Elephant
Bibliographic
Database

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Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org

References Updated October 2007

     1.    Mailand C. and Wasser S.K. 2007. Isolation of DNA from small amounts of elephant ivory.Nat Protoc 2: 2228-2232.
Abstract: This protocol describes a method for the extraction of DNA from elephant ivory. These techniques are being used to assign geographic origin to poached ivory by comparing the ivory genotype to a geographic-based gene frequency map, developed separately. The method has three components: ivory pulverization, decalcification and DNA extraction. Pulverization occurs in a freezer mill while the sample is deep frozen in liquid nitrogen, preventing degradation of DNA during the process. Decalcification involves repeated agitation of the sample in 0.5 M
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid over a 4-d period. Extraction follows a modified Qiagen protocol for the extraction of DNA from animal tissue. This method can be used on all forms of ivory. However, DNA recovery is highest when the outermost layer of the tusk, the cementum, is used. When applied to extract DNA from 11 samples, in duplicate, the entire protocol can be completed in 6 d, although much of this time consists of pause points that do not require effort. The protocol provides 0.8 +/- 0.11 ng microl(-1) (mean +/- s.e., n = 48) of DNA per sample.

     2.    Mailand C. and Wasser S.K. 2007. Isolation of DNA from small amounts of elephant ivory.Nature Protocols doi:10.1038/nprot.2007.318.
Abstract: This protocol describes a method for the extraction of DNA from elephant ivory. These techniques are being used to assign geographic origin to poached ivory by comparing the ivory genotype to a geographic-based gene frequency map, developed separately. The method has three components: ivory pulverization, decalcification and DNA extraction. Pulverization occurs in a freezer mill while the sample is deep frozen in liquid nitrogen, preventing degradation of DNA during the process. Decalcification involves repeated agitation of the sample in 0.5 M hylenediaminetetraacetic acid over a 4-d period. Extraction follows a modified Qiagen protocol for the extraction of DNA from animal tissue. This method can be used on all forms of ivory. However, DNA recovery is highest when the outermost layer of the tusk, the cementum, is used. When applied to extract DNA from 11 samples, in duplicate, the entire protocol can be completed in 6 d, although much of this time consists of pause points that do not require effort. The protocol provides 0.8 ± 0.11 ng ll1 (mean ± s.e., n 1/4 48) of DNA per sample.

     3.    Tabuce R., Marivaux L., Adaci M. et al. 2007. Early tertiary mammals from north Africa reinforce the molecular afrotheria clade.Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 274: 1159-1166.
Abstract: The phylogenetic pattern and timing of the radiation of mammals, especially the geographical origins of major crown clades, are areas of controversy among molecular biologists, morphologists and palaeontologists. Molecular phylogeneticists have identified an Afrotheria clade, which includes several taxa as different as tenrecs (Tenrecidae),golden moles (Chrysochloridae), elephant-shrews (Macroscelididae), aardvarks (Tubulidentata) and paenungulates (elephants, sea cows and hyracoids). Molecular data also suggest a Cretaceous African origin for Afrotheria within Placentalia followed by a long period of endemic evolution on the Afro-Arabian continent after the mid-Cretaceous Gondwanan breakup (approx. 105-25 Myr ago). However, there was no morphological support for such a natural grouping so far. Here, we report new dental and postcranial evidence of Eocene stem hyrax and macroscelidid from North Africa that, for the first time, provides a congruent phylogenetic view with the molecular Afrotheria clade. These new fossils imply, however, substantial changes regarding the historical biogeography of afrotheres. Their long period of isolation in Africa, as assumed by molecular inferences, is now to be reconsidered inasmuch as Eocene paenungulates and elephant-shrews are here found to be related to some Early Tertiary Euramerican 'hyopsodontid condylarths' (archaic hoofed mammals). As a result, stem members of afrotherian clades are not strictly African but also include some Early Paleogene Holarctic mammals.

     4.    Tabuce R., Marivaux L., Adaci M. et al. 2007. Early Tertiary mammals from North Africa reinforce the molecular Afrotheria clade.Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274: 1159-1166.
Abstract: The phylogenetic pattern and timing of the radiation of mammals, especially the geographical origins of major crown clades, are areas of controversy among molecular biologists, morphologists and palaeontologists. Molecular phylogeneticists have identified an Afrotheria clade, which includes several taxa as different as tenrecs (Tenrecidae), golden moles (Chrysochloridae), elephant-shrews (Macroscelididae), aardvarks (Tubulidentata) and paenungulates (elephants, sea cows and hyracoids). Molecular data also suggest a Cretaceous African origin for Afrotheria within Placentalia followed by a long period of endemic evolution on the Afro-Arabian continent after the mid-Cretaceous Gondwanan breakup (approx. 105-25Myr ago). However, there was no morphological support for such a natural grouping so far. Here, we report new dental and postcranial evidence of Eocene stem hyrax and macroscelidid from North Africa that, for the first time, provides a congruent phylogenetic view with the molecular Afrotheria clade. These new fossils imply, however, substantial changes regarding the historical biogeography of afrotheres. Their long period of isolation in Africa, as assumed by molecular inferences, is now to be reconsidered inasmuch as Eocene paenungulates and elephant-shrews are here found to be related to some Early Tertiary Euramerican 'hyopsodontid condylarths' (archaic hoofed mammals). As a result, stem members of afrotherian clades are not strictly African but also include some Early Paleogene Holarctic mammals.

     5.    Wasser S.K., Mailand C., Booth R. et al. 2007. Using DNA to track the origin of the largest ivory seizure since the 1989 trade ban.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 104: 4228-4233.
Abstract: The illegal ivory trade recently intensified to the highest levels ever reported. Policing this trafficking has been hampered by the inability to reliably determine geographic origin of contraband ivory. Ivory can be smuggled across multiple international borders and along numerous trade routes, making poaching hotspots and potential trade routes difficult to identify. This fluidity also makes it difficult to refute a country's denial of poaching problems. We extend an innovative DNA assignment method to determine the geographic origin(s) of large elephant ivory seizures. A Voronoi tessellation method is used that utilizes genetic similarities across tusks to simultaneously infer the origin of multiple samples that could have one or more common origin(s). We show that this joint analysis performs better than sample-by-sample methods in assigning sample clusters of known origin. The joint method is then used to infer the geographic origin of the largest ivory seizure since the 1989 ivory trade ban. Wildlife authorities initially suspected that this ivory came from multiple locations across forest and savanna Africa. However, we show that the ivory was entirely from savanna elephants, most probably originating from a narrow east-to-west band of southern Africa, centered on Zambia. These findings enabled law enforcement to focus their investigation to a smaller area and fewer trade routes and led to changes within the Zambian government to improve antipoaching efforts. Such outcomes demonstrate the potential of genetic analyses to help combat the expanding wildlife trade by identifying origin(s) of large seizures of contraband ivory. Broader applications to wildlife trade are discussed. Center for Conservation Biology, Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA. wassers@u.washington.edu

     6.    Fidgett A.L., Newman E.C. and Sanderson S. 2006. Using faecal analysis as an indicator of dental condition: A case study at Chester Zoo.  Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium., 2006, p. 250.

     7.    Furniss, C. On the tusks of a dilemma. Geographical Magazine (Royal Geographic Society) (November), 47-57. 2006.
Ref Type: Magazine Article
Abstract: During the 20th century, poaching for ivory sent the populations of African and Asian elephants hurtling towards extinction. But then, following a 1990 ban on the trade of ivory, they began to stage a remarkable comeback, leading many conservationists to believe that the battle had been won. Now, however, it's the ivory trade that is staging a comeback, and it has wildlife campaigners worried. And as the CITES Standing Committee deliberates over whether or not to sanction a sale of stockpiled ivory, there are fears that once again, the world's elephants are in peril.

     8.    Gelvin-Reymiller C., Reuther J.D., Potter B.A. and Bowers P.M. 2006. Technical aspects of a worked proboscidean tusk from Inmachuk River, Seward Peninsula, Alaska.Journal of Archaeological Science 33: 1088-1094.
Abstract: Prehistoric reduction sequences of proboscidean ivory have been described and discussed within the Russian and European Upper Paleolithic archaeological literature. A culturally modified proboscidean tusk (Mammuthus sp.) in Seward Peninsula, northwestern Alaska, displays longitudinal grooving, providing an insight into a reduction technique rarely described within North American archaeological literature. Similar reduction sequences have been described for the production of bone, antler and walrus ivory artifacts in the North American prehistoric record; however, examples on proboscidean ivory are extremely rare.

     9.    Jakubinek M.B., Samarasekera C.J. and White M.A. 2006. Elephant ivory: A low thermal conductivity, high strength nanocomposite.Journal of Materials Research 21: 287-292.
Abstract: There has been much recent interest in heat transport in nanostructures, and also in the structure, properties, and growth of biological materials. Here we present measurements of thermal properties of a nanostructured biomineral, ivory. The room-temperature thermal conductivity of ivory is anomalously low in comparison with its constituent components. Low-temperature (2-300 K) measurements of thermal conductivity and heat capacity reveal a glass-like temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity and phonon mean free path, consistent with increased phonon-boundary scattering associated with nanostructure. These results suggest that biomineral-like nanocomposite structures could be useful in the design of novel high-strength materials for low thermal conductivity applications.

   10.    Shoshani J., Walter R.C., Abraha M. et al. 2006. A proboscidean from the late Oligocene of Eritrea, a "missing link" between early Elephantiformes and Elephantimorpha, and biogeographic implications.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 103: 17296-17301pdf.
Abstract: We report on a late Oligocene proboscidean species from Eritrea, dated to 26.8 +/- 1.5 Mya. This "missing link" between early elephantiformes and Elephantimorpha is the oldest known nongomphothere proboscidean to probably display horizontal tooth displacement, typical of elephants [Elephantimorpha consists of Mammutida (mastodons) and Elephantida, and Elephantida includes gomphotheres, stegodons, and elephants]. Together with the newly discovered late Oligocene gomphotheres from Chilga, Ethiopia, the Eritrean taxon points to the importance of East Africa as a major area for the knowledge of the early evolution of Elephantimorpha before the faunal exchange between Eurasia and Africa.Department of Biology, University of Asmara, PO Box 1220, Asmara, Eritrea. jshosh@sun.science.wayne.edu

   11.    Edwards H.G.M., Hassan N.F.N. and Arya N. 2005. Evaluation of Raman spectroscopy and application of chemometric methods for the differentiation of contemporary ivory specimens I: elephant and mammalian species.Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 37: 353-360.
Abstract: Specimens of mammoth, African and Asian ivory dentine, and other mammalian species were examined using Fourier-Transform (FT), conventional dispersive (confocal) and remote-sensing portable Raman spectroscopy, all with near-infrared laser excitation (1064 and 785 nm). FT-Raman spectroscopy produced the best quality spectra for differentiation purposes and the application of a fibre probe coupled to a portable Raman spectrometer has also been demonstrated and proposed for the in situ characterization of suspected contraband ivories at airports. In addition to the visual comparison of spectral features, chemometric methods are used to discriminate between African and Asian elephant dentine by analyzing normalized integrated band areas in ten selected wavenumber regions. Principal component analysis separates the spectra of both species into two well-defined groups based upon their organic and inorganic composition. By means of stepwise discriminant analysis almost 98% of the spectra are correctly classified to their species group memberships.

