differences in the action of the male sexual hormone in various organisms

Wittemyer, G., Ganswindt, A., Hodges, K., 2007. The impact of ecological variability on the reproductive endocrinology of wild female African elephants. Horm. Behav. 51, 346-354.
Abstract: Non-invasive endocrine methods enable investigation of the relationship between ecological variation and ovarian activity and how this impacts on demographic processes. The underlying physiological factors driving high variation in inter-calving intervals among multi-parous African elephants offer an interesting system for such an investigation. This study investigates the relationship between Normalized Differential Vegetation Index (NDVI), an ecosystem surrogate measure of primary productivity, and fecal progestin concentrations among wild female elephants. Matched fecal samples and behavioral data on reproductive activity were collected from 37 focal individuals during the two-year study. Linear mixed models were used to explore the relationship between fecal 5alpha-pregnane-3-ol-20-one concentrations and the independent variables of NDVI, calf sex, female age, gestation day, and time since last parturition. Among both non-pregnant and pregnant females, fecal 5alpha-pregnane-3-ol-20-one concentrations were significantly correlated with time-specific NDVI indicating a strong relationship between ecological conditions and endocrine activity regulating reproduction. In addition, the age of a female and time since her last parturition impacted hormone concentrations. These results indicate that the identification of an individual's reproductive status from a single hormone sample is possible, but difficult to achieve in practice since numerous independent factors, particularly season, impact fecal hormone concentrations. Regardless of season, however, fecal 5alpha-pregnane-3-ol-20-one concentrations below 1 microg/g were exclusively collected from non-pregnant females, which could be used as a threshold value to identify non-pregnant individuals. Collectively the information generated contributes to a better understanding of environmental regulation of reproductive endocrinology in wild elephant populations, information salient to the management and manipulation of population dynamics in this species

Young, J.K., Gerber, L.R., D'Agrosa, C., 2007. Wildlife population increases in Serengeti National Park. Science 315, 1790-1791.

Aleper, D., Moe, S.R., 2006. The African savannah elephant population in Kidepo Valley National Park, Uganda: Changes in size and structure from 1967 to 2000. African Journal of Ecology 44, 157-164.
Abstract: The age and sex structure of the elephant population in Kidepo Valley National Park were studied using recognition files. Moreover, population trends were reviewed using past studies. From 1967 to 2000, the elephant population varied between 200 and 500 individuals. Of the minimum number of 374 elephants found to use the Park, 352 were individually identified. Seventy-nine per cent of these were recorded in 29 families ranging from three to 22 animals with a mean group size of ten. Young animals dominated the population (45% aged 0-9.9 years), while 11% were 10-14.9 years of age and only 18% over 25 years of age. Overall, males constituted 45% of the population, but only 32% of the individuals in the 10-14.9-year age class were males. Individuals >= 15 years of age displayed a skewed sex ratio of 1 : 1.4 in favour of females. The extent of skew was greatest among mature animals (>= 25 years of age), which had four times as many females as males. The skewed age structure in the year 2000 caused by poaching and drought, led to a significant difference between the age distribution in 1970 and 2000. Recent counts suggest that the Kidepo elephant population may be increasing.

Alfa Gambari Imorou, S., Sinsin, B. Impact of elephant's behaviour on the dynamic of vegetation in the W-Regional Park: The case of elephants in the north of Benin. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  227-240. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Allen, W.R., 2006. Ovulation, pregnancy, placentation and husbandry in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
470. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond B Biol. Sci. 361, 821-834.
Abstract: The African elephant reproduces so efficiently in the wild that overpopulation is now a serious problem in some game parks in Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa. The female reaches puberty between 10 and 12 years of age in the wild and, when in captivity, shows oestrous cycles of 14-15 weeks duration. She readily conceives a singleton in the wild yet her uterus has the capacity for twins. She shows a gestation length of 22 months and, in the wild, shows a population density and feed dependent intercalving interval of 4-8 years. The trophoblast erodes the lumenal epithelium of the endometrium and stimulates upgrowths of blood vessel-containing stromal villi, which develop eventually into the broad, tightly folded lamellae of the zonary, endotheliochorial placenta. Significant quantities of leaked maternal erythrocytes and ferric iron are phagocytosed by specialized trophoblast cells in the haemophagous zones at the lateral edges of the placental band. Although the placenta itself is endocrinologically inert, the foetal gonads, which enlarge greatly during the second half of pregnancy can synthesize 5alpha-dihydryoprogesterone and other 5alpha pregnane derivatives from cholesterol and pregnenolone. These products may synergize with progestagens secreted by the 2-8 large corpora lutea which are always present in the maternal ovaries throughout gestation to maintain the pregnancy state

Archie, E.A., Moss, C.J., Alberts, S.C., 2006. The ties that bind: genetic relatedness predicts the fission and fusion of social groups in wild African elephants
490. Proc. Biol. Sci. 273, 513-522.
Abstract: Many social animals live in stable groups. In contrast, African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) live in unusually fluid, fission-fusion societies. That is, 'core' social groups are composed of predictable sets of individuals; however, over the course of hours or days, these groups may temporarily divide and reunite, or they may fuse with other social groups to form much larger social units. Here, we test the hypothesis that genetic relatedness predicts patterns of group fission and fusion among wild, female African elephants. Our study of a single Kenyan population spans 236 individuals in 45 core social groups, genotyped at 11 microsatellite and one mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) locus. We found that genetic relatedness predicted group fission; adult females remained with their first order maternal relatives when core groups fissioned temporarily. Relatedness also predicted temporary fusion between social groups; core groups were more likely to fuse with each other when the oldest females in each group were genetic relatives. Groups that shared mtDNA haplotypes were also significantly more likely to fuse than groups that did not share mtDNA. Our results suggest that associations between core social groups persist for decades after the original maternal kin have died. We discuss these results in the context of kin selection and its possible role in the evolution of elephant sociality

Bairagi, S.P., Baruah, C.S., Dutta, U., Saikia, D. Resolving human-elephant conflict in the northern areas of Asom, India a discouraging endeavour. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  10-16. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Baishya, H.K., Dey, S., Sharma, P., Sharma, A., Sharma, A., Aziz, T., Areendam, G., Williams, A.C. Human elephant conflict mitigation in North Bank Landscape, north east India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  17-25. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Barrett, C.B., Gibson, C.C., Hoffman, B., McCubbins, M.D., 2006. The complex links between governance and biodiversity
406. Conserv. Biol. 20, 1358-1366.
Abstract: We argue that two problems weaken the claims of those who link corruption and the exploitation of natural resources. The first is conceptual and the second is methodological. Studies that use national-level indicators of corruption fail to note that corruption comes in many forms, at multiple levels, that may affect resource use quite differently: negatively, positively, or not at all. Without a clear causal model of the mechanism by which corruption affects resources, one should treat with caution any estimated relationship between corruption and the state of natural resources. Simple, atheoretical models linking corruption measures and natural resource use typically do not account for other important control variables pivotal to the relationship between humans and natural resources. By way of illustration of these two general concerns, we used statistical methods to demonstrate that the findings of a recent, well-known study that posits a link between corruption and decreases in forests and elephants are not robust to simple conceptual and methodological refinements. In particular, once we controlled for a few plausible anthropogenic and biophysical conditioning factors, estimated the effects in changes rather than levels so as not to confound cross-sectional and longitudinal variation, and incorporated additional observations from the same data sources, corruption levels no longer had any explanatory power

Baskaran, N., Das, S., Sukumar, R. Status and management of captive Asian elephants in northern West Bengal, northeastern India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  29-37. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Bell, J. Supporting elephant conservation across southern Africa: The megaparks for metapopulation initiative. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  248. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Bertschinger, H., Delsink, A., Kirkpatrick, J.F., Human, A., Grobler, D., van Altena, J.J. Management of elephant populations in private South African game reserves with porcine zona pellucida vaccine.  2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  283-285. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Control of African elephant populations has become an absolute necessity in a number of game reserves in southern Africa.  The two main methods used to control populations so far are culling and translocation. Culling, besides being regarded as inhumane and unacceptable in many quarters, is not suitable for smaller populations.  It requires that whole family units are culled simultaneously which could mean that in reserves with 10 to 50 elephants a considerable portion, if not the entire population, is killed.  As far as translocation is concerned, limited new space is available for elephants. The only alternative to the two above options is to control the rate of reproduction. The porcine zona pellucida (pZP) vaccine has been used to successfully contracept wild horses and other wildlife species.  Work on the contraception of African elephants was initiated in the Kruger National Park in 1995 when the potential for using the porcine zona pellucida (pZP) was investigated. Subsequently the first field trials on wild elephants were carried out in Kruger and the results clearly showed that elephants could be contracepted with the pZP vaccine, although the efficacy achieved was 80%. During these field trials safety and reversibility werecould be demonstrated. In 2000 an elephant contraceptive program was initiated at Makalali Private Game Reserve, RSA, which has become the flagship model for immunocontrol in African elephants. The preliminary findings have been reported in three publications.During the first year, all 18 cows that were individually identified and older than 12 yr of age were treated.  During the next 4 yr the number of cows contracepted increased to 23 as young animals were added to the program. The standard vaccination procedure during the first year consisted of a primary vaccination (600 μg or 400 μg pZP with 0.5 ml Freund's modified complete adjuvant) followed by boosters (200 μg pZP with 0.5 ml Freund's incomplete adjuvant) at 3 to 6-wk intervals. Annual boosters to maintain antibody titers and contraceptive effect followed.  To date, the success rate on cows that have passed reserve-specific intercalving period of 56 mo has been 100%. The population stabilized within 3 yr by which time when all cows that had been pregnant at the time of first vaccination in 2000 had calved. Once again safety during pregnancy (14 cows pregnant at 2-21 mo gestation when first treated gave birth to normal healthy calves) as well as side effects that were limited to occasional lumps at the site of vaccination could be shown. Following ground darting, behavioral patterns returned to pre-darting status within 2 days. During 2003 and 2004 most boosters were administered from a helicopter; whereas, previously they had been done from a vehicle or on foot.  In all cases, drop-out darts were used. Time taken for vaccination from helicopter take-off to landing was about 30 min (1.5 min per cow; 30 min for total time). This required prior knowledge of the locations of family units or that an individual in each unit is radio-collared. Herds settled down much more quickly (1-2 days) than if darted from the ground. Since then we have vaccinated another 107 elephant cows in eight game reserves.  The cow populations have ranged from 4 to 43. In one of the reserves, Mabula, RSA, two of the four cows vaccinated have passed the mean intercalving intervals of the reserve with neither of them producing a calf. Treatment at the remaining reserves was initiated in 2004 or 2005 and it is too early to evaluate results.  The most difficult reserve in terms of the vaccination process was Welgevonden, RSA, (35 000 ha) with 43 cows.  The reserve is mountainous and heavily wooded. None of the elephants were collared and individuals could not be easily identified on the day of primary vaccination.  The total flying time during which individuals were identified and vaccinated was 4.5 hr.  Administration of the first booster took about 2 hr to locate and vaccinate each cow. Between the first and second booster the first rains occurred, followed by the spring flush of the vegetation. By the time the second booster was attempted late in November, the trees all had foliage. Only half the cows were located and darted because the elephants were very difficult to spot under the tree canopies.  The valuable lessons we learned from this were: 1) that helicopter vaccinations should be performed when most trees are bare, and 2) when larger populations are vaccinated repeatedly during the first year, one cow in each family unit should be radio-collared. This makes rapid location of each unit possible and cuts down on the major cost factor that is flying time. Elephant behavior is being monitored in all eight reserves where contraception is being applied. Because most of them have been contracepted recently, only the data from Makalali is available. The elephants at Makalali have been monitored intensively almost on a daily basis. To date, no anomalies in terms of aggressive or indifferent behavior with regards to nursing time, nursing behavior and calf proximity have been noted. No change in the cows' social hierarchy has been noted. Since January 2003, a total of 15 heats were observed in 10 cows (nine in 2003 and six in 2004) with four mating episodes. For the same period, 38 musth occasions were seen in five bulls (26 in 2003 and 12 in 2004). These occasions include musth displayed in the same bull during consecutive days or within the same musth cycle. The greatest occurrence of musth was recorded in the largest, dominant bull. Bulls were not observed harassing or separating cows off from their herds or calves as a result of increased estrous frequency. Thus, the Makalali program demonstrates that pZP does not cause herd fragmentation, harassment by bulls, change in rank and other negative behaviors normally associated with hormonal contraceptives. In conclusion we feel that it is important to emphasize the following points: The pZP vaccine can be used successfully to contracept African elephants The vaccine is safe during pregnancy and has no negative effect on birth or calf raising It has no side effects other than occasional swelling at the site of vaccination It is reversible Other than an increased incidence of heat no behavioral side effects were seen.

Bojesen, A.M., Olsen, K.E., Bertelsen, M.F., 2006. Fatal enterocolitis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile
456. Vet. Microbiol. 116, 329-335.
Abstract: Two cases of fatal enteritis caused by Clostridium difficile in captive Asian elephants are reported from an outbreak affecting five females in the same zoo. Post mortem examination including histopathology demonstrated fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis. C. difficile was isolated by selective cultivation from two dead and a third severely affected elephant. Four isolates were obtained and found positive for toxin A and B by PCR. All isolates were positive in a toxigenic culture assay and toxin was demonstrated in the intestinal content from one of the fatal cases and in a surviving but severely affected elephant. PCR ribotyping demonstrated that the C. difficile isolates shared an identical profile, which was different from an epidemiologically unrelated strain, indicating that the outbreak was caused by the same C. difficile clone. It is speculated that the feeding of large quantities of broccoli, a rich source of sulforaphane, which has been shown to inhibit the growth of many intestinal microorganisms may have triggered a subsequent overgrowth by C. difficile. This is the first report of C. difficile as the main cause of fatal enterocolitis in elephants. The findings emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially dangerous for elephants and caution is recommended concerning antibiotic treatment and feeding with diets containing antimicrobials, which may trigger an expansion of a C. difficile population in the gut

Borthakur, A., Bora, P.J., Sharma, A., Aziz, T., Williams, C., Areenddran, G. Beyond Kaziranga -- A vision towards Kaziranga - Karbi Anglong landscape. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  42-47. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Brugiere, D., Badjinca, I., Silva, C., Serra, A., Barry, M., 2006. On the road to extinction? The status of elephant Loxodonta africana in Guinea Bissau and western Guinea, West Africa. Oryx 40, 442-446.
Abstract: We carried out a nationwide survey of elephant Loxodonta africana in Guinea Bissau, a small West African country for which records of elephant are limited. We also investigated parts of western Guinea along the border with Guinea Bissau likely to harbour a transboundary elephant population. Standardized interviews with hunters were held in 110 villages in Guinea Bissau and 60 villages in Guinea, and field surveys were carried out to validate interviewee responses. Results suggest that elephants are mainly restricted to an area between the Corubal River (Guinea Bissau) and the Kogon River (Guinea) and that elephants occur only seasonally in Guinea. Based on the number, geographical localization and interpretation of observed tracks, our estimate of the minimum number of elephants in Guinea Bissau is 4-10 animals. We did not observe any signs of young elephants. The most immediate threat to elephants is a road scheme between Guinea Bissau and Guinea that cuts through elephant range. The future of elephants in this region depends on the capacity of the two countries to manage their common elephant population jointly. In particular, the creation of a transboundary park is urgently needed.

Cerling, T.E., Wittemyer, G., Rasmussen, H.B., Vollrath, F., Cerling, C.E., Robinson, T.J., Douglas-Hamilton, I., 2006. Stable isotopes in elephant hair document migration patterns and diet changes
521. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 103, 371-373.
Abstract: We use chronologies of stable isotopes measured from elephant (Loxodonta africana) hair to determine migration patterns and seasonal diet changes in elephants in and near Samburu National Reserve in northern Kenya. Stable carbon isotopes record diet changes, principally enabling differentiation between browse and tropical grasses, which use the C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways, respectively; stable nitrogen isotopes record regional patterns related to aridity, offering insight into localized ranging behavior. Isotopically identified range shifts were corroborated by global positioning system radio tracking data of the studied individuals. Comparison of the stable isotope record in the hair of one migrant individual with that of a resident population shows important differences in feeding and ranging behavior over time. Our analysis indicates that differences are the result of excursions into mesic environments coupled with intermittent crop raiding by the migrant individual. Variation in diet, quantified by using stable isotopes, can offer insight into diet-related wildlife behavior

Choudhury, A., 2006. Status and conservation of the Asian Elephant Elephas maximus in north-eastern India. Mammal Review 29, 141-173.
Abstract: A status survey of Asian Elephants Elephas maximus was conducted in the 9 north-eastern states of India. The habitat is contiguous with that in Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Although the estimated population of 11 000 elephants is higher than in other regions of the Indian Sub-continent, it is fragmented and a number of small inviable isolated populations have formed. About 35% of the population is partly protected, but protection is inadequate. More areas and migration routes need to be protected. Man-elephant conflict is serious in many areas. A comprehensive Action Plan with a more pragmatic protected-area network has been proposed.

Cooper, A., 2006. The year of the mammoth. PLoS Biology 4, 1-3.
Abstract: Mammoth mitochondrial (mt) genomes are apparently on a similar schedule to London buses-you wait for ages and then suddenly three come along at once. Within the past six weeks, three studies [1-3] have independently determined all, or most, of the mammoth mt genome sequence, some 16,800 base pairs (bp). Encouragingly, the partial sequence was a byproduct of a study that generated some 13 million bp of mammoth genomic DNA using a new, massively parallel sequencing approach. The very divergent methods used in these three studies also neatly represent the past, present, and future of ancient DNA (aDNA) research. aDNA methods provide an opportunity to characterise the genetic composition of species and populations in the past, and to actually observe evolutionary change through real time. Such a record has great potential to reveal the processes that have generated the diversity and distribution of taxa in our modern environment, and to examine phenomena such as speciation, domestication, morphological evolution, and the impacts of major environmental changes. aDNA data also provide an important opportunity to test our ability to accurately reconstruct evolutionary history via the fossil record or via extrapolation from the genetic data of modern species. Unfortunately, the potential of aDNA remains largely untapped because research has been severely limited by the technical diffi culties of retrieving and studying the trace amounts of  highly fragmented DNA that survive in ancient specimens.

Corea, R., Gammanpila, H., Khalid, Z., Dharmasiri, N., Fernando, C., Corea, C. Saving elephants by helping people establishing a model for sustainable research, capacity building and community development for the protection of elephants in Sri Lanka and to resolve human elephant conflicts. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  76. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

De Beer, Y., Kilian, W., Versfeld, W., van Aarde, R.J., 2006. Elephants and low rainfall alter woody vegetation in Etosha National Park, Namibia. Journal of Arid Environments 64, 412-421.
Abstract: Elephants, the distribution of water sources and below-average rainfall may threaten the survival of woody plants in Etosha National Park, Namibia. We base our assessment of  such interactions on the satellite tracking of six elephant herds following a 17-year record of fixed point photographs. These showed that woody plant survival increased and spatial use by elephants decreased at greater distances from water sources. We conclude, therefore, that elephants may be an important factor in reducing woody plant survival. The low rainfall typical of our study period may also have limited survival. A continued decline in vegetation, aggravated by elephants, could compromise local conservation efforts. Our study emphasizes the importance of studying interactions between animals, plants and water before supplementing water sources as a management action.

De Merode, E., Cowlishaw, G., 2006. Species protection, the changing informal economy, and the politics of access to the bushmeat trade in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Conserv Biol 20, 1262-1271.
Abstract: Our understanding of the linkages between the bushmeat trade and the wider informal economy is limited. This lack of knowledge is particularly problematic for conservation under conditions of political instability, when the informal economy can be highly dynamic and impacts on wildlife populations can be severe. To explore these interlinked processes, we conducted a study of the bushmeat trade in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, through a combination of market surveys, semistructured interviews, and direct observation. We focused on the sale of protected and unprotected species in urban and rural markets, and the bushmeat commodity chains that supplied these markets, under conditions of political stability and armed conflict. During peacetime, protected species from the park (predominantly elephant and buffalo) rarely appeared in the rural markets, but they comprised more than half of all bushmeat sales in the urban markets. This pattern reflected differences in the rural and urban commodity chains. Automatic weapons were urban trade. The use of such weapons was discouraged by the traditional chiefs, who administered the village markets. During wartime, the sales of protected species in the urban markets increased fivefold because the military officers fled, leaving behind an open-access system that led to a massive increase in the exploitation of protected species. In contrast, the rural markets remained relatively stable because of the continued authority of the village chiefs. Our results indicate that sociopolitical factors can be an important determinant of species offtake and, therefore, that knowledge of the bushmeat commodity chain can be vital to controlling theprocesses that drive species extraction. In addition, our findings suggest that traditional authorities can be potentially valuable partners for bushmeat management.

De, M.E., Cowlishaw, G., 2006. Species protection, the changing informal economy, and the politics of access to the bushmeat trade in the Democratic Republic of Congo
420. Conserv. Biol. 20, 1262-1271.
Abstract: Our understanding of the linkages between the bushmeat trade and the wider informal economy is limited. This lack of knowledge is particularly problematic for conservation under conditions of political instability, when the informal economy can be highly dynamic and impacts on wildlife populations can be severe. To explore these interlinked processes, we conducted a study of the bushmeat trade in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, through a combination of market surveys, semistructured interviews, and direct observation. We focused on the sale of protected and unprotected species in urban and rural markets, and the bushmeat commodity chains that supplied these markets, under conditions of political stability and armed conflict. During peacetime, protected species from the park (predominantly elephant and buffalo) rarely appeared in the rural markets, but they comprised more than half of all bushmeat sales in the urban markets. This pattern reflected differences in the rural and urban commodity chains. Automatic weapons were urban trade. The use of such weapons was discouraged by the traditional chiefs, who administered the village markets. During wartime, the sales of protected species in the urban markets increased fivefold because the military officers fled, leaving behind an open-access system that led to a massive increase in the exploitation of protected species. In contrast, the rural markets remained relatively stable because of the continued authority of the village chiefs. Our results indicate that sociopolitical factors can be an important determinant of species offtake and, therefore, that knowledge of the bushmeat commodity chain can be vital to controlling theprocesses that drive species extraction. In addition, our findings suggest that traditional authorities can be potentially valuable partners for bushmeat management

Delsink, A.K., van Alten, J.J., Grobler, D., Bertschinger, H., Kirkpatrick, J., Slotow, R., 2006. Regulation of a small, discrete African elephant population through immunocontraception in the Makalali Conservancy, Limpopo, South Africa. South African Journal of Science 102, 403-405.
Abstract: Populations of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana, are growing rapidly in southern Africa, to the extent that population control has become essential. The management option of translocation is no longer realistically available, whilst culling has become ethically unacceptable, especially to the general public. Previous immunocontraception trials on elephants with Porcine Zona Pellucida (PZP) vaccine demonstrated that it is safe, effective, reversible, remotely deliverable, and has had no evident adverse side effects. We demonstrate effective contraceptive management of a discrete, small population of free-roaming elephants in the Makalali Conservancy, Limpopo province, South Africa. Complete reproductive control has been demonstrated in all 18 original targeted females, who have by now passed the population's average intercalving interval of 56 months without giving birth. A zero population growth rate has been maintained within this target group since August 2002. On the basis of this small sample over a short period, immunocontraception should be considered a viable means of population management as an alternative to long-term culling strategies in small populations

Díaz, S., Fargione, J., Chapin, F.S., Tilman, D., 2006. Biodiversity loss threatens human well-being. PLoS Biol 4, e277.

Donlan, C., Berger, J., Bock, C.E., Bock, J.H., Burney, D.A., Estes, J.A., Foreman, D., Martin, P.S., Roemer, G.W., Smith, F.A., Soulé, M.E., Greene, H.W., 2006. Pleistocene rewilding: an optimistic agenda for twenty-first century conservation. Am Nat. 168, 660-681.
Abstract: Large vertebrates are strong interactors in food webs, yet they were lost from most ecosystems after the dispersal of modern humans from Africa and Eurasia. We call for restoration of missing ecological functions and evolutionary potential of lost North American megafauna using extant conspecifics and related taxa. We refer to this restoration as Pleistocene rewilding; it is conceived as carefully managed ecosystem manipulations whereby costs and benefits are objectively addressed on a case-by-case and locality-by-locality basis. Pleistocene rewilding would deliberately promote large, long-lived species over pest and weed assemblages, facilitate the persistence and ecological effectiveness of megafauna on a global scale, and broaden the underlying premise of conservation from managing extinction to encompass restoring ecological and evolutionary processes. Pleistocene rewilding can begin immediately with species such as Bolson tortoises and feral horses and continue through the coming decades with elephants and Holarctic lions. Our exemplar taxa would contribute biological, economic, and cultural benefits to North America. Owners of large tracts of private land in the central and western United States could be the first to implement this restoration. Risks of Pleistocene rewilding include the possibility of altered disease ecology and associated human health implications, as well as unexpected ecological and sociopolitical consequences of reintroductions. Establishment of programs to monitor suites of species interactions and their consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem health will be a significant challenge. Secure fencing would be a major economic cost, and social challenges will include acceptance of predation as an overriding natural process and the incorporation of pre-Columbian ecological frameworks into conservation strategies.Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA. cjd34cornell.edu

Druce, H., Pretorius, K., Druce, D., Slotow, R., 2006. The effect of mature elephant bull introductions on resident bull's group size and musth periods: Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 36, 133-137.
Abstract: African elephants have been reintroduced into small, enclosed reserves in South Africa,many populations being established with orphans <10 years old.This has resulted in abnormal behaviour in some elephant populations, which was corrected in Pilanesberg National Park by introducing older bulls and culling certain problem elephants.In July 2003, three older bulls (29-41 years old) were introduced into Phinda Private Game Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, in order to normalize the bull age structure and in an attempt to reduce the abnormally long musth period of one particular resident bull. These introduced bulls were monitored intensively after release, as was the resident bull population, both before and after introduction of the older bulls.The introduced bulls all came into musth within eleven months postrelease.The older bulls do not appear to have had any influence on the musth periods of the oldest resident bull (36 years old at introduction). Detailed behavioural studies of the effects of management actions on elephant populations, within small, enclosed reserves provide information and resources for future management decisions.This study demonstrates that old bulls can be successfully introduced to very small areas provided that electrification of the entire perimeter is secure. Further, the introduction has no detectable medium-term (one year) effect on the behaviour of a relatively dense population of resident elephants, and the welfare of the elephants was not greatly affected.