   12.    Konishi S. 2005. Jaws of herbivorous mammals.Clin Calcium 15: 1414-1417.
Abstract: The jaws of herbivorous mammals are characterized by their large occlusal surface of the molar; high crown of the molar; long snout; etc. However,
elephants, the biggest herbivorous mammal, have other characteristics. In the evolutionary trends of proboscidean skulls, concomitant with the increase in
tusk size comes on the enlargement, antero-posterior shortening, dorso-ventral elongation of the cranium with increasing cheek teeth size. Naturally, the jaw follows the same evolutionary trends as the cranium.

   13.    Kruzic J.J., Nalla R.K., Kinney J.H. and Ritchie R.O. 2005. Mechanistic aspects of in vitro fatigue-crack growth in dentin.Biomaterials 26: 1195-1204.
Abstract: Although the propagation of fatigue cracks has been recognized as a problem of clinical significance in dentin, there have been few fracture mechanics-based studies that have investigated this issue. In the present study, in vitro cyclic fatigue experiments were conducted over a range of cyclic frequencies (1-50 Hz) on elephant dentin in order to quantify fatigue-crack growth behavior from the perspective of understanding the mechanism of fatigue in dentin. Specifically, results obtained for crack extension rates along a direction parallel to the dentinal tubules were found to be well described by the stress-intensity range, DeltaK, using a simple Paris power-law approach with exponents ranging from 12 to 32. Furthermore, a frequency dependence was observed for the crack-growth rates, with higher growth rates associated with lower frequencies. By using crack-growth experiments involving alternate cyclic and static loading, such fatigue-crack propagation was mechanistically determined to be the result of a "true" cyclic fatigue mechanism, and not simply a succession of static fracture events. Furthermore, based on the observed frequency dependence of fatigue-crack growth in dentin and observations of time-dependent crack blunting, a cyclic fatigue mechanism involving crack-tip blunting and re-sharpening is proposed.These results are deemed to be of importance for an improved understanding of fatigue-related failures in teeth.

   14.    Rasmussen H.B., Wittemyer G. and Douglas-Hamilton I. 2005. Estimating age of immobilized elephants from teeth impressions using dental silicon.African Journal of Ecology 43: 215-219.
Abstract: High precision condensation dental silicon, Zetalabor^TM, was used to create moulds of the lower jaw molars from 22 immobilized African elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenback) during radio collaring operations. These moulds were used to determine the elephant's age using Laws and Jachmann's molar aging criteria. The technique proved easy and fast and produced useful imprints in 90% of the cases. We found our age estimates, based on physical appearance, made prior to immobilizations were relatively accurate, with 75% within ±3 years and 95% within ±5 years from the age indicated from molar evaluation. When re-collaring the same individuals in 2-3 years, new moulds will be made to compare a known time period with the degree of tooth wear. This will provide verification of Laws age estimates from free-ranging elephants.

   15.    Rasmussen L.E.L., Krishamurthy V. and Sakumar R. 2005. Behavioural and chemical confirmation of the preovulatory pheromone, (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate, in wild Asian elephants: its relationship to musth.Behaviour 142: 351-396.
Abstract: Mammalian breeding strategies vary depending on particular social contexts and sensory systems emphasized in various species. Among sexually dimorphic non-territorial Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, a multiplex olfactory chemical signaling system has been implicated in ensuring effective reproduction. This study explores how, using chemosensory mechanisms, widely roaming, wild male elephants locate periovulatory females in matriarchal-led female family units and precisely assess their ovulatory status. In this species, the dual obstacles of separately living sexes and infrequent oestrus are overcome by lengthy female cycles. During an extended preovulatory period captive females release increasing concentrations of the urinary pheromone (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate, timed to reach a maximum just before ovulation. The current field studies combined chemical identification and quantification of female urinary (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate with behavioural observations, monitoring the frequencies of chemosensory responses and premating  behaviours by various categories of males. The results suggest the temporal extension of the preovulatory period effectively provides a synchrony between sexes for successful reproduction. Male elephants undergo a two-decade-long maturation process that involves physical, sexual, social, and physiological maturation. Males older than 30 years are generally large, sexually active, socially adept and capable of sustaining long periods of musth, during which they release secretions distinctive of adult musth.  These older adult males in musth demonstrated significantly more chemosensory responses and premating behaviours than their younger or nonmusth counterparts; they apparently are more skilled at detecting the precise ovulatory status of females. Male-male interactions are affected by size, age, and musth; the winners gain greater access to females, as indicated by the high incidence of mate guarding.  The Asian elephant shares some breeding tactics common to other mammals including some primates (e.g. orangutans) and whales, while the musth parameter adds a unique feature. Fusion-fission events are influenced by elephant reproductive strategies, as roving males join female groups while tracking preovulatory pheromone concentrations.

   16.    Raubenheimer E.J. and Ngwenya S.P. 2005. The role of ivory in the survival of the African elephant.SADJ 60: 426, 430.
Abstract: The unique chequered pattern of polished ivory has created a perverted commercial demand for elephant tusks. The morphologic basis of the pattern,
which makes ivory a sought after product for the manufacturing of works of art, is discussed. Chemical analyses of ivory holds great potential in tracing the source of illegally harvested tusks and exposing poorly managed elephant sanctuaries. The impact of uncontrolled ivory hunting on the population genetics of the African elephant is briefly reviewed.

   17.    Stone J. and Telford M. 2005. Fractal dimensions characterizing mammal teeth: A case study involving Elephantidae.Mammal Rev. 35: 123-128.
Abstract: 1. Dental features frequently have provided data for producing and deducing mammal taxonomies and phylogeny, yet quantitative or statistical analyses for describing intricacies that characterize tooth form are wanting. 2. A method for determining fractal dimensions D that characterize enamel ridges constituting occlusal surfaces for teeth in some mammal species is presented; D quantify complexity (i.e. convolution). The method is exemplified with an analysis that was conducted on teeth from the Family Elephantidae.

   18.    Suedmeyer W.K., Oosterhuis J., Kollias G. et al. 2005. Elephant restraint device assisted anesthesia in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).  2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group, pp. 189-191.
Abstract: Modern elephant management programs often include the use of protected contact. This allows improved safety for the elephant staff but may limit access to medical conditions occurring in elephants.
A 27-yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) weighing an estimated 3,700 kg was anesthetized for evaluation of a chronic, progressive, fistulous tract of the left ventral mandible. The mandible was routinely cultured, flushed with diluted peroxide, chlorhexidine, betadine solution, or alternating antibiotics, based on microbial sensitivities. To properly assess the left mandible, the elephant had to be placed in right lateral recumbency, which was accomplished with the use of a commercially available rotational elephant restraint device (ERD). Because of the protected contact management program, right lateral recumbency could not be guaranteed at the time of immobilization. Malpositioning, tusk fracture and/or related injury could occur upon recumbency without the additional control afforded by the ERD. The ERD is a hydraulically operated unit that comfortably restrains an elephant, minimizing safety risks to the animal and staff. The ERD consists of one solid wall, three side panels, and hinged floor. The ends of the restraint are closed with moveable shift doors. The three side panels can be moved independently depending upon the size of the animal and are further subdivided with moveable "subpanels" to allow direct access to various areas of the animal. In addition, support straps help gently stabilize limbs when performing medical procedures. The unit is positioned within the elephant holding facility at the Kansas City Zoo. The unit was installed in 1994 during renovation of the elephant exhibit, whereupon the elephant management program was changed from free-contact to protected contact. The ERD is utilized for reproductive assessments, semen collection, transabdominal ultrasound, evaluation of integumentary wounds, ophthalmic and aural examination, and administration of injectable medications. However, no elephant had been anesthetized and rotated in the restraint. The affected animal could not be guaranteed to re-enter the ERD once rotated, but would enter and station in the ERD on a daily basis. Because of this, a conspecific was conditioned to allow rotation without the use of sedatives or tranquilizers, to prepare for the actual immobilization. Adjustments in strap placement, cushioning, critical evaluation of mechanical stability, and placement of hydraulic panels allowed staff to prepare for the actual immobilization, minimizing complications. The elephant was conditioned to enter and station in the ERD. After strapping the distal limbs, thorax and caudal abdomen for support, the elephant was immobilized with a combination of 3,000 IU of hyaluronidase (O'Brien Pharmacy, Kansas City, MO USA), 10 mg acepromazine maleate, and 7 mg etorphine hydrochloride (Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins, CO USA) via pole syringe. Close monitoring of induction was performed and when stage III anesthetic plane was achieved, the elephant was rotated into right lateral recumbency, elevating the elephant 6 feet above the floor. No voluntary movement of the animal was noted while the restraint was in motion. Direct arterial blood pressure, indirect oscillometric blood pressure, blood gases, respiratory rate, excursion characteristics, cardiac rate and rhythm, and pulse oximetry was routinely monitored during the procedure. Anesthesia was maintained with intermittent boluses of etorphine hydrochloride. Intravenous physiologic fluids (lactated Ringers solution) were maintained via an i.v. aural catheter, and insufflation with oxygen was provided on a continual basis. Oral examination and palpation demonstrated an incomplete transverse fissure of the left mandibular molar, intact gingival, and proper dental occlusion with the upper arcade.  Digital radiographs of the left mandible were performed based on exposures obtained with a set of skeletonized jaws. Advantages of this diagnostic modality are the immediate imaging results, portability, and digital imaging and storage, and does not require a developer or fixative. Adjustments in radiographic angle and technique were made to obtain the best diagnostic image. Radiographic imaging demonstrated a sequestrum consisting of a fractured enamel plate  ²of the mandibular molar with a fistulous tract that coursed ventrally to communicate through the skin. The elephant was elevated 6 feet above the ground, which presented unique challenges. Because of the relatively small operating space, intubation was not possible, but insufflation was readily achieved and successful based on pulse oximetry trends. A commercial lift was utilized to elevate two large-animal circle anesthetic units to the level of the elephant's head. During immobilization the legs were cushioned and restraint straps removed to lessen the potential for occlusive damage to the tissues. The ERD allows an elephant to be positioned in either right or left lateral recumbency.
Upon completion of diagnostic procedures, the narcotic agent was reversed with 1,400 mg naltrexone hydrochloride (Zoopharm, Laramie, WY USA) administered 25% intravenously and 75% subcutaneously. The elephant awoke within 90 sec and was rotated to a standing position within the restraint. Thereafter, the elephant was confined in the restraint for approximately 45 min, until no untoward effects were likely to occur. The elephant was released from the restraint and resumed normal eating and drinking within 8 hr, and voluntarily entered the restraint within 2 wk following the procedure. The elephant was stable throughout the procedure; however, a predetermined objective for mean arterial blood pressures (<200 MAP) was not achieved. Hyaluronidase was utilized to promote rapid absorption of the narcotic and neuroleptic agents.³ Acetylpromazine was used to maintain peripheral perfusion by reducing the hypertensive effects of etorphine,¹ which has been documented in previous immobilizations of African elephants.^3-5 Etorphine hydrochloride, a powerful narcotic agent, has been successfully used as an immobilizing agent in both wild and captive African elephants.^3-5 Use of an ERD allowed full control of the immobilization, increasing safety for personnel, preventing injury to the elephant, and positioning the left mandible on the dorsal plane. Disadvantages are the elevated height of the elephant, relatively small operating space, and disrupted line of sight communication. A second procedure will be performed in the near future to address the fracture and subsequent sequestrum diagnosed during the first immobilization. The elephant is currently being conditioned to allow restraint in a holding stall that will allow greater access to the oral cavity and surgical manipulation of the affected mandible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the staff of the Kansas City Zoological Park for their care, concern, and expertise in helping make this procedure a success.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Booth, N.H. Psychotropic agents. In: Booth, N.H., and R.E. McDonald (eds.). Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics.  W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA. P. 329.
2 Fagan, V.D.A., J.E. Oosterhuis, and A. Roocraft. 2001. Captivity disorders in elephants: impacted molars and broken tusks. Der Zoologische Garten 71:281-303.
3 Honeymoon, V.L., G.R. Pettifer, and D.H. Dyson. 1992. Arterial blood pressure and blood gas values in normal standing and laterally recumbent African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus)    elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 23:205-210.
4. Kock, R.A., P. Morkel, and M.D. Kock. 1993. Current immobilization procedures used in elephants. In: Fowler,
M.E. (ed.).  Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA.  Pp. 436-441.
5 Raath, J.P. 1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., and R.E. Miller (eds.). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA.  Pp. 525-533.