Ducummon, C.C., Berger, T., 2006. Localization of the Rho GTPases and some Rho effector proteins in the sperm of several mammalian species
440. Zygote. 14, 249-257.
Abstract: The acrosome reaction is a fundamental event in the biology of the sperm and is a prerequisite to fertilization of the egg. Members of the Rho family of GTPases and their effectors are present in the cytoplasm and/or plasma membrane overlying the acrosome of porcine sperm. We have implicated the Rho family of GTPases and the Rho-activated kinase, ROCK-1, in mediating the zona-pellucida-induced acrosome reaction. Others have implicated the Rho GTPase in regulating the ionophore-induced acrosome reaction in the sperm of several mammalian species as well as in motility of bovine sperm. In this study, the localization of the Rho GTPases (RhoA, RhoB, Rac1 and Cdc42) as well as the effectors RhoGDI, PI(4)P5K and ROCK-1, was determined in boar, human, rat, ram, bull and elephant sperm. The four GTPases were each present in the sperm head of all species examined. RhoGDI was expressed in the head and tail of sperm from all species except pig, where it was present only in the head. PI(4)P5K was expressed in both head and tail of sperm from all species, but expression was typically weaker in the tail. Finally, ROCK-1 was expressed in the heads and tails of all sperm except that of the boar, where it was present only in the acrosomal region. These observations taken together suggest that the expression of Rho GTPases in sperm has been conserved throughout mammalian evolution, most likely due to the role of these GTPases in regulating acrosomal exocytosis

Ferraro, P.J., Pattanayak, S.K., 2006. Money for nothing? A call for empirical evaluation of biodiversity conservation investments. PLoS Biology 4, e105.

Frank, B., Maurseth, P.B., 2006. The spatial econometrics of elephant population change - A note. Ecological Economics 60, 320-323.
Abstract: While previous research found no other variable than corruption to have a negative impact on the growth rate of the elephant populations of African countries, we show that one further significant impact is exerted by 'neighbourhood effects'. Elephants travel long distances, often crossing borders. Using spatial econometric tools, we find that elephant population changes in one country have a positive impact on population changes in neighbouring countries. Our results have possible policy implications, as they suggest that spatial clustering of funds and of conservation efforts makes sense if the endangered species move across borders.

Furniss, C. On the tusks of a dilemma. Geographical Magazine (Royal Geographic Society) [November], 47-57. 2006.
Ref Type: Magazine Article
Abstract: During the 20th century, poaching for ivory sent the populations of African and Asian elephants hurtling towards extinction. But then, following a 1990 ban on the trade of ivory, they began to stage a remarkable comeback, leading many conservationists to believe that the battle had been won. Now, however, it's the ivory trade that is staging a comeback, and it has wildlife campaigners worried. And as the CITES Standing Committee deliberates over whether or not to sanction a sale of stockpiled ivory, there are fears that once again, the world's elephants are in peril.

Galanti, V., Preatoni, D., Martinoti, A., Wauters, L.A., Tosi, G., 2006. Space and habitat use of the African elephant in the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem, Tanzania: Implications for conservation. Mammalian Biology 71, 99-114.
Abstract: As migratory animals, sustainable management of African elephant populations, both within and around protected areas, is a major challenge in the conservation policy of many African countries. We captured seven female elephants, representative members of family groups, in different parts of Tarangire National Park (TNP), Tanzania, and used GPS satellite radio-tracking (November 1997-June 2000) to monitor their space and habitat use and seasonal migrations throughout wet and dry seasons. Patterns of home range overlap revealed the existence of two Large clans that occupied the north-central and southern parts of TNP, respectively. At the end of the dry season, elephants from the southern clan migrated about 100 km southeast of the park boundary, those from the northern clan remained mostly inside the park, or used periodically wet-season core areas in the nearby Game Controlled Areas. No natural mortality occurred during the study, but two elephants were poached outside the park. Human disturbance also affected activity patterns, and elephants were Less active at day outside than inside the park. Home range size varied from 477 to 1078 km(2) for the northern elephants, and from 1630 to 5060 km(2) for the southern elephants. Migration routes were characterised by higher cover (open and closed forest) than core areas. Our results indicate that elephant management must be considered across park boundaries and that migration corridors must be protected against human disturbance and land cultivation. Society problems Linked to elephant conservation can be solved by creating alternative, sustainable, use of natural resources that enhance the livelihood of local communities.

Gelvin-Reymiller, C., Reuther, J.D., Potter, B.A., Bowers, P.M., 2006. Technical aspects of a worked proboscidean tusk from Inmachuk River, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Journal of Archaeological Science 33, 1088-1094.
Abstract: Prehistoric reduction sequences of proboscidean ivory have been described and discussed within the Russian and European Upper Paleolithic archaeological literature. A culturally modified proboscidean tusk (Mammuthus sp.) in Seward Peninsula, northwestern Alaska, displays longitudinal grooving, providing an insight into a reduction technique rarely described within North American archaeological literature. Similar reduction sequences have been described for the production of bone, antler and walrus ivory artifacts in the North American prehistoric record; however, examples on proboscidean ivory are extremely rare.

Gough, K.F., Kerley, G.I.H., 2006. Demography and population dynamics in the elephants Loxodonta africana of Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa: Is there evidence of density dependent regulation? Oryx 40, 434-441.
Abstract: Density dependence of the Addo Elephant National Park (South Africa) elephants Loxodonta africana was assessed using a long-term data set. Estimated carrying capacity is 0.1-0.5 elephants km(-2) but stocking rates have been up to 4 elephants km(-2). Population growth rate was found to be positively correlated with increasing density. There was no relationship between birth rate, the age of first calving or calf sex ratio and elephant density but there was a positive relationship between birth rate and rainfall during conception year. Mortality rates, particularly for juveniles, were low, and mean inter-calf interval was 3.3 years. There is no evidence of density dependent regulation in this population, despite the population being consistently above the estimated sustainable carrying capacity and a loss of phytomass and biodiversity. This is interpreted in light of the characteristics of the a seasonal habitat, succulent thicket vegetation and the ability of elephants to utilize accumulated vegetation biomass. These findings indicate that density dependence should not be considered as an option in the control of elephant numbers in this Park, or where elephant resources are not seasonally limited.

Gupta, S.K., Thangaraj, K., Singh, L., 2006. A simple and inexpensive molecular method for sexing and identification of the forensic samples of elephant origin
430. J. Forensic Sci. 51, 805-807.
Abstract: The population of the Asian elephant is being dramatically reduced due to poaching of the ivory from the male. As poaching occurs in remote forests, it often takes weeks or longer for it to be discovered and it is therefore often very difficult to determine the sex of the decomposed body. Data suggest that in the recent past, over 2000 male elephants have been poached in South India. We have developed a technique based on molecular markers to determine that the carcass is an elephant and that it is a male. Using DNA sequence information from Genbank, we have developed two primer pairs: one for the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and the other for the sex-determining region of Y chromosome (SRY) gene of the Indian elephant. After PCR amplification of known elephant DNA, we found that the mtDNA was common in both males and females, whereas the SRY-specific amplicon was observed only in the male

Hemp, A., 2006. Vegetation of Kilimanjaro: hidden endemics and missing bamboo. African Journal of Ecology 44, 305-328.
Abstract: Kilimanjaro has a large variety of forest types over an altitudinal range of 3000 m containing over 1200 vascular plant species. Montane Ocotea forests occur on the wet southern slope. Cassipourea and Juniperus forests grow on the dry northern slope. Subalpine Erica forests at 4100 m represent the highest elevation cloud forests in Africa. In contrast to this enormous biodiversity, the degree of endemism is low. However, forest relicts in the deepest valleys of the cultivated lower areas suggest that a rich forest flora inhabited Mt Kilimanjaro in the past, with restricted-range species otherwise only known from the Eastern Arc mountains. The low degree of endemism on Kilimanjaro may result from destruction of lower altitude forest rather than the relatively young age of the mountain. Another feature of the forests of Kilimanjaro is the absence of a bamboo zone, which occurs on all other tall mountains in East Africa with a similarly high rainfall. Sinarundinaria alpina stands are favoured by elephants and buffaloes. On Kilimanjaro these megaherbivores occur on the northern slopes, where it is too dry for a large bamboo zone to develop. They are excluded from the wet southern slope forests by topography and humans, who have cultivated the foothills for at least 2000 years. This interplay of biotic and abiotic factors could explain not only the lack of a bamboo zone on Kilimanjaro but also offers possible explanations for the patterns of diversity and endemism. Kilimanjaro's forests can therefore serve as a striking example of the large and long-lasting influence of both animals and humans on the African landscape.

Hilborn, R., Arcese, P., Borner, M., Hando, J., Hopcraft, G., Loibooki, M., Mduma, S., Sinclair, A.R., 2006. Effective enforcement in a conservation area
378. Science 314, 1266.
Abstract: Wildlife within protected areas is under increasing threat from bushmeat and illegal trophy trades, and many argue that enforcement within protected areas is not sufficient to protect wildlife. We examined 50 years of records from Serengeti National Park in Tanzania and calculated the history of illegal harvest and enforcement by park authorities. We show that a precipitous decline in enforcement in 1977 resulted in a large increase in poaching and decline of many species. Conversely, expanded budgets and antipoaching patrols since the mid-1980s have greatly reduced poaching and allowed populations of buffalo, elephants, and rhinoceros to rebuild

Holdo, R.M., 2006. Tree growth in an African woodland savanna affected by disturbance. Journal Of Vegetation Science 17, 369-378.
Abstract: Questions: How does tree growth in a tropical woodland savanna vary as a function of size, and how is it affected by competition from neighbours, site attributes, and damage caused by disturbance?
Location: western Zimbabwe. Methods: Trees of common species were tagged, mapped, and measured annually between 2001 and 2003 in a Kalahari sand woodland savanna. Diameter increments were analysed with mixed model regressions for the largest ramet in each genet. Stem diameter and damage, soil texture, and indices of competition at multiple spatial scales were used as covariates.
Results: Stem diameter increased initially and then declined as a function of size in undamaged trees, which grew faster than damaged trees. Growth in damaged trees declined with size. No site differences were detected, and there was evidence for between-tree competition on growth only in the fastest-growing species, Brachystegia spiciformis. In several species the growth rate of the largest ramet increased as a function of the basal area of secondary ramets, contrary to expectations. For many species, the growth models showed poor explanatory power.Conclusions: Growth in Kalahari sand savanna trees varies as a function of size and changes in tree architecture caused by disturbance agents such as fire, frost, and elephant browsing. Disturbance may thus play an important role on vegetation dynamics through its effects on growth in the post-disturbance phase. Growth is highly stochastic for some species in this system, and more deterministic in others. It is hypothesized that this dichotomy may be driven by differences in rooting depth among species.

Hutchins, M., 2006. Death at the Zoo: The Media, Science, and Reality. Zoo Biology 25, 101-115.
Abstract: Media characterizations of zoo and aquarium animal deaths were randomly monitored on the internet for a 20-month period (September 2003-May 2005). Based on 148 samples collected, it was possible to classify articles into one of four categories, which were operationally defined: 1) dispassionate observers; 2) accusers; 3) sympathizers; and 4) balancers. In addition, with the notable exception of seven cases, all of the articles examined focused on large, charismatic mammals, such as gorillas, dolphins, lions, and elephants. Although a majority
of the articles examined (70.4%) were either dispassionate and objective or sympathetic, nearly a third (29.6%) were either accusatory or attempted to balance the accusatory statements of animal rights activists with sympathetic statements from zoo professionals. Recommendations are offered for how zoos should deal with the increasing media and public interest in zoo animal deaths, including: 1) a greater commitment to studying the reasons for mortality in a wide variety of species; and 2) an increased investment in record keeping and analysis,
which should allow zoos to calculate average life spans in animal populations and to monitor and assess the risk of certain lethal diseases on a real-time basis. Comparisons are drawn between zoo veterinary practices and human medicine, which are both inexact sciences. Suggestions are made for how the public and key decision-makers can distinguish between media reports on zoo animal deaths that are legitimate cause for concern vs. those that are sensationalist and meant to generate controversy and sell papers. A greater focus on the science of zoo animal death is necessary for accredited zoos to maintain the public's confidence in their animal care practices.

Jakubinek, M.B., Samarasekera, C.J., White, M.A., 2006. Elephant ivory: A low thermal conductivity, high strength nanocomposite. Journal of Materials Research 21, 287-292.
Abstract: There has been much recent interest in heat transport in nanostructures, and also in the structure, properties, and growth of biological materials. Here we present measurements of thermal properties of a nanostructured biomineral, ivory. The room-temperature thermal conductivity of ivory is anomalously low in comparison with its constituent components. Low-temperature (2-300 K) measurements of thermal conductivity and heat capacity reveal a glass-like temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity and phonon mean free path, consistent with increased phonon-boundary scattering associated with nanostructure. These results suggest that biomineral-like nanocomposite structures could be useful in the design of novel high-strength materials for low thermal conductivity applications.

Josh, D.C., Berger, J., Bock, C.E., Bock, J.H., Burney, D.A., Estes, J.A., Foreman, D., Martin, P.S., Roemer, G.W., Smith, F.A., Soule, M.E., Greene, H.W., 2006. Pleistocene rewilding: an optimistic agenda for twenty-first century conservation
386. Am. Nat. 168, 660-681.
Abstract: Large vertebrates are strong interactors in food webs, yet they were lost from most ecosystems after the dispersal of modern humans from Africa and Eurasia. We call for restoration of missing ecological functions and evolutionary potential of lost North American megafauna using extant conspecifics and related taxa. We refer to this restoration as Pleistocene rewilding; it is conceived as carefully managed ecosystem manipulations whereby costs and benefits are objectively addressed on a case-by-case and locality-by-locality basis. Pleistocene rewilding would deliberately promote large, long-lived species over pest and weed assemblages, facilitate the persistence and ecological effectiveness of megafauna on a global scale, and broaden the underlying premise of conservation from managing extinction to encompass restoring ecological and evolutionary processes. Pleistocene rewilding can begin immediately with species such as Bolson tortoises and feral horses and continue through the coming decades with elephants and Holarctic lions. Our exemplar taxa would contribute biological, economic, and cultural benefits to North America. Owners of large tracts of private land in the central and western United States could be the first to implement this restoration. Risks of Pleistocene rewilding include the possibility of altered disease ecology and associated human health implications, as well as unexpected ecological and sociopolitical consequences of reintroductions. Establishment of programs to monitor suites of species interactions and their consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem health will be a significant challenge. Secure fencing would be a major economic cost, and social challenges will include acceptance of predation as an overriding natural process and the incorporation of pre-Columbian ecological frameworks into conservation strategies

Joubert, D., 2006. Hunting behaviour of lions (Panthera leo) on elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Chobe National Park, Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 44, 279-281.
Abstract: Megaherbivores like elephants and rhinos have been regarded as invulnerable to predation as adults (Owen-Smith, 1988; G. B. Schaller pers. comm.), although Guthrie (1990) suggests that lions hunted such large prey during the Pleistocene. Recently, there have been a number of observations of elephants killed by lions in northern Botswana, going as far back as 1985 (M. Slogrove pers. comm.). The hunting behaviour of lions on elephants, and the age and sex structure of the elephants killed, were observed at a waterhole in the Savute region of Chobe National Park. The first observed elephant kill was recorded in August 1991. Systematic records of elephants killed were made between 1993 and 1996.

Kalmykov, N.P., Mashchenko, E.N., 2006. New data on the migration of the family Elephantidae (Mammalia, Proboscidea) in Eurasia
480. Dokl. Biol. Sci. 406, 103-105.

Kaltenborn, B.P., Bjerke, T., Nyahongo, J.W., Williams, D.R., 2006. Animal preferences and acceptability of wildlife management actions around Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation 15, 4633-4649.
Abstract: Wildlife management policies are often based on expert perceptions of the ecological importance of certain species and poorly informed perceptions of how public attitudes toward management are formed. Little is known about why preferences vary greatly and how this affects support for management actions. This paper explores preferences for a range of wildlife species among a sample of the rural population adjacent to Serengeti National Park in Tanzania. We also examine the degree of acceptance for alternative management interventions when potentially dangerous animals pose different levels of problems to human beings, and the extent to which these attitudes are related to species preferences. Gender has a significant effect on species preferences. Men like most species better than women. Age has no significant effect, but level of education affects preference level for some species. Species preferences have a positive effect on support for management intervention when dangerous animals cause small or moderate problems to humans, i.e. there is a higher degree of acceptance of problems caused by animals that are well liked. In situations where human life is threatened, species preferences have no effect on preferred management actions. Appreciation of animals is a combination of functional, consumptive and cultural dimensions, and there is no simple link between species preferences and attitudes toward management actions. The local context and concrete experience with wildlife encounters is more important for shaping normative beliefs like attitudes towards management actions than global wildlife attitudes. bal averages in Se (maximum of 4.7 mg kg(-1)), Co (maximum of 107 mg kg(-1)) and/or Mo (maximum of 7.4 mg kg(-1)). We suggest that licks do provide supplemental Na, but that Se, Co and/or Mo at the largest licks provide easily overlooked nutritional benefits and are perhaps the primary target for geophagy at these sites. Subsoil zones of clay deposition are likely to be enriched in various elements through illuviation or mineral precipitation from solution. Animals may use the taste of NaCl as a clue for locating such zones where they are likely to find a greater quantity of micronutrients relative to other soils. These findings have consequences for conservation and pastoralism in that these large licks may be key resources, providing micronutrients that are essential for maintaining the health and fecundity of animal as well as human populations in the region.

Kerley, G.I.H., Landman, M., 2006. The impacts of elephants on biodiversity in the Eastern Cape subtropical thickets. South African Journal of Science 102, 395-402.
Abstract: We review available information on the impact of elephants on the Subtropical Thickets of the Eastern Cape province as a contribution to the current debate around biodiversity and the need to manage elephant populations. This ecologically diverse region historically supported an abundance of elephants that was incrementally reduced to a single population limited to the Addo Elephant National Park (AENP). The results of research on elephant impacts associated with this population has shown that these animals influence many ecological processes, and patterns, including soil features, landscape patchiness and plant biomass and diversity. Furthermore, elephants influence insect, bird and antelope abundances and reduce browse availability for black rhinoceros. We conclude that elephants affect biodiversity at all levels investigated but that further research is necessary to identify the mechanisms responsible. Of specific concern is the observation that the AENP represents the only current example where elephants may be driving many endemic plants to extinction. This suggests that managing elephant impacts in Subtropical Thickets, specifically, is a matter of urgency.

Kitakado, T., Kitada, S., Kishino, H., Skaug, H.J., 2006. An integrated-likelihood method for estimating genetic differentiation between populations
453. Genetics 173, 2073-2082.
Abstract: The aim of this article is to develop an integrated-likelihood (IL) approach to estimate the genetic differentiation between populations. The conventional maximum-likelihood (ML) and pseudolikelihood (PL) methods that use sample counts of alleles may cause severe underestimations of FST, which means overestimations of theta=4Nm, when the number of sampling localities is small. To reduce such bias in the estimation of genetic differentiation, we propose an IL method in which the mean allele frequencies over populations are regarded as nuisance parameters and are eliminated by integration. To maximize the IL function, we have developed two algorithms, a Monte Carlo EM algorithm and a Laplace approximation. Our simulation studies show that the method proposed here outperforms the conventional ML and PL methods in terms of unbiasedness and precision. The IL method was applied to real data for Pacific herring and African elephants

Lahkar, B.P., Das, J.P., Nath, N.K., Nath, S., Sarma, P.K., Brahma, S. Habitat evaluation of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and spatial aspects of human elephant conflict in Manas National Park using Remote Sensing/GIS. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  98-107. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Laurance, W.E., Croes, B.M., Tchignoumba, L., Lahm, S.A., Alonso, A., Lee, M.E., Campbell, P., Ondzeano, C., 2006. Impacts of roads and hunting on central African rainforest mammals
421. Conserv. Biol. 20, 1251-1261.
Abstract: Road expansion and associated increases in bunting pressure are a rapidly growing threat to African tropical wildlife. In the rainforests of southern Gabon, we compared abundances of larger (>1 kg) mammal species at varying distances from forest roads and between hunted and unhunted treatments (comparing a 130-km2 oil concession that was almost entirely protected from bunting with nearby areas outside the concession that had moderate hunting pressure). At each of 12 study sites that were evenly divided between hunted and unhunted areas, we established standardized 1-km transects at five distances (50, 300, 600, 900, and 1200 m) from an unpaved road, and then repeatedly surveyed mammals during the 2004 dry and wet seasons. Hunting had the greatest impact on duikers (Cephalophus spp.), forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus), and red river hogs (Potamochoerus porcus), which declined in abundance outside the oil concession, and lesser effects on lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and carnivores. Roads depressed abundances of duikers, sitatungas (Tragelaphus spekei gratus), and forest elephants (Loxondonta africana cyclotis), with avoidance of roads being stronger outside than inside the concession. Five monkey species showed little response to roads or hunting, whereas some rodents and pangolins increased in abundance outside the concession, possibly in response to greater forest disturbance. Our findings suggest that even moderate hunting pressure can markedly alter the structure of mammal communities in central Africa. Roads had the greatest impacts on large and small ungulates, with the magnitude of road avoidance increasing with local hunting pressure

Lawes, M.J., Chapman, C.A., 2006. Does the herb Acanthus pubescens and/or elephants suppress tree regeneration in disturbed Afrotropical forest? Forest Ecology and Management 221, 278-284.
Abstract: As a result of extensive deforestation, the survival of many tropical forest species may depend on disturbed forests. However, recent studies demonstrate that tree regeneration following logging can be slow, decreasing the conservation value of disturbed forests. Here we test whether the dominating herb, Acanthus pubescens, in the understory of logged forest, suppresses tree regeneration in Kibale National Park, Uganda. We compare the establishment, growth, and survival of tree seedlings over 2.5 years between sites cleared of A. pubescens and controls. We also consider the role of elephants (Loxodonta africana) in inhibiting tree regeneration.  Seedling abundance and species richness was greater in cleared than control plots at the start of the study. Seedling abundance decreased over the study, but remained greater in cleared than control plots. Species richness did not vary over the study. However, species composition of the cleared plots was marginally different from control plots at the start, but converged on the composition of control plots by the end of the study. This suggests a common regeneration assemblage derived from reorganisation of species, rather than recruitment of new species. There was no difference in recruitment rates between cleared and control plots. These findings suggest no strong direct effects of the herb on tree regeneration in this disturbed forest.  However, when we modelled (i.e., removed) the effect of elephants on regeneration, the abundance of seedlings increased in both plot types and remained reasonably constant over time. The decline in density of regenerating stems over the study was most likely caused by elephants visiting the plots.  We conclude that elephants have a far greater effect in suppressing tree regeneration at Kibale than the herb stratum and are ultimately responsible for arresting succession in disturbed forest. However, as intensive logging creates conditions favourable for A. pubescens, which is eaten by elephants, the best management intervention is to constrain logging intensities to below levels above which widespread establishment of A. pubescens is promoted, thus limiting elephant activity in regenerating areas.

Lee, P.C., Graham, M.D., 2006. African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and human-elephant interactions: implications for conservation. International Zoo Yearbook 40, 9-19.
Abstract: African elephants face an uncertain future. Politics, war, sustained media campaigns, corrupt, weak or absent institutions supporting conservation, land-use planning or general governance, and greed ar all bringing elephants into direct conflict with humans. Although elephant populations have declined considerably relative to their historical size and range, human populations have expanded to occupy and intensively use remaining elephant areas. Strategies to minimize perceptions of conflict and the implementation of land-use planning with biodiversity protection as its goal could help to sustain at least some populations of elephants. Here, we review threats to elephants, with an emphasis on those resulting from human perceptions of conflict, and suggest some mechanisms for grappling with these threats.

Leggett, K.E.A., 2006. Home range and seasonal movement of elephants in the Kunene Region, northwestern Namibia. African Zoology 41, 17-36.
Abstract: This paper examines the home ranges and seasonal movements of eight GPS-collared elephants (two females and six males) in the northwestern Kunene region of Namibia. Minimum convex polygon (MCP) and the fixed kernel density estimation (FKDE) methods were used to analyse home ranges. The collared elephants showed defined home and seasonal ranges. In the eastern section of the research area, the elephants generally had smaller home ranges that were at their least during the hot and cold dry seasons, expanding during the wet season. In the western areas, the elephants moved between the Hoanib and Hoarusib Rivers in response to available vegetation that did not necessarily correspond to rainfall. The length of movement of collared elephants varied from 54.5 to 473 km in the eastern section of the research area to between 251 to 625 km in the west, over periods of up to five months.

Loveridge, A.J., Hunt, J.E., Murindagomo, F., Macdonald, D.W., 2006. Influence of drought on predation of elephant (Loxodonta africana) calves by lions (Panthera leo) in an African wooded savannah. Journal of Zoology 270, 523-530.
Abstract: Data were collected on species killed by lions Panthera leo in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe between 1998 and 2004. Lions killed predominantly large to medium-sized herbivores, concentrating on buffalo Syncerus caffer, elephant Loxodonta africana, giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis, wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus and zebra Equus burchelli. These species made up 83% of all lion kills found and 94% of the biomass of kills actually observed. Elephant calves made up an unusually large proportion of lion prey during the study period (23% of kills recorded). All elephants killed were dependent juveniles. Elephant calves appear more vulnerable during the dry months of the year, particularly in years of below average rainfall. Elephant calves are usually well protected. However, high-density aggregations of elephants around limited water sources during the dry season may deplete local food resources, forcing elephant herds to travel large distances between water and forage. Under these circumstances, elephant calves may become lost or separated from family groups, accounting for their high incidence in lion diet.