   19.    Weissengruber G.E., Egerbacher M. and Forstenpointner G. 2005. Structure and innervation of the tusk pulp in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).J Anat 206: 387-393.
Abstract: African elephants (Loxodonta africana) use their tusks for digging, carrying and behavioural display. Their healing ability following traumatic injury is enormous. Pain experience caused by dentin or pulp damage of tusks seems to be negligible in elephants. In this study we examined the pulp tissue and the nerve distribution using histology, electron microscopy and immunhistochemistry. The results demonstrate that the pulp comprises two differently structured regions. Randomly orientated collagen fibres characterize a cone-like part lying rostral to the foramen apicis dentis. Numerous nerve fibres and Ruffini endings are found within this cone. Rostral to the cone, delicate collagen fibres and large vessels are orientated longitudinally. The rostral two-thirds of the pulp are highly vascularized, whereas nerve fibres are sparse. Vessel and nerve fibre distribution and the structure of connective tissue possibly play important roles in healing and in the obviously limited pain experience after tusk injuries and pulp alteration. The presence of Ruffini endings is most likely related to the use of tusks as tools. Institute of Anatomy, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria. gerald.weissengruber@vu-wien.ac.at

   20.    Boy S.C. and Steenkamp G. 2004. Neural innervation of the tusk pulp of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).Veterinary Record 154: 372-374.

   21.    Gobbel L., Fischer M.S., Smith T.D., Wible J.R. and Bhatnagar K.P. 2004. The vomeronasal organ and associated structures of the fetal African elephant, Loxodonta africana (Proboscidea, Elephantidae).Acta Zoologica 85: 41-52.
Abstract: The vomeronasal organ (VNO) is a chemosensory structure of the nasal septum found in most tetrapods. Although potential behavioural correlates of VNO function have been shown in two of the three elephant species, its morphology in Loxodonta africana has not been studied. The development of the VNO and its associated structures in the African elephant are described in detail using serially sectioned material from fetal stages. The results show that many components of the VNO complex (e.g. neuroepithelium, receptor-free epithelium, vomeronasal nerve, paravomeronasal ganglia, blood vessels, vomeronasal cartilage) are well developed even in a 154-day-old fetus, in which the VNO opens directly into the oral cavity with only a minute duct present. However, the vomeronasal glands and their ducts associated with the VNO were developed only in the 210-day-old fetus. Notably, in this fetus, the vomeronasal-nasopalatine duct system had acquired a pathway similar to that described in the adult Asian elephant; the VNOs open into the oral cavity via the large palatal parts of the nasopalatine ducts, which are lined by a stratified squamous epithelium. The paired palatal ducts initially coursed anteriorly at an angle of  45degrees from the oral recess and/or the oral cavity mucosa, and merged into the vomeronasal duct. This study confirms the unique characteristics of the elephant VNO, such as its large size, the folded epithelium of the VNO tube, and the dorsomedial position of the neuroepithelium. The palatal position and exclusive communication of the VNO with the oral cavity, as well as the partial reduction of the nasopalatine duct, might be re

   22.    Sarma K.K. 2004. Extraction of decayed tusk in elephants.Indian Veterinary Journal 81: 812-814.
Abstract: Case history of dental pulp decay in eight male Asian elephants is discussed. Causes of injury and infection, pathological process and clinical signs are elaborated. Treatment of the cases by extraction of the decayed tusks, anaesthetic management, operative procedure, post operative care and the outcome of treatment has been discussed.

   23.    Wasser S.K., Shedlock A.M., Comstock K. et al. 2004. Assigning African elephant DNA to geographic region of origin: applications to the ivory trade.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 101: 14847-14852.
Abstract: Resurgence of illicit trade in African elephant ivory is placing the elephant at renewed risk. Regulation of this trade could be vastly improved by the ability to verify the geographic origin of tusks. We address this need by developing a combined genetic and statistical method to determine the origin of poached ivory. Our statistical approach exploits a smoothing method to estimate geographic-specific allele frequencies over the entire African elephants' range for 16 microsatellite loci, using 315 tissue and 84 scat samples from forest (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) and savannah (Loxodonta africana africana) elephants at 28 locations. These geographic-specific allele frequency estimates are used to infer the geographic origin of DNA samples, such as could be obtained from tusks of unknown origin. We demonstrate that our method alleviates several problems associated with standard assignment methods in this context, and the absolute accuracy of our method is high. Continent-wide, 50% of samples were located within 500 km, and 80% within 932 km of their actual place of origin. Accuracy varied by region (median accuracies: West Africa, 135 km; Central Savannah, 286 km; Central Forest, 411 km; South, 535 km; and East, 697 km). In some cases, allele frequencies vary considerably over small geographic regions, making much finer discriminations possible and suggesting that resolution could be further improved by collection of samples from locations not represented in our study.

   24.    Kruzic J.J., Nalla R.K., Kinney J.H. and Ritchie R.O. 2003. Crack blunting, crack bridging and resistance-curve fracture mechanics in dentin: Effect of hydration.Biomaterials 24: 5209-5221.
Abstract: Few studies have focused on a description of the fracture toughness properties of dentin in terms of resistance-curve (R-curve) behavior, i.e., fracture resistance increasing with crack extension, particularly in light of the relevant toughening mechanisms involved. Accordingly, in the present study, fracture mechanics based experiments were conducted on elephant dentin in order to determine such R-curves, to identify the salient toughening mechanisms and to discern how hydration may affect their potency. Crack bridging by uncracked ligaments, observed directly by microscopy and X-ray tomography, was identified as a major toughening mechanism, with further experimental evidence provided by compliance-based experiments. In addition, with hydration, dentin was observed to display significant crack blunting leading to a higher overall fracture resistance than in the dehydrated material. The results of this work are deemed to be of importance from the perspective of modeling the fracture behavior of dentin and in predicting its failure in vivo.

   25.    Nalla R.K., Kinney J.H. and Ritchie R.O. 2003. Effect of orientation on the in vitro fracture toughness of dentin: the role of toughening mechanisms.Biomaterials 24: 3955-3968.
Abstract: Toughening mechanisms based on the presence of collagen fibrils have long been proposed for mineralized biological tissues like bone and dentin; however, no direct evidence for their precise role has ever been provided. Furthermore, although the anisotropy of mechanical properties of dentin with respect to orientation has been suggested in the literature, accurate measurements to support the effect of orientation on the fracture toughness of dentin are not available. To address these issues, the in vitro fracture toughness of dentin, extracted from elephant tusk, has been characterized using fatigue-precracked compact-tension specimens tested in Hank's balanced salt solution at ambient temperature, with fracture paths perpendicular and parallel to the tubule orientations (and orientations in between) specifically being evaluated. It was found that the fracture toughness was lower where cracking occurred in the plane of the collagen fibers, as compared to crack paths perpendicular to the fibers. The origins of this effect on the toughness of dentin are discussed primarily in terms of the salient toughening mechanisms active in this material; specifically, the role of crack bridging, both from uncracked ligaments and by individual collagen fibrils, is considered. Estimates for the contributions from each of these mechanisms are provided from theoretical models available in the literature.  Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.

   26.    Steenkamp G. 2003. Oral biology and disorders of tusked mammals.Veterinary Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 6: 689-725.
Abstract: Tusked mammals can be terrestrial or aquatic. Many of these magnificent animals are kept in captivity all over the world. Functions of tusks vary as much as the species in which they occur. Dental anomalies and disorders of tusks and the rest of the dentition in these mammals were discussed, with an emphasis on the elephant. The tusk anatomy, with its large, conically-shaped pulp, makes it an ideal tooth for partial pulpectomy treatment in trauma cases where the pulp is exposed. Surgical techniques for tusks have been developed and were discussed. Oral tumors occur, but are rare.Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0010, South Africa. steenkamp@op.up.ac.za

   27.    Steiner M., Gould A.R., Clark T.J. and Burns R. 2003. Induced elephant (Loxodonta africana) tusk removal.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 34: 93-95.
Abstract: Elephant tusk removal usually requires costly surgical procedures that are time-consuming and present a significant risk to the animal when performed using general anesthesia. Such techniques require gauges, chisels, and forceps to remove the tusk. This article reports the simple removal of the tusk of an 18-yr-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana) without the use of surgical instruments and anesthesia. Rubber elastics were placed around a tusk, causing loss of alveolar bone with subsequent exfoliation of the tusk within 3 wk. The healing process was uneventful. Department of Surgical and Hospital Dentistry, School of Dentistry, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, USA.

   28.    Weissengruber G.E., Egerbacher M., Forstenpointner G. et al. 2003. Mechanisms of loss and repair in traumatically injured tusks of African elephants.  Erkrankungen-der-Zootiere:-Verhandlungsbericht-des-41.-Internationalen-Symposiums-uber-die-Erkrankungen-der-Zoo-und-Wildtiere, May 28, 2003, p. 425.

   29.    Chandrasekharan K. 2002. Elephant - an overview.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 8-11.

   30.    Cheeran J.V. 2002. Elephant facts.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 12-14.

   31.    Murali K. 2002. An introduction to Hastyayurveda.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 54,63-63.

   32.    Nayar K.N.M., Chandrasekharan K. and Radhakrishnan K. 2002. Management of surgical affections in captive elephants.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 55-59.

   33.    Rafeek A.K. 2002. Human Elephant Conflict.Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 47-48.

   34.    Witter K., Matulova P. and Misek I. 2002. The lateral enamel lamina--component of tooth primordia in selected mammalian species.Connect Tissue Res 42: 134-137.
Abstract: The lateral enamel lamina (LEL) is a part of the enamel organ, which is probably not involved in tooth formation. It represents, besides the "stalk" of the tooth primordium, a second interconnection between enamel organ and oral epithelium or vestibular lamina. We detected the LEL in the sheep (Ovis aries), the dolphin (Stenella attenuata), and the vole (Microtus agrestis) by light microscopy and computer-aided three-dimensional reconstruction. The LEL could be found in cap to bell stage tooth primordia, most clearly in slowly developing tooth germs. LEL-like structures have been furthermore described or depicted in tooth germs of the mouse, the elk (Alces alces), the dugong (Dugong dugong), the elephant (Loxodonta africana), and the human. Probably it is a part of all mammalian tooth primordia that undergoes regression during morphogenesis of the enamel organ. As a reducing structure, it should be considered in studies of tooth development.

   35.    Fagan D.A., Oosterhuis J.E. and Roocroft A. 2001. Captivity disorders in elephants impacted molars and broken tusks.Zool.Garten 71: 281-303.

   36.    Forstenpointner G., Weissengruber G.E., Kuebber-Heiss A., Burger H. and Voracek T. 2001. Healing and repair in tusk, incisivum and maxilla of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). In: pdf (ed), Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians, and the National Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians Joint Conference, p. 393. AAZV, USA.
Abstract: Tusk disorders are common in elephants.  The exposed position of this hypsodont incisor, its special shape and structure, and its use for digging, carrying and behavioral display make it clear, that this tooth can be easily injured. Tusk disorders in free-ranging elephants, which play probably, from an evolutionary standpoint, a distinct role as a limiting factor, should, therefore, show a fast complete healing. Tusk injuries of zoo animals, however, frequently require medical treatment. In order to provide information about the healing mechanisms in tusks and the surrounding bone tissue we investigated the remaining tusk and skull of a female, approximately 40-yr-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana) by means of gross anatomical dissection and histologic staining techniques.  This elephant had been kept at the Vienna zoo and was euthanized in January 2000 because of severe disorders of the locomotor apparatus, which were resistant to treatment.  The extra-alveolar part of its left trunk had fractured in September 1996 and the pulp cavity was opened.  In the following days procaine penicillin and dihydrostrepromycin were administered intramuscularly and the distal part of the remaining tusk, which revealed a longitudinal cleft, was cut off.  A distal section of the remaining pulp tissue was extracted and the pulp cavity was closed with a gauze wick drenched in a lincomycin-solution.  The gauze wick was removed 1 wk later.  At the time of the elephant's death the pulp cavity of the left tusk appeared completely closed with secondary dentin and the alveolar par of the tusk did not show signs of a pathological alteration.  The dental pulp tissue nearly 15 cm from the distal end of the remaining tusk reveals large arteries and anisotropic collagenous fibers. The alveolar cavity of the right tusk, which was totally extirpated, is filled up with bone tissue leaving only a small osseous duct on the bony plate.  The prominence on the laterodorsal surface of the right incisivum and maxilla, which is normally produced by the dental root of a tusk, is completely reduced.  The tusk of the elephant and its surrounding bony elements, therefore, reveal an enormous healing ability, which is in striking contrast to the human tooth.

   37.    Hinke A. and Wipplinger J. 2001. A Case of Molar Anomalie in an Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus).  A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001, 2001, p. 264. Schuling Verlag, Vienna, Austria.

   38.    Meier D., Lang E.M. and Opplinger D. 2001. "Beira": Fourth Molar in Lower Jaw of an African Elephant (Loxodonta africana).  A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001, 2001, pp. 269-271. Schuling Verlag, Vienna, Austria.

   39.    Weihs W. 2001. Molar Growth and Chewing Frequencies as Age Indicators in Asian Elephants.  A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001, 2001, pp. 294-296. Schuling Verlag, Vienna, Austria.

   40.    Crossley D.A. 2000. Elephant tusks: where are the nerves?J.Vet.Dent. 17: 37.

   41.    Debuyst R., Callens F., Frechen M. and Dejehet F. 2000. ESR study of elephant tooth enamel from the Karlich-Seeufer site in Germany.Appl Radiat Isot 52: 1327-1336.
Abstract: Enamel from 6 different positions in a well preserved elephant tooth from the Karlich-Seeufer site in Germany has been irradiated up to 32 kGy. The X-band (v = 9.5 GHz) ESR spectra of two subsamples have been decomposed into three real components with Maximum Likelihood Common Factor Analysis (MLCFA). One of these components due to orthorhombic CO2- radicals is predominant. Dose response curves for the contributions of these MLCFA components and for different heights in the ESR spectra have been obtained and fitted with different models. Depending on the model, the equivalent dose for the preferably used height at g = 1.9973, due to CO2-, ranges from 70 to 130 Gy. Due to a very low uranium and thorium content in both enamel and dentine (< or = approximately 10 ppb) and to an important external y-attenuation, the ages fluctuate between 300 and 575 ka.

   42.    Raubenheimer E.J. 2000. Early development of the tush and the tusk of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).Arch Oral Biol 45: 983-986.

   43.    Raubenheimer E.J. 2000. Early development of the tush and the tusk of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).Archives of Oral Biology 45: 983-986.
Abstract: This early development was studied from a serial histological sections of eight elephant embryos with masses varying between 1 and 240 g. The tush and the tusk develop from one tooth germ in a deciduous to permanent tooth relation. In order to study the mineralization of the dental organ of the tush and cap and bell stage of the tusk, embryos older than 3-months' gestation (weighing more than 250 g) would be required.

   44.    Fagan D.A., Benirschke K., Simon J.H. and Roocroft A. 1999. Elephant dental pulp tissue: where are the nerves?J Vet Dent 16: 169-172.
Abstract: Dental pulp tissue from three elephants was examined histologically with hematoxylin and eosin and s-100 protein stains. In all specimens, normal pulp was found with the exception that no nerve fibers (myelinated or non-myelinated) were demonstrable in any of the numerous sections prepared.

   45.    Kuntze A. 1999. Oral and nasal diseases of elephants. In: Fowler ME and Miller RE (eds), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4 pp. 544-546. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA,USA.

   46.    Stegmann G.F. 1999. Etorphine-halothane anaesthesia in two five-year-old African elephants (Loxodonta africana).Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 70: 164-166.
Abstract: Anaesthesia of 2 five-year-old female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) was required for dental surgery. The animals were each premedicated with 120 mg of azaperone 60 min before transportation to the hospital. Before offloading, 1 mg etorphine was administered intramuscularly (i.m.) to each elephant to facilitate walking them to the equine induction/recovery room. For induction, 2 mg etorphine was administered i.m. to each animal. Induction was complete within 6 min. Surgical anaesthesia was induced with halothane-in-oxygen after intubation of the trunk. During surgery the mean heart rate was 61 and 45 beats/min respectively. Systolic blood pressures increased to 27.5 and 25.6 kPa respectively, and were treated with intravenous azaperone. Blood pressure decreased thereafter to a mean systolic pressure of 18.1 and 19.8 kPa, respectively. Rectal temperature was 35.6 and 33.9 degrees C at the onset of surgery, and decreased to 35.3 and 33.5 degrees C, respectively, at the end of anaesthesia. Etorphine anaesthesia was reversed with 5 mg diprenorphine at the completion of 90 min of surgery.