Makhabu, S.W., Skarpe, C., Hytteborn, H., 2006. Elephant impact on shoot distribution on trees and on rebrowsing by smaller browsers. Acta Oecologica-International Journal of Ecology 30, 136-140.
Abstract: In order to determine the effects of a megaherbivore, the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) on browse available for mesoherbivores, we assessed the vertical distribution of shoots (< 6 mm in diameter) on trees with different accumulated elephant impact. We also determined the foraging responses by a mixed feeder, impala (Aepyceros melampus) and a browser, greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) which are mesoherbivores. The foraging responses by impala and kudu were in terms of preferences of trees with different accumulated elephant impact levels and whether animals browsed in different height sections in proportion to availability of shoots. We counted shoots in each 20 cm height section up to 2.6 m on trees in 25 m by 25 m plots and on trees observed to be browsed by impala and kudu. In most tree species, individuals with high accumulated elephant impact were shorter and had more shoots at low levels than tree individuals with either low or no accumulated elephant impact. Impala and kudu preferred to browse tree individuals with accumulated elephant impact over those without such impact. Impala and kudu browsed more than expected at height sections with many shoots and less than expected at height sections with fewer shoots indicating a non-linear overmatching foraging response. We suggest that increased shoot abundance at low levels in the canopy might explain part of the observed preferences. Elephants, therefore, seem to facilitate browsing by mesoherbivores by generating 'browsing lawns'. Such benefits need to be considered when making decisions on how to manage populations of megaherbivores like elephant.

Masunga, G.S., Andresen, O., Taylor, J.E., Dhillion, S.S., 2006. Elephant dung decomposition and coprophilous fungi in two habitats of semi-arid Botswana
404. Mycol. Res. 110, 1214-1226.
Abstract: In order to understand the impact of habitat changes on ecosystem processes caused by increased populations of elephants, elephant dung decomposition was studied in semi-arid Botswana. Dung decomposition rates were studied with and without the presence of arthropods, using pairs of exposed dung and dung enclosed in nylon-mesh bags, respectively. Dung decomposition rates were lower in the absence of arthropods. The rates in the late wet season were higher in the scrubland than in the woodland. In the early dry season, immediately after the wet season, the rates were higher in the woodland than in the scrubland. The difference in decomposition rates between habitats was attributed to microclimatic conditions created by vegetation cover. With regard to fungal succession, Cladosporium cladosporioides and Eurotium brefeldianum occurred only in the late stages of dung decomposition whereas Talaromyces helicus, Cercophora coprophila and Sporormiella minima occurred in all the stages. Although there was no significant difference in Shannon-Weiner fungal species diversity index between habitats, seasons, dung ages and laboratory incubation periods, there were significant differences in fungal community composition between these parameters. Species richness was higher in the late wet season than in the early dry season, indicating the importance of moist conditions for a large diversity of fungal species

McComb, K., Baker, L., Moss, C., 2006. African elephants show high levels of interest in the skulls and ivory of their own species. Biol. Lett. 2, 26-28.
Abstract: An important area of biology involves investigating the origins in animals of traits that are thought of as uniquely human. One way that humans appear unique is in the importance they attach to the dead bodies of other humans, particularly those of their close kin, and the rituals that they have developed for burying them. In contrast, most animals appear to show only limited interest in the carcasses or associated remains of dead individuals of their own species. African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are unusual in that they not only give dramatic reactions to the dead bodies of other elephants, but are also reported to systematically investigate elephant bones and tusks that they encounter, and it has sometimes been suggested that they visit the bones of relatives. Here, we use systematic presentations of object arrays to demonstrate that African elephants show higher levels of interest in elephant skulls and ivory than in natural objects or the skulls of other large terrestrial mammals. However, they do not appear to specifically select the skulls of their own relatives for investigation so that visits to dead relatives probably result from a more general attraction to elephant remains

Morris, S., Humphreys, D., Reynolds, D., 2006. Myth, marula, and elephant: an assessment of voluntary ethanol intoxication of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) following feeding on the fruit of the marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea)
485. Physiol Biochem. Zool. 79, 363-369.
Abstract: Africa can stir wild and fanciful notions in the casual visitor; one of these is the tale of inebriated wild elephants. The suggestion that the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) becomes intoxicated from eating the fruit of the marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) is an attractive, established, and persistent tale. This idea now permeates the African tourist industry, historical travelogues, the popular press, and even scholastic works. Accounts of ethanol inebriation in animals under natural conditions appear mired in folklore. Elephants are attracted to alcohol, but there is no clear evidence of inebriation in the field. Extrapolating from human physiology, a 3,000-kg elephant would require the ingestion of between 10 and 27 L of 7% ethanol in a short period to overtly affect behavior, which is unlikely in the wild. Interpolating from ecological circumstances and assuming rather unrealistically that marula fruit contain 3% ethanol, an elephant feeding normally might attain an ethanol dose of 0.3 g kg(-1), about half that required. Physiological issues to resolve include alcohol dehydrogenase activity and ethanol clearance rates in elephants, as well as values for marula fruit alcohol content. These models were highly biased in favor of inebriation but even so failed to show that elephants can ordinarily become drunk. Such tales, it seems, may result from "humanizing" elephant behavior

Mtui, D., Owen-Smith, N., 2006. Impact of elephants (Loxodonta africana) on woody plants in Malolotja Nature Reserve, Swaziland. African Journal of Ecology 44, 407-409.
Abstract: In 1992, two elephants aged approximately 6-8 years moved into the Malolotja Nature Reserve (MNR) in Swaziland from the adjoining Songimvelo Nature Reserve in South Africa. Since that time their impact on the woody vegetation component of this primarily highland grassland reserve has become a cause for increasing concern. Accordingly, aims of this study were (i) to determine which species and size classes of woody plants were most affected, (ii) to compare impacts occurring in riverine forest versus woodland habitats and (iii) to evaluate the implications thereof for woody plant diversity in MNR.

Owen-Smith, N., Kerley, G.I.H., Page, B., Slotow, R., van Aarde, R.J., 2006. A scientific perspective on the management of elephants in the Kruger National Park and elsewhere. South African Journal of Science 102, 389-394.
Abstract: How to respond to growing elephant numbers' in the Kruger National Park and elsewhere in southern Africa continues to be a contentious issue. In contrast to the public perception, scientists have attained a high degree of consensus on the ecological basis for such decisions. In this article we summarize these ecological principles and the management responses that are indicated, in order to counter some of the misunderstanding that has been evident in the popular media.

Parker, G.E., Osborn, F.V., 2006. Investigating the potential for chilli Capsicum spp. to reduce human-wildlife conflict in Zimbabwe. Oryx 40, 343-346.
Abstract: Human-wildlife conflict has negative implications for wildlife conservation, and current crop protection methods are not sufficient to address the problem. Alternative livelihood strategies may provide the ultimate solution to this conflict but they are not always feasible in the short-term. We test the viability of using chilli Capsicum spp. as an unpalatable cash crop to
reduce human-wildlife conflict. Our trials indicate that chilli is less vulnerable to wildlife than other crops and is also economically viable.

Penzhorn, B.L., 2006. Babesiosis of wild carnivores and ungulates
499. Veterinary Parasitology 138, 11-21.
Abstract: Although large and small piroplasms have been reported from various wild carnivore and ungulate species, relatively few have been named. In the past, mere presence of a piroplasm in a specific host frequently prompted naming of a new species. Descriptions were often inadequate or lacking altogether. Currently, demarcation of species relies heavily on molecular characterisation. Even serological evidence is deemed insufficient. Experimental transmission of Babesia spp. from domestic to wild animals is usually only successful in closely related species, or after splenectomy. There are indications that endemic stability, similar to the situation in livestock, is the general pattern in Babesia sp. infections in wildlife. All lions in Kruger National Park were found to be infected with B. leo, which did not lead to clinical disease manifestation in artificially infected lions. Under stressful conditions, infections could flare up and be fatal, as purportedly happened to the famous lioness "Elsa". Similarly black rhinos, which can harbour Babesia bicornis without ill effects, may develop clinical babesiosis during confinement after capture. Zoo-bred animals, which were not exposed to Babesia spp. at a young age, may be fully susceptible when released into a natural environment where other members of their species occur. This could have major implications for ex situ conservation programmes aimed at bolstering natural wildlife populations

Perelygin, A.A., Lear, T.L., Zharkikh, A.A., Brinton, M.A., 2006. Comparative analysis of vertebrate EIF2AK2 (PKR) genes and assignment of the equine gene to ECA15q24-q25 and the bovine gene to BTA11q12-q15
416. Genet. Sel Evol. 38, 551-563.
Abstract: The structures of the canine, rabbit, bovine and equine EIF2AK2 genes were determined. Each of these genes has a 5' non-coding exon as well as 15 coding exons. All of the canine, bovine and equine EIF2AK2 introns have consensus donor and acceptor splice sites. In the equine EIF2AK2 gene, a unique single nucleotide polymorphism that encoded a Tyr329Cys substitution was detected. Regulatory elements predicted in the promoter region were conserved in ungulates, primates, rodents, Afrotheria (elephant) and Insectifora (shrew). Western clawed frog and fugu EIF2AK2 gene sequences were detected in the USCS Genome Browser and compared to those of other vertebrate EIF2AK2 genes. A comparison of EIF2AK2 protein domains in vertebrates indicates that the kinase catalytic domains were evolutionarily more conserved than the nucleic acid-binding motifs. Nucleotide substitution rates were uniform among the vertebrate sequences with the exception of the zebrafish and goldfish EIF2AK2 genes, which showed substitution rates about 20% higher than those of other vertebrates. FISH was used to physically assign the horse and cattle genes to chromosome locations, ECA15q24-q25 and BTA11q12-15, respectively. Comparative mapping data confirmed conservation of synteny between ungulates, humans and rodents

Ramakrishnan, B., Durairasu, P., Saravanamuthu, R., Kalidasan, K. Effectiveness of mitigating measures against human-elephant conflict in and around the Coimbatore Forest Division, Tamil Nadu, South India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  135-152. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Reid, C.E., Hildebrandt, T.B., Marx, N., Hunt, M., Thy, N., Reynes, J.M., Schaftenaar, W., Fickel, J., 2006. Endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV) infection. The first PCR-confirmed fatal case in Asia
436. Vet. Q. 28, 61-64.
Abstract: Since 1995, 4 suspected cases of Endotheliotropic Elephant Herpes Virus (EEHV) infection, i.e. based on clinical presentation, have occurred in Asia without resulting in epidemic outbreaks as expected. In order to confirm the presence of EEHV on the continent of Asia, viral DNA particles from liver samples of a wild-caught 3-year-old elephant found dead at a Cambodian elephant sanctuary and clinically diagnosed with EEHV, were PCR processed using known EEHV strain primers. The presence of EEHV viral nucleic acids was confirmed and the nucleic acids had a 99% sequence similarity to the U.S.A strain (gene bank locus: AF117265) and 97% sequence similarity to the European strain (gene bank locus: AF354746) assigning this case to the EEHV-1 cluster. More than the confirmation of EEHV on the continent of Asia, is the phylogenic relationship to the USA and European strains with no corresponding contact or transport of USA or European elephants to Asia. Thus, this brings many of the traditional theories into question. Although almost forgotten, this disease is still ramped in captive elephant populations worldwide and continues to devastate particularly the neonatal and weaning-age population. Special attention and continued research are needed specifically in the area of basic virology and epidemiology

Reznikova, Z., 2006. [The study of tool use as the way for general estimation of cognitive abilities in animals]
496. Zh. Obshch. Biol. 67, 3-22.
Abstract: Investigation of tool use is an effective way to determine cognitive abilities of animals. This approach raises hypotheses, which delineate limits of animal's competence in understanding of objects properties and interrelations and the influence of individual and social experience on their behaviour. On the basis of brief review of different models of manipulation with objects and tools manufacturing (detaching, subtracting and reshaping) by various animals (from elephants to ants) in natural conditions the experimental data concerning tool usage was considered. Tool behaviour of anumals could be observed rarely and its distribution among different taxons is rather odd. Recent studies have revealed that some species (for instance, bonobos and tamarins) which didn't manipulate tools in wild life appears to be an advanced tool users and even manufacturers in laboratory. Experimental studies of animals tool use include investigation of their ability to use objects physical properties, to categorize objects involved in tool activity by its functional properties, to take forces affecting objects into account, as well as their capacity of planning their actions. The crucial question is whether animals can abstract general principles of relations between objects regardless of the exact circumstances, or they develop specific associations between concerete things and situations. Effectiveness of laboratory methods is estimated in the review basing on comparative studies of tool behaviour, such as "support problem", "stick problem", "tube- and tube-trap problem", and "reserve tube problem". Levels of social learning, the role of imprinting, and species-specific predisposition to formation of specific domains are discussed. Experimental investigation of tool use allows estimation of the individuals' intelligence in populations. A hypothesis suggesting that strong predisposition to formation of specific associations can serve as a driving force and at the same time as obstacle to animals' activity is discussed. In several "technically gifted" species (such as woodpecker finches, New Caledonian crows, and chimpanzees) tool use seems to be guided by a rapid process of trial and error learning. Individuals that are predisposed to learn specific connections do this too quickly and thus become enslaved by stereotypic solutions of raising problems.