   47.    Walsh M.T. and Thompson J. 1999. Use of thermography as a diagnostic and prognostic tool in selected cetacean conditions.  Proceedings of American Association of Zoo Veterinarians., p. 358.
Abstract: The measurement of change in core body temperature, and its relation to infection or inflammation, is one of the oldest and most widely recognized diagnostic tools in medicine. The use of a thermometer is considered a basic part of the initial physical exam in most species and is often followed by other more sophisticated techniques to try to isolate the source of illness. With the development of affordable heat sensitive cameras the clinician can now detect general or specific areas of abnormal tissue temperatures. Detectable changes in temperature may be related to superficial tissue involvement or a reflection of heat production at a deeper level. These manifestations may include isolated or general areas involving such conditions as abscess, trauma, cellulitis, dermatitis, tendonitis, myositis, and pyothorax.
A thermographic camera was used in clinical cases in cetaceans to refine previous findings that indicated it's potential applications in diagnosis and prognosis. Individuals which showed clinical signs compatible with trauma, dental disease, and dermal conditions were examined with an EVS DTIS - 500 camera (Emerge Interactive, 10315 102nd Terrace, Sebastian, Fl 32958 USA) and therapy monitored with periodic thermal scans. Dental disease including trauma to oral tissues, periodontal abscess, and mandibular infections could be readily located, temperature measurements taken, and the size of area of involvement noted. Post therapy follow-up illustrated the ability to gauge the effect of therapy as evidenced by temperature decrease and a decrease in the size of the area involved. The clinician can also better determine the length of drug use based on the response. In one individual case it showed the infection from an abscessed tooth spreading down the lingual side of the mandible.External trauma to the skin can be monitored for extent, complications and speed of resolution. Rake marks received from other dolphins have shown an inflammatory response present much longer than expected. A loss of normal temperature can also be used as a clue to the presence of material that may require debridement. Dermatitis is currently being investigated for possible application of this technology. A Tursiops truncatus female with an extensive visual roughening of the skin showed substantial heat in the affected areas of the skin with thermography but no signs of inflammation on bloodwork. The skin inflammation was readily monitored by thermography until total resolution.

   48.    Das S., Kalita D., Barman N.N. and Sarma B. 1998. Isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from an affected tusk of elephant.J Comp Microbiol Immunol Infect Dis 19: 129.

   49.    Raubenheimer E.J., Brown J.M., Rama D.B.  et al. 1998. Geographic variations in the composition of ivory of the African elephant(Loxodonta africana).Arch Oral Biol 43: 641-647.
Abstract: Tracing the source of origin of illegal ivory will contribute to the identification of poorly managed game parks and facilitate steps taken to prevent the African elephant from becoming extinct. This study was aimed at establishing a database on the composition of ivory obtained from elephant sanctuary areas in Southern Africa. Fragments of elephant ivory from seven geographically distinct areas in South Africa, Namibia and Botswana were analysed for inorganic and organic content. A total of 20 elements was detected in the inorganic fraction of ivory, some in concentrations as low as 0.25 microg/g. The concentrations of calcium, phosphate, magnesium, fluoride, cobalt and zinc showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.007) between ivory obtained from different regions. Analyses of the organic fraction identified 17 amino acids. Ivory from arid regions showed significantly lower proline plus hydroxyproline content and under-hydroxylation of lysine residues. This study indicates that chemical analyses of ivory could be beneficial in tracing the source of illegal ivory.

   50.    Raubenheimer E.J., Bosman M.C., Vorster R. and Noffke C.E. 1998. Histogenesis of the chequered pattern of ivory of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).Arch Oral Biol 43: 868-977.
Abstract: This study aimed to propose a hypothesis on the events which lead to the development of the characteristic chequered pattern of elephant ivory. Twenty fragments of ivory and six elephant tusks were obtained through the National Parks Board of South Africa. Polished surfaces were prepared in sagittal and longitudinal planes and the characteristics of the distinctive chequered pattern described. Light- and electron-microscopical techniques and image analyses were employed to determine the morphological basis of the pattern and to describe the spatial distribution, density and morphology of the dentinal tubules. These investigations showed that the distinctive pattern was the result of the sinusoidal, centripetal course followed by dentinal tubules. The apical, slanted part of the sinusoidal curve is the result of the centripetally moving odontoblast, which, during formation of ivory, progresses towards the centre of the tusk on a decreasing circumference. It is suggested that this leads to cell crowding, increased pressure between odontoblasts and subsequent apical movement of their cell bodies, cell degeneration and fusion. Odontoblastic degeneration and fusion probably relieve the pressure between the crowded odontoblasts by reducing their numbers and the remaining odontoblasts now orientate their centripetal course towards the tip of the tusk, thereby forming the anterior-directed part of the sinusoidal path of the tubule. As odontoblasts progress centripetally the diameter of the pulpal cavity decreases further and the processes of apical movement, fusion and degeneration of odontoblasts are repeated. This occurs until the pulpal cavity is obliterated.

   51.    Sukumar R., Ramakrishnan U. and Santosh J.A. 1998. Impact of poaching on an Asian elephant population in Periyar, southern India: a model of demography and tusk harvest.Animal Conservation 1: 281-291.

   52.    Sutopa D., Kalita D., Barman N.N., Sarmah B. and Das S. 1998. Isolation of Pseudomonas organism from an affected tusk of an elephant.Indian Journal of Comparative Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases 19: 129.

   53.    Watve M.G. and Sukumar R. 1997. Asian elephants with longer tusks have lower parasite loads.Current Science 72: 885-889.

   54.    Dasgupta B. 1996. The "rogue" elephants and their problem of dental myiasis.Journal of Bengal Natural History Society 15: 1-3.
Abstract: An account is given of a game-hunter in 1930s Bangladesh, who after shooting 3 'rogue' Indian elephants (Elephas maximus), found the bases of their tusks to be filled with many kilos of dipteran larvae [of unknown species].

   55.    Kwon S., Hwang B., Lee G. et al. 1996. Repair of a fractured tusk in an Asian elephant by pulp capping.Korean Journal of Veterinary Clinical Medicine 13: 208-211.

   56.    Chandrasekharan K., Radhakrishnan K., Cheeran J.V., Nair K.N.M. and Prabhakaran T. 1995. Review of the Incidence, Etiology and Control of Common Diseases of Asian Elephants with Special Reference to Kerala. In: Daniel JC (ed), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants pp. 439-449. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India.
Abstract: Incidence, etiology, symptoms and control of specific and non-specific diseases of captive and wild elephants have been reviewed. Asian elephants have been observed to be susceptible to various parasitic diseases such as helminthiasis, trypanosomiasis and ectoparasitic infestations, bacterial diseases such as tetanus, tuberculosis, haemorrhagic septicemia, salmonellosis and anthrax, viral diseases such as foot and mouth disease, pox and rabies and non-specific diseases like impaction of colon, foot rot and corneal opacity. A detailed study extending over two decades on captive and wild elephants in Kerala, revealed high incidence of helminthiasis (285), ectoparasitic infestation (235), impaction of colon (169) and foot rot (125). Diseases such as trypanosomiasis (21), tetanus (8), tuberculosis (5) pox (2) and anthrax (1) were also encountered. The line of treatment against the diseases mentioned, have been discussed in detail.

   57.    Njumbi S.T. 1995. Effects of Poaching on the Population Structure of African Elephants (Loxodonta africana): A Case Study of the Elephants of the Meru National Park. In: Daniel JC (ed), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants pp. 509-522. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India.

   58.    Raubenheimer E.J., van Heerden W.F., van Niekerk P.J., de Vos V. and Turner M.J. 1995. Morphology of the deciduous tusk (tush) of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).Arch Oral Biol 40: 571-576.
Abstract: The tusk of the African elephant is preceded by a deciduous tooth generally known as the tush. Tushes from nine elephant fetuses and six calves younger than 1 year were exposed by dissection and described morphologically. All tushes consisted of a crown, root and pulpal cavity, the formation of which is completed soon after birth. They reached a maximum length of 5 cm, appeared not to erupt through the skin and were pushed aside and resorbed during enlargement of the distally located primordium of the tusk. Dental enamel, which covered the crown, could easily be removed and consisted of rods with an interwoven arrangement; the dentine-enamel junction was flat. Cellular cementum extended for variable distances over the crown and the dentine was tubular in nature. Although the tush apparently has no function, it provides the anlage and orientation for the development of its permanent successor.

   59.    Xiang Z. and Santiapillai C. 1995. Conservation of Elephants in Xishuangbanna, China. In: Daniel JC (ed), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants pp. 249-255. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India.

   60.    Dunlop C.I., Hodgson D.S., Cambre R.C., Kenny D.E. and Martin H.D. 1994. Cardiopulmonary effects of three prolonged periods of isoflurane anesthesia in an adult elephant.Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205: 1439-1444.
Abstract: Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins 80523.
An adult 3500-kg female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was anaesthetized 3 times for treatment of subcutaneous fistulas over the lateral aspect of each cubitus (anaesthesia 1 and 2) and for repair of a fractured tusk (anaesthesia 3). Lateral recumbency and anaesthesia were achieved with etorphine (anaesthesia 1 and 2) or etorphine and azaperone (anaesthesia 3). The trachea was intubated and anaesthesia was maintained by isoflurane and oxygen delivered through 2 standard large animal anaesthesia machines joined in parallel. The range of total recumbency time was 2.4 to 3.3 h. Breathing and heart rates, systemic arterial pressure, rectal temperature, PaO2, pH and end-tidal gases were monitored. After administration of etorphine, measurements were made while the elephant was recumbent and breathing air, then every 5 min (cardiovascular) or 15 min (blood gases) after the start of administration of isoflurane and oxygen. Tachycardia and hypertension were detected after administration of etorphine, but heart rate and systemic arterial pressure decreased to within normal ranges after administration of isoflurane and oxygen. The elephant remained well oxygenated while anaesthetized and breathing a high oxygen mixture. The elephant had an uneventful recovery from each anaesthesia.

   61.    Shoshani J. 1994. Skeletal and other basic anatomical features of elephants. In: Shoshani J and Tassy P (eds), The proboscidea: evolution and paleoecology of elephants and their relatives pp. 9-20. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

   62.    Bengis R. 1993. Care of the African elephant Loxodonta africana in captivity.  The capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals pp. 506-511. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision Support Services : South African Veterinary  Foundation, Pretoria.

   63.    Ebedes H. 1993. The use of long-acting tranquilizers in captive wild animals.  The capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals Pretoria : Wildlife Decision Support Services : South African Veterinary  Foundation, Pretoria.

   64.    Van-Foreest A.W. 1993. Veterinary dentistry in zoo and wild animals. In: Fowler ME (ed), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine pp. 263-268. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA, USA.

   65.    Ranganath L., Ranganath B.N., Srinivas C.N., Madhur-Rao N. and Jayadevappa S.M. 1992. A case of mandibular caries in a domestic elephant.Indian Journal of Veterinary Surgery 14: 37.

   66.    Schaedler J.M., Krook L., Wootton J.A. et al. 1992. Studies of collagen in bone and dentin matrix of a Columbian mammoth (late Pleistocene) of central Utah.Matrix 12: 297-307.
Abstract: A Columbian mammoth, Mammuthus columbi, was excavated at an elevation of 9000 feet in Huntington Canyon, Emery County, Utah. Radiocarbon dates on the skeleton indicated death approximately 11,200 years ago. The skeleton was removed from postglacial, Late Quaternary, lake sediments deposited as glacial runoff approximately 9500 years ago. The bones and teeth were especially well preserved in a saturated lake bed. After excavation the bones and teeth were preserved by controlled desiccation, without hardeners, over a period of 9 months. Microradiography, light and electron microscopy, medium and high angle X-ray diffraction, amino acid analysis and cyanogen bromide peptide mapping were undertaken to evaluate the packing, organization, and preservation of collagen in bone and dentin of this mammoth. Microradiography and light microscopy showed that the bone consisted of especially well preserved compact and trabecular bone, and electron microscopy of demineralized bone and tusk showed that the matrix consisted of lamellae of densely packed cylindrical collagen fibrils. Cell remnants with intact nuclei, with or without a nucleolus, as well as variable lengths of plasma membrane were occasionally present on the surface of bony trabecula. Remnants of odontoblast processes were present in some dentin tubules. High and low angle X-ray diffraction demonstrated that the demineralized matrix contained native collagen molecules and amino acid analysis showed that the composition was comparable to that of type I collagen. Cyanogen bromide peptide mapping indicated that the major peptides of type I collagen were present and had the same electrophoretic mobility as that of type I collagen of demineralized Asian elephant bone and rat tail tendon. Abstract truncated at 250 words.

   67.    von Solodkoff M. 1992. An elephant tusk with a spear injury.Tierarztl.Prax. 20: 102-109.
Abstract: This tusk specimen contains a metal spear with a wooden component, which is surrounded by a quiver-like osseous encasement. The injury was probably caused by a drop-spear trap. The spear entered the tusk through the base of the pulp. The osseous encasement is constructed by pulpocytes which turned to odontoblasts after stimulation and are responsible for the development of secondary dentine. Secondary dentine is characterized by its irregular arrangement of dentine tubules, in contrast to those of true ivory.

   68.    Basson M., Beddington J.R. and May R.M. 1991. An assessment of the maximum sustainable yield of ivory from African elephant populations.Math Biosci 104: 73-95.
Abstract: A general, logistic population model is used to explore the dynamics of harvested elephant populations. The model includes two features peculiar to elephant populations and the harvesting of ivory. First, because of the shape of the growth curve of tusks with age, the conversion factor that relates the number of elephants killed to the ivory yield in weight is not constant, but a function of the population size. Second, tusks from animals that die from natural causes can be retrieved and included in the total yield of ivory. The implications of the relationship between tusk size and age of an animal on the maximum sustainable yield in terms of ivory tonnage and in terms of the number of tusks are explored. The nonequilibrium implications of the tusk growth curve on the population dynamics under different harvesting strategies are also investigated. Results indicate that the maximum sustainable yield is achieved at very low harvest rates with population levels close to the pristine equilibrium. When tusks from animals that die of natural causes are included in the harvest, the maximum yield may, depending on the mortality and recruitment parameters,
occur when there is no direct harvest.

   69.    Kroll W. 1991. The straight-tusked elephant of Crumstadt. A contribution to the osteology of Elephas (Palaeoloxodon) antiquus Falconer & Cautley (1847). Tierarztliche Fakultat, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat, Munchen, Germany.

   70.    Wagner R.A. and Bentz G.H. 1991. An African elephant tusk pulpotomy: a conservative approach.Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians: 1-5.

   71.    Wallace C., Woodle K., Doyle C. et al. 1991. Making cast metal bands for an Asian elephant's (Elephas maximus) tusks.  Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet, pp. 6-8.
Abstract: Cast silicon bronze metal bands were constructed for an adult bull Asian elephant's tusks to prevent further damage to the tusks and possible pupal injury.  Jeweler's wax was used to make a direct mold of the tusks.  The molds were internally invested in plaster and were externally crafted to meet the desired specifications of the metal bands.  The wax molds were then used directly to make the metal bands in a lost wax casting process.  The metal bands were heated in boiling water, applied to the tusks and cooled for a tight frictional fit.

   72.    Welsch B.B. 1991. Elephant dentition.Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians: 9.

   73.    Kertesz P. 1990. The principles of elephant tusks and their extraction.  The Fourth Elephant Keepers Workshop (hosted by Port Lympne Zoo Park), pp. 18-20.

   74.    Lepert J., Armstrong D., Houser D., Vires C. and Simmons L. 1990. Utilization of Tusk Caps in Captive African Elephants.  11th International Elephant Workshop Proceeding, Oct 24-27, 1990, Milwaukee County Zoo, 1990, pp. 73-76.
Abstract: Both females are well trained to verbal and physical commands and are handled regularly with minimal restraint. The bull elephant is relatively untrained but can be handled in a large squeeze facility developed at Omaha's Henry Doorly Zoo. For reasons which were indeterminate, these elephants began breaking and flaking off portions of their tusks. Portions as large as several inches in length were fractured several times resulting in significant reduction in tusk length. The loss in tusk size led to a concern that the root cavity could eventually be exposed resulting in a compromise of the animal's health. In an effort to try to minimize tusk damage, the zoo staff decided to utilize tusk caps as a preventative measure. Initially, Art Casting of Illinois was contracted to produce bronze caps for one of the female elephants at Omaha's Zoo. Subsequently, nickel-bronze caps were produced by this author for the remaining two elephants. The capping process involved producing negative tusk molds, formed using dental acrylic. Positive plaster duplicates were then produced from these negative molds and were utilized to produce a wax model of the caps. The wax models were then used to form ceramic shell casts for the production of the final nickel-bronze caps. Tusk caps were then held in place with 1/4 inch x 1 inch allen screws and epoxy adhesive. Final design and attachment procedures involved collaboration between veterinary, elephant keeper and maintenance staffs at Omaha. These caps have been utilized for approximately two years and have effectively minimized tusk damage for each of the three elephants at Omaha's Zoo. Overall this was an effective method for limiting flaking and chipping of tusks.

   75.    Raubenheimer E.J., Dauth J., Dryer M.J., Smith P.D. and Turner M.L. 1990. Structure and composition of ivory of the African elephant (Loxodonta africanus).South African Journal of Science 86: 192-193.

   76.    Sakthikumar A., Mukundan G. and Raghunandanan K. 1990. Chromosome profile of Indian elephants (Elephas maximus indicus).Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 60: 175-182.
Abstract: 15 elephants (7 males with tusks, 7 females and 1 male without tusks) were karyotyped. The diploid chromosome number was 56. There were 12 submetacentric and 42 acrocentric autosomes, and 2 sex chromosomes. The X-chromosome was submetacentric, and was the 4th largest chromosome; the Y-chromosome was the smallest, and was acrocentric. The arm ratio of the submetacentric chromosomes ranged from 1.38 to 4.23, and the centromeric index ranged from 0.42 to 0.19. The karyotype of the tuskless male was similar to that of the males with tusks.

   77.    Chong T.S., Ohta H., Nakashima Y., Iida T. and Saisho H. 1989. ESR dating of elephant teeth and radiation dose rate estimation in soil.Int J Rad Appl Instrum [A] 40: 1199-1202.
Abstract: Chemical analysis of 238U, 232Th and 40K in the dentine as well as enamel of elephant tooth fossil has been carried out in order to estimate the internal absorbed dose rate of the specimens, which was estimated to be (39 +/- 4) mrad/y on the assumption of early uptake model of radionuclides. The external radiation dose rate in the soil including the contribution from cosmic rays was also estimated to be (175 +/- 18) mrad/y with the help of gamma-ray spectroscopic techniques of the soil samples in which the specimens were buried. The 60Co gamma-ray equivalent accumulated dose of (2 +/- 0.2) x 10(4) rad for the tooth enamel gave "ESR age" of (9 +/- 2) x 10(4) y, which falls in the geologically estimated range between 3 x 10(4) and 30 x 10(4) y before the present.

   78.    Neiburger E.J. and Turnbull W.D. 1989. The largest dental cyst.New York State Dental Journal 55: 68-72.

   79.    Raubenheimer E.J., van Heerden W.F., Turner M.L. and Mare L.K. 1989. Odontoma in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 60: 149-150.
Abstract: The first known case of an odontoma in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is described. The tumour was fused with the coronal cementum of the sixth right mandibular molar tooth, thus preventing its eruption.

   80.    Sreekumar K.P. and Nirmalan G. 1989. Mineral composition of elephant tusks.Indian Journal of Animal Science 59: 1561-1562.

   81.    Welsch B., Jacobson E.R., Kollias G.V. et al. 1989. Tusk extraction in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 20: 446-453.
Abstract: Unilateral dentoalveolar abscesses and/or tusk fractures were identified and tusk extractions performed in seven 3.5-21-yr-old African elephants (Loxodonta africana) of both sexes weighing 650-3,000 kg.  Following immobilization with etorphine hydrochloride or carfentanil citrate, six of seven elephants were intubated and maintained on a 1-1.5% halothane in oxygen mixture; one elephant was maintained in lateral recumbency by multiple i.v. injections of etorphine.  All elephants were positioned with the affected tusk up.  For one elephant, two surgical procedures were required to remove the tusk.  In six of seven elephants, the tusks were sectioned transversely and the tusk wall thinned by enlarging the pulp cavity with carbide burs.  In those tusks with remaining pulp, the pulp was removed with stainless steel rods and hooks.  Next, the tusk was sectioned longitudinally into three or four segments using a wood saw within the pulp chamber.  bone gouges, osteotomes, and a mallet were used to free the outer epithelial and alveolar attachments from the tusk.  Starting with the smallest segment, the sections were removed using long screwdriver-shaped stainless steel rods.  The alveolar chamber was then periodically flushed postsurgically with a dilute organic iodine solution.  For six of seven elephants, complete granulation of the alveolar chamber was evident by 4 mo postsurgery; the seventh elephant showed partial healing with granulation tissue at 2 mo following surgery.