Rode, K.D., Chiyo, P.I., Chapman, C.A., McDowell, L.R., 2006. Nutritional ecology of elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda, and its relationship with crop-raiding behaviour. Journal of Tropical Ecology.
Abstract: This study investigated the nutritional ecology of forest elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda relative to crop-raiding behaviour, and examined nutritional differences between crops and food consumed by wild elephants. An index of dietary nutrient concentration was determined by quantifying the species and parts of plants consumed along feeding trails. collecting food items, and analysing foods for energy, fibre, protein, minerals and secondary compounds. Frequency of crop raiding was quantified over 13 mo. Energy and protein concentration was within suggested levels. but concentrations of several minerals, particularly sodium, were low relative to requirements based on captive elephants and values reported for other wild populations. The very low sodium concentrations of Kibale elephant diets and low availability of alternative sodium sources, such as soil or water, suggest that sodium drive is very likely in this population. Crops consumed by Kibale elephants had higher Na concentrations and lower concentrations of fibre and secondary compounds than wild diets. The known attraction of elephants to mineral sources throughout their range and the low mineral concentration of leaves, fruits, bark, and stems consumed by forest elephant in this study suggest that mineral nutrition is likely to be an important factor driving elephant behaviour and patterns of habitat use.

Rogaev, E.I., Moliaka, Y.K., Malyarchuk, B.A., Kondrashov, F.A., Derenko, M.V., Chumakov, I., Grigorenko, A.P., 2006. Complete mitochondrial genome and phylogeny of Pleistocene mammoth Mammuthus primigenius
507. PLoS. Biol. 4, e73.
Abstract: Phylogenetic relationships between the extinct woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), and the Asian (Elephas maximus) and African savanna (Loxodonta africana) elephants remain unresolved. Here, we report the sequence of the complete mitochondrial genome (16,842 base pairs) of a woolly mammoth extracted from permafrost-preserved remains from the Pleistocene epoch--the oldest mitochondrial genome sequence determined to date. We demonstrate that well-preserved mitochondrial genome fragments, as long as approximately 1,600-1700 base pairs, can be retrieved from pre-Holocene remains of an extinct species. Phylogenetic reconstruction of the Elephantinae clade suggests that M. primigenius and E. maximus are sister species that diverged soon after their common ancestor split from the L. africana lineage. Low nucleotide diversity found between independently determined mitochondrial genomic sequences of woolly mammoths separated geographically and in time suggests that north-eastern Siberia was occupied by a relatively homogeneous population of M. primigenius throughout the late Pleistocene

Roy, M., Bhattacharya, T., Baskaran, N., Sukumar, R. Foraging ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in northern west Bengal, north eastern India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  153-162. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Rubenstein, D.R., Sherman, P.W., Gavin, T.A., 2006. Pleistocene park: Does re-wilding North America represent sound conservation for the 21st century? Biological Conservation 132, 232-238.
Abstract: A group of conservation biologists recently proposed to populate western North America with African and Asian megafauna, including lions, elephants, cheetahs, and camels, to create a facsimile of a species assemblage that disappeared from the continent some 13,000 years ago. The goals of this program, known as "Pleistocene re-wilding", are to restore some of the evolutionary and ecological potential that was lost from North America during the Pleistocene extinctions, and help prevent the extinction of selected African and Asian mammals. Pleistocene re-wilders justify this conservation strategy on ethical and aesthetic grounds, arguing that humans have a moral responsibility to make amends for overexploitation by our ancestors. They believe that the flora of many North American terrestrial ecosystems has gone basically unchanged since the end of the Pleistocene, so re-wilding would help restore evolutionary and ecological potential and improve ecosystem functioning. This paper discusses some of the pros and cons of this proposal, including the ethical, aesthetic, ecological, and evolutionary issues, assesses its potential economic and political impacts on other conservation practices, both in North America and elsewhere, and reviews the realities of large mammal reintroductions. It is concluded that Pleistocene re-wilding with exotic species will not restore the evolutionary or ecological potential of native North American species nor extinct Pleistocene megafauna and their ancient ecosystems, but may instead jeopardize indigenous species and North American ecosystems. Resources would be better spent on preserving threatened organisms in their native habitats and reintroducing them to places in their historical ranges from which they were only recently extirpated.

Ruf, T., Valencak, T., Tataruch, F., Arnold, W., 2006. Running speed in mammals increases with muscle n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid content. PLoS. One. 1, e65.
Abstract: Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are important dietary components that mammals cannot synthesize de novo. Beneficial effects of PUFAs, in particular of the n-3 class, for certain aspects of animal and human health (e.g., cardiovascular function) are well known. Several observations suggest, however, that PUFAs may also affect the performance of skeletal muscles in vertebrates. For instance, it has been shown that experimentally n-6 PUFA-enriched diets increase the maximum swimming speed in salmon. Also, we recently found that the proportion of PUFAs in the muscle phospholipids of an extremely fast runner, the brown hare (Lepus europaeus), are very high compared to other mammals. Therefore, we predicted that locomotor performance, namely running speed, should be associated with differences in muscle fatty acid profiles. To test this hypothesis, we determined phospholipid fatty acid profiles in skeletal muscles of 36 mammalian species ranging from shrews to elephants. We found that there is indeed a general positive, surprisingly strong relation between the n-6 PUFAs content in muscle phospholipids and maximum running speed of mammals. This finding suggests that muscle fatty acid composition directly affects a highly fitness-relevant trait, which may be decisive for the ability of animals to escape from predators or catch prey

Saayman, M., Saayman, A., 2006. Creating a framework to determine the socio-economic impact of national parks in South Africa: A case study of the Addo Elephant National Park. Tourism Economics 12, 619-633.
Abstract: National parks in South Africa are seen as major tourism assets, since wildlife is the biggest draw-card for international visitors to the country. Yet little is known of the socio-economic contribution of these parks to their respective local economies. The purpose of this research is to develop a framework for assessing the socio-economic impact of the Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa. The results show that the park has a significant impact in terms of production, income generation and employment in the area. Key results include a proposed framework for assessing the socio-economic impact of national parks in a developing country.

Sabu, T.K., Vinod, K.V., Vineesh, P.J., 2006. Guild structure, diversity and succession of dung beetles associated with Indian elephant dung in South Western Ghats forests
524. J. Insect Sci. 6, 1-12.
Abstract: The diversity, guild structure and succession of dung beetles associated with Indian elephant dung is described in a deciduous forest site in Western Ghats, a hot spot of diversity in India. Dung beetles were collected using baited pitfall traps and from exposed dung pats in the forest at intervals of 1, 3, 5, 7, 15 and 21 days. Twenty-one dung beetle species belonging to the 3 major functional guilds were recorded. Abundance of dwellers was high compared to rollers deviating from earlier reports on the high abundance of rollers in the afrotropical regions. Dweller Drepanocerus setosus and tunneler Onthophagus bronzeus were the most abundant species. Dung pats aged 3-5 days attracted the highest abundance of dung beetles. Bray Curtis similarity index indicated low community similarity between different stages of succession. Species richness and abundance of tunnelers increased with dung age and decreasing moisture up to a threshold level, followed by a decrease. Rollers and dwellers did not show any significant relationship with dung moisture content. Further research is needed to estimate the dung beetle community associated with the dung pats of other mega herbivores as well as of elephant dung in other forests of the Western Ghats

Sarmah, P., Baishya, H.K., Dey, S., Sharma, A., Sharma, A., Aziz, T., Williams, A.C. Status of elephant movement in a historical corridor of North Bank Landscape, North East India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  171-176. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Shannon, G., Page, B.R., Duffy, K.J., Slotow, R., 2006. The role of foraging behaviour in the sexual segregation of the African elephant. Oecologia Epub.
Abstract: Elephants (Loxodonta africana) exhibit pronounced sexual dimorphism, and in this study we test the prediction that the differences in body size and sociality are significant enough to drive divergent foraging strategies and ultimately sexual segregation. Body size influences the foraging behaviour of herbivores through the differential scaling coefficients of metabolism and gut size, with larger bodied individuals being able to tolerate greater quantities of low-quality, fibrous vegetation, whilst having lower mass-specific energy requirements. We test two distinct theories: the scramble competition hypothesis (SCH) and the forage selection hypothesis (FSH). Comprehensive behavioural data were collected from the Pongola Game Reserve and the Phinda Private Game Reserve in South Africa over a 2.5-year period. The data were analysed using sex as the independent variable. Adult females targeted a wider range of species, adopted a more selective foraging approach and exhibited greater bite rates as predicted by the body size hypothesis and the increased demands of reproductive investment (lactation and pregnancy). Males had longer feeding bouts, displayed significantly more destructive behaviour (31% of observations, 11% for females) and ingested greater quantities of forage during each feeding bout. The independent ranging behaviour of adult males enables them to have longer foraging bouts as they experience fewer social constraints than females. The SCH was rejected as a cause of sexual segregation due to the relative abundance of low quality forage, and the fact that feeding heights were similar for both males and females. However, we conclude that the differences in the foraging strategies of the sexes are sufficient to cause spatial segregation as postulated by the FSH. Sexual dimorphism and the associated behavioural differences have important implications for the management and conservation of elephant and other dimorphic species, with the sexes effectively acting as distinct "ecological species".

Shannon, G., Page, B.R., Duffy, K.J., Slotow, R., 2006. The role of foraging behaviour in the sexual segregation of the African elephant
419. Oecologia. 150, 344-354.
Abstract: Elephants (Loxodonta africana) exhibit pronounced sexual dimorphism, and in this study we test the prediction that the differences in body size and sociality are significant enough to drive divergent foraging strategies and ultimately sexual segregation. Body size influences the foraging behaviour of herbivores through the differential scaling coefficients of metabolism and gut size, with larger bodied individuals being able to tolerate greater quantities of low-quality, fibrous vegetation, whilst having lower mass-specific energy requirements. We test two distinct theories: the scramble competition hypothesis (SCH) and the forage selection hypothesis (FSH). Comprehensive behavioural data were collected from the Pongola Game Reserve and the Phinda Private Game Reserve in South Africa over a 2.5-year period. The data were analysed using sex as the independent variable. Adult females targeted a wider range of species, adopted a more selective foraging approach and exhibited greater bite rates as predicted by the body size hypothesis and the increased demands of reproductive investment (lactation and pregnancy). Males had longer feeding bouts, displayed significantly more destructive behaviour (31% of observations, 11% for females) and ingested greater quantities of forage during each feeding bout. The independent ranging behaviour of adult males enables them to have longer foraging bouts as they experience fewer social constraints than females. The SCH was rejected as a cause of sexual segregation due to the relative abundance of low quality forage, and the fact that feeding heights were similar for both males and females. However, we conclude that the differences in the foraging strategies of the sexes are sufficient to cause spatial segregation as postulated by the FSH. Sexual dimorphism and the associated behavioural differences have important implications for the management and conservation of elephant and other dimorphic species, with the sexes effectively acting as distinct "ecological species"

Sharam, G., Sinclair, A.R.E., Turkington, R., 2006. Establishment of broad-leaved thickets in Serengeti, Tanzania: The influence of fire, browsers, grass competition, and elephants. Biotropica 38, 599-605.
Abstract: The role of Euclea divinorum in the establishment of broad-leaved thickets was investigated in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Thickets are declining due to frequent fires, but have not reestablished when fires have been removed. Seedlings of E. divinorum, a fire-resistant tree, were found in grassland adjacent to thickets and as thicket canopy trees and may function to facilitate thicket establishment. Seedlings of thicket species were abundant under E. divinorum canopy trees but not in the grassland, indicating that E. divinorum can facilitate forest establishment. We examined E.divinorum establishment in grassland by measuring survival and growth of seedlings with respect to fire, browsers, elephants, and competition with grass. Seedling survival was reduced by fire (50%), browsers (70%), and competition with grass (50%), but not by elephants. Seedling growth rate was negative unless both fire and browsers, or grass was removed. Establishment of thickets via E. divinorum is not occurring under the current conditions in Serengeti of frequent fires, abundant browsers, and dense grass in riparian areas. Conditions that allowed establishment may have occurred in 1890-1920s during a rinderpest epizootic, and measurements of thicket canopy trees suggest they established at that time.

Shoshani, J., Kupsky, W.J., Marchant, G.H., 2006. Elephant brain. Part I: gross morphology, functions, comparative anatomy, and evolution. Brain Res Bull 70, 124-157.
Abstract: We report morphological data on brains of four African, Loxodonta africana, and three Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, and compare findings to literature. Brains exhibit a gyral pattern more complex and with more numerous gyri than in primates, humans included, and in carnivores, but less complex than in cetaceans. Cerebral frontal, parietal, temporal, limbic, and insular lobes are well developed, whereas the occipital lobe is relatively small. The insula is not as opercularized as in man. The temporal lobe is disproportionately large and expands laterally. Humans and elephants have three parallel temporal gyri: superior, middle, and inferior. Hippocampal sizes in elephants and humans are comparable, but proportionally smaller in elephant. A possible carotid rete was observed at the base of the brain. Brain size appears to be related to body size, ecology, sociality, and longevity. Elephant adult brain averages 4783 g, the largest among living and extinct terrestrial mammals; elephant neonate brain averages 50% of its adult brain weight (25% in humans). Cerebellar weight averages 18.6% of brain (1.8 times larger than in humans). During evolution, encephalization quotient has increased by 10-fold (0.2 for extinct Moeritherium, approximately 2.0 for extant elephants). We present 20 figures of the elephant brain, 16 of which contain new material. Similarities between human and elephant brains could be due to convergent evolution; both display mosaic characters and are highly derived mammals. Humans and elephants use and make tools and show a range of complex learning skills and behaviors. In elephants, the large amount of cerebral cortex, especially in the temporal lobe, and the well-developed olfactory system, structures associated with complex learning and behavioral functions in humans, may provide the substrate for such complex skills and behavior.