   82.     1988. Animal cage as dental office. Tusk treatment in a young elephant in the
Kronberger Opel Zoo.Quintessenz J 18: 805-806.

   83.     1988. Animal cage as dental office.  Tusk treatment in a young elephant in the Kronberger Opel Zoo.Quintessenz.J. 18: 805-806.

   84.    Armstrong R.A., Neill P. and Mossop R.T. 1988. Asthma induced by ivory dust: a new occupational cause.Thorax 43: 737-738.
Abstract: A case of asthma is reported that was due to ivory from the tusk of the elephant, a cause of occupational asthma unique to Africa.

   85.    Briggs M., Schmidt M., Black D. et al. 1988. Extraction of an infected tusk in an adult African elephant.Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 192: 1455-1456.
Abstract: An 18-year-old African elephant was determined to have a nonrepairable crack in its left tusk. Treatment included extraction of the tusk, using rotational and extractional forces, and administration of antibiotics, followed by 1 year of flushing the opened tusk cavity with warm tap water. Two years after surgery, the elephant was healthy, and the tusk cavity was 80% filled with normal tissue.

   86.    Heard D.J., Kollias G.V., Merritt A.M. and Jacobson E.R. 1988. Idiopathic chronic diarrhea and malabsorption in a juvenile African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana).Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 19: 132-136.
Abstract: A 4-5 yr old, 250 kg female African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana) was examined because of chronic, intermittent diarrhea and poor weight gain.  Abnormal clinical findings were cachexia, diarrhea, and ventral edema. Significant laboratory included low serum alkaline phosphatase concentrations, sporadic hyperbilrubinemia, hypoproteinemia/hypoalbuiminemia, intermittent hypoglycemia, hypertriglyceridemia, sporadic leukocytosis, neutrophilia/neutropenia, and lymphocytosis. The elephant had d-xylose malabsorption, and lymphocyte aggregates were found in histological sections of rectal biopsies.  Recurrent dental disease might have accounted for some of the clinical findings including cachexia.  Although an extensive workup was done, the cause or causes of the diarrhea were not determined and the condition spontaneously resolved.

   87.    Jacobson E.R., Kollias G.V., Heard D.J. and Caligiuri R. 1988. Immobilization of African elephants with carfentanil and antagonism with nalmefene and diprenorphine.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 19: 1-7.
Abstract: Sixteen African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were immobilized with single i.m. injections of carfentanil citrate (2.1 ± 0.3 µg/kg body weight).  All elephants were laterally recumbent in 10.1 ± 3.7 min.  An additional elephant which received 1.4 µg /kg carfentanil did not become recumbent and additional carfentanil was required for immobilization.  Following immobilization, nine elephants were maintained in lateral recumbency by administration of multiple i.v. injections of carfentanil, one elephant received a single i.v. dose of ketamine hydrochloride, and four were intubuted and administered 1-1.5% halothane in oxygen.  Because a short duration of immobilization was desired, three elephants were not given additional drugs.  The duration of immobilization ranged from 4 to 187 min.  Following a variety of medical and surgical procedures, 13 elephants received nalmefene hydrochloride, two elephants received diprenorphine, and two elephants received both diprenorphine and nalmefene; antagonists were administered either i.v. and i.m. or i.v. and s.c.  Sixteen of 17 elephants were standing in 2.9 ± 1.4 min; the standing time of one elephant was not recorded.

   88.    Raubenheimer E.J., Dauth J., Dreyer M.J. and de Vos V. 1988. Parotid salivary gland of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana): structure and composition of saliva.Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 59: 184-187.
Abstract: Specimens from parotid salivary glands of full-grown elephant (Loxodonta africana) a (n=6) and saliva aspirated from their main excretory ducts were examined macroscopically and microscopically and analyzed biochemically. The composition of the saliva was compared to that of the blood. The parotids (n=12; mean = 7.4 kg) are homocrine and of a seromucous nature. Myoepithelial cells are well-developed along intercalated ducts and their processes extend to proximal portions of allied acini. The saliva is hypotonic and contains relatively low concentrations of sodium and glucose and high concentrations of potassium, urea, calcium and phosphorus. Absence of detectable levels of alpha-amylase negates a digestive role and the voluminous secrete evidently aids swallowing by moisturizing and lubricating the large mass of ingested leaves, grass and bark.

   89.    Roth V.L. and Shoshani J. 1988. Dental identification and age determination in Elephas maximus.Journal of Zoology (Lond) 214: 567-588.
Abstract: The dentition of an elephant (fossil or extant) can yield clues to the animal's age and identity, provided the teeth are correctly identified.  Identifying the serial category of elephant teeth is difficult, because the size, shape and position of each tooth changes throughout life, as the teeth form, erupt, wear and move through the jaw.  In the present study, teeth from over 100 museum specimens of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) were the basis for establishing size ranges for cheek teeth in six serial categories (designated by Roman numerals I to VI).  Although the teeth vary greatly and overlap in their dimensions, reliable identifications (as well as estimates of an individual's age in years) can be obtained using three or more measurements.  An appreciation for the dental variability in Elephas maximus will demand a re-evaluation of frequently-cited examples of microevolutionary patterns within the Elephantidae.

   90.    Sukumar R., Joshi N.V. and Krishnamurthy V. 1988. Growth in the Asian elephant.Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Animal Sciences 97: 561-571.
Abstract: Approx. 934 records of captive Asian elephants were used to derive parameters of the von Bertalanffy growth function for height, body weight and tusk circumference with age. Some evidence was obtained for a spurt in postpubertal secondary growth in males and females. Domesticated elephants that were born in captivity or captured at a young age had a slower growth rate for height in both sexes, and for body weight in males, than wild elephants. Height was twice the circumference of the front foot throughout the life span

   91.    von Solodkoff M. 1988. Two cases of bullet injuries in elephant tusks.Tierarztl.Prax. 16: 201-203.
Abstract: Rifle bullets in the pulp of elephant tusks cause different excrescences, which are determined by the various materials of bullets, the point of entry and seriousness of inflammation. In two present cases so-called bridges are built by contre-coup effect after bullet penetration into the pulp of the tusk. The material of the bridges contains secondary ivory which differs completely from the characteristic criss-cross patterns of ivory.

   92.    Welsch B.B. 1988. Management of elephant tusk problems.  Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 9, pp. 120-121.

   93.    Apapayya M.K. 1986. Operation elephant detusking.Myforest 22: 149-151.

   94.    Briggs M., Schmidt M., Black D. et al. 1986. Extraction of an infected tusk in an adult African elephant.  Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 7, pp. 22-24.

   95.    Gainer R.S. 1986. Tertiary dentine in the root of an elephant tusk.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 17: 69-72.

   96.    Robinson P.T. and Schmidt M. 1986. Dentistry in zoo animals: Dental diseases of elephants and hippos. In: Fowler ME (ed), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine pp. 544-547. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia.

   97.    Wallace K. 1986. Tusk repair of an African elephant.  Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop, pp. 25-28.

   98.    Wyatt J.D. 1986. Medical treatment of tusk pulpitis in an African elephant.Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 189: 1193.

   99.    Acharjyo L.N. and Patnaik S.K. 1985. Appearance of tusks in male Indian elephants (Elephas maximus).Pranikee 6: 86-87.

100.    Jensen J. and Abdul J.B. 1985. Endotontic therapy in an adult African elephant (Loxodonta africana).  Proc. Amer. Assoc. Zoo Vet, p. 5.

101.    Lateur N., Kusse M.D., van der Velden M., Stolk P. and Abdul J.B. 1985. Surgical management of traumatic pulpitis of the tusks in a male Indian elephant.  Proc. Amer. Assoc. Zoo Vet, p. 125.

102.    Layser T.R. and Buss I.O. 1985. Observations on morphological characteristics of elephant tusks.Mammalia 49: 407-414.
Abstract: Morphological and statistical studies were conducted on tusks from wild African elephants collected in Western Uganda between July 1958 and May 1959.  The mean value and standard deviation were calculated fro all parameters of tusk growth studied.  Males had longer tusks than females of the same age. Pulp cavity size of males always is larger than from females of the same age.  Males seemed to increase their tusk weights more rapidly than females.

103.    Sher A.V. and Garutt V.E. 1985. New data on the molar morphology of the elephants.Doklady Acad.Nauk SSSR 285: 221-225.

104.    Allen J.L., Welsch B., Jacobson E.R. and Kollias G.V. 1984. Management of tusk disorders in elephants.  Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet., pp. 63-64.

105.    Allen J.L., Welsch B., Jacobson E.R., Turner T.A. and Tabeling H. 1984. Medical and surgical management of a fractured tusk in an African elephant.Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 185: 1447-1449.

106.    Lark R.M. 1984. A comparison between techniques for estimating the ages of African elephants (Loxodonta africana).African Journal of Ecology 22: 69-71.

107.    McCrae D. 1984. Cooper lab technician tackles a titanic tooth problem.Dent.Lab Rev. 59: 23-24.

108.    Okuda A., Sakae T., Kozawa Y. and Takeda K. 1984. Enamel cystallites in human and proboscidea teeth.Nichidai Koko Kagaku 10: 185-195.

109.    Otto H. 1984. [A piece of tooth with a history].Pathologe. 5: 290-291.

110.    Wyatt J.D. 1984. The medical and surgical management of bilateral tusk pulp infections in an African elephant.  Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 5, pp. 21-25.

111.    Gibbs S.J., Heller R.M., Sloan M. and James A.E., Jr. 1983. External root resorption in mastodon molar.Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 55: 542.

112.    McGavin M.D., Walker R.D., Schroeder E.C., Patton C.S. and McCracken M.D. 1983. Death of an African elephant from probable toxemia attributed to chronic pulpitis.Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 183: 1269-1273.
Abstract:  A 31-year-old captive male African elephant (Loxodonta africana) of 5,000-kg body weight died suddenly in ventral recumbency.  Lesions seen at necropsy were bilateral purulent pulpitis and periodontitis of both tusks, serous atrophy of coronary groove fat, Grammocephalus cholangitis, myocardial and skeletal lipofuscinosis, and scattered segmental necrosis in the pectoral muscles.  Nonhemolytic streptococci, Corynebacterium sp, Pertostreptococcus anaerobius, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and Bacteroides sp were recovered from the exudate around one or both tusks.  We postulated that the elephant died of hypoxia from prolonged ventral recumbency because of weakness and inability to rise secondary to toxemia from bilateral pulpitis and periodontitis.