Shoshani, J., Kupsky, W.J., Marchant, G.H., 2006. Elephant brain. Part I: gross morphology, functions, comparative anatomy, and evolution
446. Brain Res. Bull. 70, 124-157.
Abstract: We report morphological data on brains of four African, Loxodonta africana, and three Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, and compare findings to literature. Brains exhibit a gyral pattern more complex and with more numerous gyri than in primates, humans included, and in carnivores, but less complex than in cetaceans. Cerebral frontal, parietal, temporal, limbic, and insular lobes are well developed, whereas the occipital lobe is relatively small. The insula is not as opercularized as in man. The temporal lobe is disproportionately large and expands laterally. Humans and elephants have three parallel temporal gyri: superior, middle, and inferior. Hippocampal sizes in elephants and humans are comparable, but proportionally smaller in elephant. A possible carotid rete was observed at the base of the brain. Brain size appears to be related to body size, ecology, sociality, and longevity. Elephant adult brain averages 4783 g, the largest among living and extinct terrestrial mammals; elephant neonate brain averages 50% of its adult brain weight (25% in humans). Cerebellar weight averages 18.6% of brain (1.8 times larger than in humans). During evolution, encephalization quotient has increased by 10-fold (0.2 for extinct Moeritherium, approximately 2.0 for extant elephants). We present 20 figures of the elephant brain, 16 of which contain new material. Similarities between human and elephant brains could be due to convergent evolution; both display mosaic characters and are highly derived mammals. Humans and elephants use and make tools and show a range of complex learning skills and behaviors. In elephants, the large amount of cerebral cortex, especially in the temporal lobe, and the well-developed olfactory system, structures associated with complex learning and behavioral functions in humans, may provide the substrate for such complex skills and behavior

Shoshani, J., Walter, R.C., Abraha, M., Berhe, S., Tassy, P., Sanders, W.J., Marchant, G.H., Libsekal, Y., Ghirmai, T., Zinner, D., 2006. A proboscidean from the late Oligocene of Eritrea, a "missing link" between early Elephantiformes and Elephantimorpha, and biogeographic implications
384. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 103, 17296-17301.
Abstract: We report on a late Oligocene proboscidean species from Eritrea, dated to 26.8 +/- 1.5 Mya. This "missing link" between early elephantiformes and Elephantimorpha is the oldest known nongomphothere proboscidean to probably display horizontal tooth displacement, typical of elephants [Elephantimorpha consists of Mammutida (mastodons) and Elephantida, and Elephantida includes gomphotheres, stegodons, and elephants]. Together with the newly discovered late Oligocene gomphotheres from Chilga, Ethiopia, the Eritrean taxon points to the importance of East Africa as a major area for the knowledge of the early evolution of Elephantimorpha before the faunal exchange between Eurasia and Africa

Singh, A.P., Chlalisgaonkar, R. Restoration of corridors to facilitate the movement of wild Asian elephants in Rajaji-Corbett Elephant Range, India.  2006.
Ref Type: Report

Singh, R.R., Goyal, S.P., Khanna, P.P., Mukherjee, P.K., Sukumar, R., 2006. Using morphometric and analytical techniques to characterize elephant ivory. Forensic Sci. Int. 162, 144-151.
Abstract: There is a need to characterize Asian elephant ivory and compare with African ivory for controlling illegal trade and implementation of national and international laws. In this paper, we characterize ivory of Asian and African elephants using Schreger angle measurements, elemental analysis {X-ray fluorescence (XRF), inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES), and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS)} and isotopic analysis. We recorded Schreger angle characteristics of elephant ivory at three different zones in ivory samples of African (n=12) and Asian (n=28) elephants. The Schreger angle ranged from 32 degrees to 145 degrees and 30 degrees to 153 degrees in Asian and African ivory, respectively. Elemental analysis (for Asian and African ivory) by XRF, ICP-AES and ICP-MS provided preliminary data. We attempted to ascertain source of origin of Asian elephant ivory similarly as in African ivory based on isotopes of carbon, nitrogen and strontium. We determined isotopic ratios of carbon (n=31) and nitrogen (n=31) corresponding to diet and rainfall, respectively. Reference ivory samples from five areas within India were analyzed using collagen and powder sample and the latter was found more suitable for forensic analysis. During our preliminary analysis, the range of delta13C values (-13.6+/-0.15 per thousand and -25.6+/-0.15 per thousand) and delta15N values (10.2+/-0.15 per thousand and 3.5+/-0.15 per thousand) were noted

Steinmetz, R., Chutipong, W., Seuaturien, N., 2006. Collaborating to conserve large mammals in Southeast Asia
405. Conserv. Biol. 20, 1391-1401.
Abstract: Depressed mammal densities characterize the interior of many Southeast Asian protected areas, and are the result of commercial and subsistence hunting. Local people are part of this problem but can participate in solutions through improved partnerships that incorporate local knowledge into problem diagnosis. The process of involving local people helps build a constituency that is more aware of its role (positive and negative) in a protected area and generates site-specific conservation assessments for management planning. We illustrate the practical details of initiating such a partnership through our work in a Thai wildlife sanctuary. Many protected areas in Southeast Asia present similar opportunities. In local workshops, village woodsmen were led through ranking exercises to develop a spatially explicit picture of 20-year trends in the abundance of 31 mammal species and to compare species-specific causes for declines. Within five taxonomic groups, leaf monkeys (primates), porcupines (rodents), tigers (large carnivores), civets (small carnivores), and elephants (ungulates) had declined most severely (37-74%). Commercial hunting contributed heavily to extensive population declines for most species, and subsistence hunting was locally significant for some small carnivores, leaf monkeys, and deer. Workshops thus clarified which species were at highest risk of local extinction, where the most threatened populations were, and causes for these patterns. Most important, they advanced a shared problem definition, thereby unlocking opportunities for collaboration. As a result, local people and sanctuary managers have increased communication, initiated joint monitoring and patrolling, and established wildlife recovery zones. Using local knowledge has limitations, but the process of engaging local people promotes collaborative action that large mammals in Southeast Asia need

Stetter, M., Hendrickson, D., Zuba, J., Stretter, K., Grobler, D., van Altena, J.J., Small, L.-A. Laparoscopic vasectomy as a potential population control method in free ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  177. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Subhash, C.K., Saseendran, P.C., Anil, K.S. Population, age and sex assessment of free ranging elephants in Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, South India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  189-196. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Talukdar, B.K., Boruah, J.K., Sarma, P. Multi-dimensional mitigation initiatives to human-elephant conflicts in Golaghat district and adjoining areas of Karbi Anglong, Assam, India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  197-204. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Thitaram, C., Thongtip, N., Somgird, C., Colenbrander, B., Van Boxtel, D.C.J., Lenstra, J.A. Molecular tool for genetic management and parentage test to control poaching in Asian elephants. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  205-209. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Tremblay, Y., Shaffer, S.A., Fowler, S.L., Kuhn, C.E., McDonald, B.I., Weise, M.J., Bost, C.A., Weimerskirch, H., Crocker, D.E., Goebel, M.E., Costa, D.P., 2006. Interpolation of animal tracking data in a fluid environment. J Exp Biol. 209 (Pt 1), 128-140.
Abstract: Interpolation of geolocation or Argos tracking data is a necessity for habitat use analyses of marine vertebrates. In a fluid marine environment, characterized by curvilinear structures, linearly interpolated track data are not realistic. Based on these two facts, we interpolated tracking data from albatrosses, penguins, boobies, sea lions, fur seals and elephant seals using six mathematical algorithms. Given their popularity in mathematical computing, we chose Bézier, hermite and cubic splines, in addition to a commonly used linear algorithm to interpolate data. Performance of interpolation methods was compared with different temporal resolutions representative of the less-precise geolocation and the more-precise Argos tracking techniques. Parameters from interpolated sub-sampled tracks were compared with those obtained from intact tracks. Average accuracy of the interpolated location was not affected by the interpolation method and was always within the precision of the tracking technique used. However, depending on the species tested, some curvilinear interpolation algorithms produced greater occurrences of more accurate locations, compared with the linear interpolation method. Total track lengths were consistently underestimated but were always more accurate using curvilinear interpolation than linear interpolation. Curvilinear algorithms are safe to use because accuracy, shape and length of the tracks are either not different or are slightly enhanced and because analyses always remain conservative. The choice of the curvilinear algorithm does not affect the resulting track dramatically so it should not preclude their use. We thus recommend using curvilinear interpolation techniques because of the more realistic fluid movements of animals. We also provide some guidelines for choosing an algorithm that is most likely to maximize track quality for different types of marine vertebrates. University of California, Santa Cruz, Long Marine Laboratory, Center for Ocean Health, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA. tremblay@biology.ucsc.edu

van Aarde, R., Ferreira, S., Guldemond, R., Jackson, T. Elephant management in southern Africa: Dealing with causes, not symptoms. Proceeding International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  211-212. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

van Aarde, R.J., Jackson, T.P., Ferreira, S.M., 2006. Conservation science and elephant management in southern Africa. South African Journal of Science 102, 385-388.
Abstract: The prevailing increase in elephant numbers across areas of southern Africa raises concern for their impact on biological diversity. Several approaches to elephant management focus on limiting numbers to alleviate these consequences. However, landscape fragmentation, fences, water supplementation as well as the shape and size of some conservation areas restrict range use and intensify the effects of elephants. We propose that the consequences of range limitation may best be addressed by restoring seasonal and regional patterns of land use. It can be achieved by linking existing conservation landscapes both nationally and internationally. This, rather than the management of numbers, should reduce local impact and help to stabilize elephant numbers regionally. We address the importance of space to elephant management by advocating a scientific approach that relies on the establishment of megaparks across southern Africa. These should facilitate local movements and regional dispersal both within and even between these parks. This will also allow for spatial dynamics (such as source-sink interactions) that stabilize numbers regionally while reducing local impacts. We believe that our proposal improves the scientific framework for conservation initiatives both nationally and regionally. It is in line with current developments in conservation science that emphasize habitat and ecosystem management. The implementation of this approach, however, needs substantial research and refinement for its validation and calls for a regional focus on conservation management, especially in view of local economic and social realities.

Vanitha, V., Thiyagesan, K., Baskaran, N. Population demography and viability of Asian elephants in timber camps of Tamil Nadu, southern India. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  213. 2006. 2007.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Varma, S., Pittet, A., Jamadagni, H.S., 2006. Experimenting usage of camera-traps-for population dynamics study of the Asian elephant Elephas maximus in southern India. Current Science 91, 324-331.
Abstract: To evaluate the application of camera-trap technology in population dynamics studies of the Asian elephant, indigenously designed, cost-effective infrared-triggered camera-traps were used. Usability of pictures was defined based on quality, clarity and positioning of the subject. With 99 pictures of 330 elephants, 20 sequence's were obtained and 44 distinct individuals were identified. It was found that 38.6% were adult females, 4.5% adult males 13.6% sub-adult females, 6.8% sub-adult males, 20.4% juvenile females, while juvenile males were poorly represented (2%), and 13.6% were calves. These results were surprisingly identical with those of other systematic and long-term studies.

Viljoen, J.J., Reynecke, H.C., du Toit, J.T., Langbauer, W.R. Elephant family groups may cause little environmental damage in the Kruger Park. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  274. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Wemmer, C., Krishamurthy, V., Shrestha, S., Hayek, L.A., Thant, M., 2006. Assessment of Body Condition in Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus). Zoo Biology 25, 187-200.
Abstract: A method of assessing body condition of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is presented. The method uses visual assessment to assign numerical scores to six different regions of the body, which are totaled to give a numerical index ranging from 0-11. The relationship between the index and morphometric variables is compared for a sample of 119 juvenile and young adult elephants from southern India, Nepal, and Myanmar. Mean ages of males and females were similar. Mean index of body condition (with standard error [SE]) was 7.370.2 points. No significant correlation was found between index of body condition and age over both sexes (r50.01, n550). Results were equivalent when sexes were treated separately (females: r50.03, n524; males: r50.01, n526). Sexes did not differ in height of the shoulder or body condition in our sample, but there was significant sexual dimorphism in breadth of the zygomatic arch and three measures of subcutaneous fat: girth of neck, thickness of cervical fold, and thickness of anal flap. These three measures were also significantly correlated with each other. Our assessment method should prove a practical tool for ecologic studies, but the relationship of the index topercentage of body fat should be determined using heavy water dilution
methodology.

Wiedner, E.B., Isaza, R., Galle, L.E., Barrie, K., Lindsay, W.A., 2006. Medical management of a corneal stromal abscess in a female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 37, 397-400.
Abstract: A 47-yr-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) developed a corneal stromal abscess in her right eye. The elephant was trained to open her eye for topical ophthalmic therapy, and was treated six times daily with antibiotics and an antifungal solution for almost 2 mo. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs were used to control pain, and atropine was applied topically to dilate the pupil and provide additional comfort. Vascularization of the abscess began shortly after initiating therapy, and complete resolution was obtained by 7 wk

Zimmermann, A., Wilson, S., Hazarika, N. Managing human-elephant conflict in Assam: An integrated approach. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  225-226. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Andrews, J., Mecklenborg, A., Bercovitch, F.B., 2005. Milk intake and development in a newborn captive African elephant  (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24, 275-281.
Abstract: In August 2003 the San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park (WAP) and the Lowry Park Zoo, under the auspices of the AZA's Elephant SSP and a USFWS permit, imported 3.8 African elephants (Loxodonta africana ) from the Kingdom of Swaziland. When they were captured, transrectal ultrasound examinations revealed that one nulliparous cow was approximately 10 months pregnant.  At the time of their arrival (August 2003), all of the animals were estimated to be approximately 13 years old and were thought to be nulliparous.  Based on the ultrasound examination results and the average African elephant gestation period, parturition was predicted to be 20 February 2004. In this report, we provide the first detailed data about nursing activity around the clock and newborn calf development, describe maternal and neonatal nighttime activity budgets, and explore maternal weight changes during suckling and lactation. The newborn calf suckled significantly more at night than during the day, but suckled for only about 2 hr per 24-hr period. Regression analysis revealed that through the first 3 months of life the calf gained 0.385 kg/day while it suckled on a regular basis. We compare our findings with published information on wild elephants, and conclude that although the growth rate is reduced compared to hand-reared elephant calves, the suckling patterns are almost identical to those reported for wild calves.

Bandara, R., Tisdell, C., 2005. Changing abundance of elephants and willingness to pay for their conservation
614. J. Environ. Manage. 76, 47-59.
Abstract: This paper explores the way in which the stated willingness to pay for the conservation of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka varies with hypothetical variations in their abundance. To do that, it relies on results from a sample of residents of Colombo. The willingness to pay function is found to be unusual. It increases at an increasing rate for hypothetical reductions in the elephant population compared to its current level (a level that makes the Asian elephant endangered) and also increases at a decreasing rate for increases in this population from its current level. Rational explanations are given for this relationship. The relationship is, however, at odds with relationships suggested in some of the literature for total economic value as a function of the abundance of a wildlife species. It is suggested that willingness to pay for conservation of a species rationally includes a strategic element and may not always measure the total economic value of a species. Nevertheless, willingness to pay is still policy relevant in such cases

Baxter, P.W.J., Getz, W.M., 2005. A model-framed evaluation of elephant effects on tree and fire dynamics in African savannas. Ecological Applications 15, 1331-1341.
Abstract: mThere is a concern that high densities of elephants in southern Africa could lead to the overall reduction of other forms of biodiversity. We present a grid-based model of elephant-savanna dynamics, which differs from previous elephant-vegetation models by accounting for woody plant demographics, tree-grass interactions, stochastic environmental variables (fire and rainfall), and spatial contagion of fire and tree recruitment. The model projects changes in height structure and spatial pattern of trees over periods of centuries. The vegetation component of the model produces long-term tree-grass coexistence, and the emergent fire frequencies match those reported for southern African savannas. Including elephants in the savanna model had the expected effect of reducing woody plant cover, mainly via increased adult tree mortality, although at an elephant density of 1.0 elephant/km(2), woody plants still persisted for over a century. We tested three different scenarios in addition to our default assumptions. (1) Reducing mortality of adult trees after elephant use, mimicking a more browsing-tolerant tree species, mitigated the detrimental effect of elephants on the woody population. (2) Coupling germination success (increased seedling recruitment) to elephant browsing further increased tree persistence, and (3) a faster growing woody component allowed some woody plant persistence for at least a century at a density of  3 elephants/km(2). Quantitative models of the kind presented here provide a valuable tool for exploring the consequences of management decisions involving the manipulation of elephant population densities.

Bloom, A., Zalinge, R., van Heitkonig, I.M.A., Prins, H.H.T., 2005. Factors influencing the distribution of large mammals within a protected central African forest. Oryx 39, 381-388.
Abstract: This paper presents the analyses of data obtained from eight permanent 20 km transects to determine the relative effect of local human populations and ecological factors on the distribution of large mammals within the Dzanga sector of the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park and the adjacent area of the Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Special Reserve in south-west Central African Republic. Principal component analysis indicated that human activities significantly influence the distribution of large mammals, even within this protected area. Distance from the village and the main road as well as the distance from secondary roads appeared to have the greatest influence. Elephants in particular were significantly less common in areas related to human use. Our study showed that poachers use roads, both primary and secondary, to penetrate into the National Park. Thus increasing anti-poaching efforts along these roads could be an effective protection measure.

Chiyo, P.I., Cochrane, E.P., Naughton, L., Basuta, G.I., 2005. Temporal patterns of crop raiding by elephants: a response to changes in forage quality or crop availability? African Journal of Ecology.
Abstract: Temporal patterns of crop raiding by elephants were studied for 13 months in 1996/1997 at Kibale Forest National Park, Uganda. To determine the influence of environmental factors on the timing of raiding, we tested for correlations between crop raiding patterns and the quality of natural forage within the forest as well as crop availability beyond park boundaries.  Crop raiding occurred throughout the year with peaks in dry seasons when crop availability was high. Bananas and maize were the main crops raided.  Variations in forage quality were moderate with small seasonal fluctuations and peaks in dry seasons. Monthly crop raiding incidences were not influenced by forage quality but by ripening of maize. Comparison of forage quality and temporal distribution of crop raiding between savanna and forest habitats suggests that crop availability is more important in forest habitats, whereas in savanna habitats large seasonal fluctuations in forage quality have a greater influence on temporal patterns of crop raiding.

Cushman, S.A., Chase, M., Griffin, C., 2005. Elephants in space and time. Oikoso 109, 331-341.
Abstract: Autocorrelation in animal movements can be both a serious nuisance to analysis and a source of valuable information about the scale and patterns of animal behavior, depending on the question and the techniques employed. In this paper we present an approach to analyzing the patterns of autocorrelation in animal movements that provides a detailed picture of seasonal variability in the scale and patterns of movement. We used a combination of moving window Mantel correlograms, surface correlation and crosscorrelation analysis to investigate the scales and patterns of autocorrelation in the movements of three herds of elephants in northern Botswana. Patterns of autocorrelation of elephant movements were long-range, temporally complicated, seasonally variable, and closely linked with the onset of rainfall events. Specifically, for the three elephant herds monitored there was often significant autocorrelation among locations up to lags of 30 days or more. During many seasonal periods there was no indication of decreasing autocorrelation with increasing time between locations. Over the course of the year, herds showed highly variable and complex patterns of autocorrelation, ranging from random use of temporary home ranges, periodic use of focal areas, and directional migration. Even though the patterns of autocorrelation were variable in time and quite complex, there were highly significant correlations among the autocorrelation patterns of the different herds, indicating that they exhibited similar patterns of movement through the year. These major patterns of autocorrelation seem to be related to patterns of rainfall. The strength of correlation in movement patterns of the different herds decreased markedly at the cessation of major rain events. Also, there was a strong crosscorrelation between strength of autocorrelation of movement and rainfall, peaking at time lags of between three and four weeks. Overall, these approaches provide a powerful way to explore the scales and patterns of autocorrelation of animal movements, and to explicitly link those patterns to temporally variable environmental attributes, such as rainfall or vegetation phenology.

Debruyne, R., 2005. A case study of apparent conflict between molecular phylogenies: the interrelationships of African elephants. Cladistics 21, 31-50.
Abstract: Recent molecular phylogenies of the African elephants suggest that there is an evolutionary structure within Loxodonta africana. Some nuclear results (Roca et al., 2001) support the separation of the forest African elephant subspecies L. a. cyclotis as a species distinct from the savannah elephant L. a. africana, on the basis of the recognition of both forming highly divergent (reciprocally monophyletic) clades. Conversely, a mitochondrial survey (Eggert et al., 2002), while admitting a geographic partitioning of the genetic structure within African elephants, suggests retaining the status quo. They recognize three diagnosible entities (western, central and south-eastern Africa) with non-overlapping ranges within L. africana sensu lato. In order to address these con.icting views (historical fragmentation and speciation or isolation by distance, respectively), we have sequenced two datasets of 1961 bp (for 50 elephants) and about 3700 bp, respectively (for 20 elephants) of the mitochondrial DNA for both forms of elephants (cyclotis and africana). They span the cytochrome b gene, the control region and several RNAs. When compared with former mtDNA data, they provide the most comprehensive view of the African elephant phylogeny (78 mtDNA haplotypes, of which 44 are new) and provide the .rst insight into populations from the Democratic Republic of Congo. The genetic diversity of mtDNA was appraised and the stability of alternative phylogenetic trees was investigated. Our results are inconsistent with both those prior studies. They revealed two highly divergent molecular clades referred to as F and S, that do not conform to the morphological delineations of cyclotis and africana. A non-negligible proportion of specimens of L. a. africana display haplotypes prevailing in forest elephant populations (clade F). The geographic distribution of clades and areas of their co-occurrence support the hypothesis of incomplete isolation between forest and savannah African elephant populations, followed by recurrent interbreeding between the two forms. We state that the conclusions of prior studies resulted from insufficient character and / or geographic sampling. We conclude that there is no satisfying argument which can recognize two or more species of African elephants. We briefly comment on the meaning of such an attitude in a conservation viewpoint.

Deem, S.L., Brown, J.L., Eggert, L., Wemmer, C., Htun, W., Nyunt, T., Murray, S., Leimgruber, P. Health and management of working elephants in Myanmar (Burma). Procedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  228-231. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Myanmar has approximately 6,000 working elephants.  Remaining wild elephants are declining, partly because of live-capture for captivity.  Through health and reproductive assessments, genetic analyses and GPS tracking of captive and wild elephants, we are exploring linkages between the two populations and conducting studies to reduce morbidity and mortality of captive elephants. Captive elephants live and work in Myanmar's forests in close proximity and contact to the remaining wild herds. We propose that reducing morbidity and mortality in the captive elephants will decrease the need for live-capture, and the risk of disease transmission, to wild elephants.
Introduction
There are an estimated 6,000 working elephants in Myanmar - half owned by the government operated Myanmar Timber Enterprise (MTE) and half owned privately^.5 This may be one of the largest captive elephant populations in the world and its management will have a significant impact on remaining wild herds in Myanmar.^4,6,8  With mortality rates higher than birth rates, the working population is probably maintained by supplementing it with elephants captured from the wild.⁵ There is evidence that continued harvest of wild elephants may have reduced the remaining wild populations of Myanmar.  Recent surveys of wild populations in two of Myanmar's protected elephant ranges revealed extremely low dung counts, indicative of small and declining herds. Constant contact with captive elephants in Myanmar's forests may exacerbate the threat to Myanmar wild elephants by increasing the transmission of disease between these two groups. For both the above reasons, we believe that the conservation of wild elephants in Myanmar will require significant improvements in the care and management of currently existing captive populations.  
Elephants owned by MTE receive veterinary care from the Burmese veterinarians that work for the timber company and travel extensively throughout the country to sites were the elephants are located.¹ There is a dire need for veterinary supplies and laboratory capabilities in the country. Currently, veterinary practices are based on the extensive field experience of lead MTE veterinarians. However, MTE veterinarians frequently rely on older published work ^3,7 and would benefit significantly from training that incorporates new insights into elephant health and new veterinary techniques. Similarly, because of their close-up experience of elephant health problems in the forests, MTE veterinarians may be able to make important new contributions to the care and management of elephants elsewhere.     
The overall objective of our study is to work jointly with MTE veterinarians to develop long-term captive population management strategies to reduce mortality and increase births in the working timber elephants and stop the continued off-take of animals from the wild to supplement captive herds.
Methods
The health component of this study has five major objectives.  These are to:
1              Conduct a training workshop, in conjunction with MTE veterinarians, on elephant management and veterinary care. 
2              Develop protocols so that the MTE veterinarians can collect samples for reproductive, genetic, and health status assessments.
3              Analyze samples and provide data to MTE veterinarians to improve husbandry, preventive care and disease treatment of working elephants.
4              Develop a comprehensive bibliography of all published information on the health and management of Myanmar elephants.
5              Perform an epidemiologic evaluation of records available on the historic and current working elephant population.
Specific steps to achieve these objectives include: 
1              Determine causes and rates of morbidity and mortality of captive MTE elephants.
2              Determine causes of low rates of reproduction in captivity.
3              Develop a genetic profile of the captive herds.
4              Develop a protocol to assess oozies-Burmese mahout-expertise in parallel with endocrine and health assessments to determine quality of care and potentially related stress.
5              Develop small population viability models to assess how current mortality effects long-term survival of the captive population and what supplementation from the wild is needed for short- and long-term sustainability.
6              Use population viability models to demonstrate how supplementation from the wild will negatively affect that population.
7              Get baseline health parameter data on free-ranging elephants.
8              Quantify habitat/space use using GPS and satellite tracking of captive and wild elephants. 
Results and Discussion
During an initial exploratory visit in November 2004, we learned that the annual mortality rate for MTE working elephants was 2.4% (66) in 2003.  Deaths occurred in all age groups (>18 yr, n = 40; 4 - 17 yr, n = 11; <4 yr, n = 15) and included preventable diseases (i.e., poor nutrition, heat stroke, diarrhea, dystocia, infectious and parasitic agents).  Additionally, we collected samples for performing health, genetic and endocrine analyses of 22 elephants maintained in one of the working camps (results to be present