113.    Sanford J. 1983. Rehabilitation of an emaciated elephant.  Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 4, pp. 81-85.

114.    Tamas P.M. and Geiser D.R. 1983. Etorphine analgesia supplemented by halothane anesthesia in an adult African elephant.Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 183: 1312-1314.

115.    Reichard T.A., Ulrey D.E. and Robinson P.T. 1982. Nutritional implications of dental problems in elephants.  Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet., pp. 73-74.

116.    Fagan D.A. 1981. Extraction of elephant's tooth requires 4-hour procedure.Norden News 56: 36-37.

117.    Schaller K. 1981. Delayed dentition of an Indian elephant causing obstipation and colic.Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 88: 439-440.

118.    Delorme M. 1980. Treatment of an elephant tusk in the Zoological Garden of Montreal.Carnets Zool. 40: 28-30.

119.    Hooijer D.A. 1980. Remarks on the dentition and tooth replacement in elephants.Netherlands Journal of Zoology 30: 510-515.
Abstract: It has often been stated that in the modern elephant there is a special kind of forward-moving tooth succession, which would have come in the place of the ordinary vertical tooth replacement in other mammals.  This is a mistaken view. In the modern elephant with its disproportionately large cheek teeth vertical tooth replacement has been eliminated because of lack of space, whereas the "horizontal tooth replacement" is more apparent than real.  It is basically the same phenomenon that is known in many mammals, Man included, as "closing of the ranks", teeth drifting together so as to assure continuous contact within the functional series.  The "horizontal replacement" is not a substitute for the vertical, and is not peculiar to the elephant.

120.    Lang E.M. 1980. Observations on growth and molar change in the African elephant.African Journal of Ecology 18: 217-234.

121.    Stehlik M. 1979. Tusk fractures in elephants.Erkrankungen der Zootiere 14: 269-273.

122.    Kozawa Y. 1978. Comparative histology of proboscidean molar enamel.Kokubyo Gakkai Zasshi 45: 585-606.

123.    von Richter W., Drager N., Patterson L. and Sommerlatte M. 1978. Observations on the immobilization and marking of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Botswana.Akademie-Verlag 14: 185-191.
Abstract: 58 elephants were successfully immobilized in their natural environment in the Chobe Nation Park and on privately owned farms in Botswana using a drug mixture of etorphine (M99 Reckitt) and acetylpromazine.  The specific antidote cyprenorphine (M285 Reckitt) was used in most cases to resuscitate the animals.  One known mortality occurred.  For the long term monitoring of social organization and long and short term movements collars manufactured from machine belting and fitted with colour codes or symbols proved most satisfactory. Stamping the tusks near the lip provided a permanent marking although not useful for field observation.  Various other marking techniques were tested but were considered unsatisfactory for long term identification.  Various behavioral aspects associated with the immobilizing of elephants are described and discussed.

124.    Shoshani J. 1977. General information on elephants with emphasis on tusks.Elephant 1: 20-34.

125.    Bush M., Heese D.W., Gray C.E. and James A.E., Jr. 1976. Surgical repair of tusk injury (pulpectomy) in an adult, male forest elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis).Journal of the American Dental Association 93: 372-375.
Abstract: A 15-year-old male forest elephant housed in a zoo sustained a fracture of the right tusk that was 10 cm inside the cheek pouch, thus exposing the tusk canal.  Treatment of the cavity by packing, topical application of antibiotics, and administration of various antiseptic preparations failed; however, the tusk grew.  To treat the infected, growing tusk's root canal or pulp, surgery -- comparable to a pulpectomy in man-- was performed with successful results.

126.    Kozawa Y. 1976. A study on the enamel of the tusk of Elephas maximus.J.Geol.Soc.Jpn. 82: 741-742.

127.    Bronzini E. 1975. On the teeth, temperature, and growth in Asiatic elephants Elephas maximus born in captivity.Zoologische Garten 45: 97-128.

128.    Vogel J.J. and Ennever J. 1975. Lipid-dependent calcification of elephant tusk matrix.J Dent Res 54: 416.

129.    Dittrich L. 1974. Replacement of the deciduous incisor by the tusk in the Indian elephant, Elephas maximus .Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 39: 58-64.

130.    Hanks J. 1972. Aspects of dentition of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana.Arnoldia 5: 1-8.
Abstract: 30 August 1972.

131.    Maglio V.J. 1972. Evolution of mastication in the Elephantidae.Evolution 26: 638-658.

132.    Miles A.E.W. 1972. Healed injuries of elephant tusks.Br Dent J 133: 395-400.

133.    Sognnaes R.F. 1972. Ivory core of elephant tusks and teeth.Inf Dent 54: 1407-1418.

134.    Stringer B.G. 1972. Case report:  The removal of a tusk in an African elephant.Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians: 271-272.

135.    Elder W.H. 1970. Morphometry of elephant tusks.Zoologica Africana 5: 143-159.

136.    Aguirre E. 1969. Evolutionary history of the elephants.Science, New Series 164: 1366-1376.
Abstract: Elephants which are among the most popular and decorative of animals, stand as a witness of prehistory, having been a part of the environment of our ancestors. The dinosaur was not contemporary with early man, as many films and stories insist, but the mammoth was. Although prehistoric or extinct elephants are frequently referred to as mammoths, such a designation is not always correct. The true mammoth is but one of many species of extinct elephants; furthermore, it belongs to one of a few genera, which include four or five species that have affinities with the woolly elephants. These different genera and species are grouped by zoologists into a family, Elephanttidae. Because this family originated by the beginning of the Pleistocne period, elephants can be considered contemporary with man. Anthropologists and prehistorians have often attempted to establish a chronology of sites of fossil man through correlations based upon the species of elephants associated with them but the systematics of the Elephantidae is quite confused. The documented monograph of Osborn established 10 genera and some 59 species of elephants; to these Garutt added two more genera. However many taxonomists have recognized only one genus and no more than five or six valid species. In the museum collection from most major sites, there are many samples with dubious identifications and many intermediate forms labeled either with two names or with a composite or new name. It has been assumed that many different species have lived contemporaneously in a single area, as was the case for the sample excavated in the railway trench of San Paolo, Italy, in the first years of this century. Explanations of the phylogeny of elephants have had one feature in common: the patterns for the phyletic trees have agreed with with the fashionable evolutionary theories of the particular period. Thus all the trees are dichotomic and linear form 1881 to 1888, fairly dichotomic form 1888 to 1912 and polyphyletic until 1923. After 1940 dichotomic patterns are again found. A review of the evolutionary history of the Proboscidae before the appearance of the elephants may help us to understand the significance of the evolving character in the latter. For Proboscidae since the Old Tertiary period, two major characteristics have been defined: the anterior teeth are missing except for one or two pairs of tusks; and there is an increasing number of rows of cusps, with every new transversal row appearing behind the other and elongating the molar teeth.

137.    Short R.V. 1969. Notes on the teeth and ovaries of an African elephant of known age.Journal of Zoology (Lond) 158: 421-425.
Abstract: A captive female African elephant, known to be 27 years old, died as a result of trauma.  Her growth rate was similar to that of other captive African elephants, and slightly greater than that of wild animals.  The 5th molar was in full wear, and the 6th was just coming into wear.  There was extensive dental caries of the labial, lingual and occlusal surfaces of the 5th molars, presumably due to the unnatural diet.  The ovaries contained a large number of cystic follicles, and at least 50 regressing corpora lutea.  These abnormalities are probably related to the fact that the elephant had never been mated.

138.    Krumrey W.A. and Buss I.O. 1968. Age estimation, growth, and relationships between body dimensions of the female elephant.Journal of Mammalogy 49: 22-31.
Abstract: Fifty-six female savanna African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were collected in western Uganda from November 1958 to April 1959.  Ages of the 32 elephants from which teeth were available were estimated using criteria of molar-usage intervals, degree of molar replacement, and extent of molar wear. Based upon these estimated ages and total body weights, a growth equation for female elephants up to 25 years in age was calculated.  The correlation coefficient based upon measurements of 56 specimens between body weight and shoulder height is 0.99, and between body weight and body length is 0.97.

139.    Feriz H. 1967. Projectiles in elephant tusks.Zahnarztl Rundsch 76: 221-222.

140.    Sikes S.K. 1967. The African elephant,  Loxodonta africana:  A field method for the estimation of age.Journal of Zoology (Lond) 154: 235-248.
Abstract: A new field method, now termed the "FM technique", for age estimation in wild African elephants was outlined in a previous paper (Sikes, 1966).  In this technique, the stage reached in the molar progression which occurs throughout the life of any elephant, is related to a fixed point, namely the foramen mentale, in the lower jaw.  The stage reached in any individual elephant, of either sex may thus be described as its "molar age" by the "FM formula" (a descriptive, non mathematical formula). Up to the age of 30 years, molar age may be converted with reasonable accuracy to year age.  Above this point, however, any such conversion must be regarded as arbitrary and of doubtful value until such time as adequate additional data from older African elephants on known age become available.  The molars are briefly described, and the molar progression of the species outlined.  A hypothesis is offered as a possible explanation of the mechanism of the progression.  The field procedure for using the FM technique is explained, and its advantage over previous methods discussed.  A comprehensive Age Reference Chart for field use is given, covering the whole potential life span of the African elephant.

141.     1966. Orthodontic treatment for an elephant.Dental Studies 44: 470-471.

142.    Laws R.M. 1966. Age criteria for the African elephant, Loxodonta a. africana.East African Wildlife Journal 4: 1-37.

143.    Sikes S.K. 1966. The African elephant,  Loxodonta africana: a field method for the estimation of age.Journal of Zoology (Lond) 150: 279-295.
Abstract: The need for a field method of determining and describing the relative age of African elephants collected in their natural habitat arose during a recent research project, and has led to an attempt to formulate a laminary age standard for use in the field, based upon direct observations and measurements on the lower right molars.  For this purpose a series of 31 African elephants of both sexes, covering almost the complete potential age range of an elephant's life, and of known body condition, locality and size, have been used as the basis for constructing a reference chart of molar laminary age. Eye lens weights were also obtained for 26 of these specimens, but, although indicative of a direct correlation with laminary age, they were obtained in insufficient numbers to provide an adequate sequence.  Each of the specimens used was first observed alive, then shot and examined post mortem during the course of a research project on cardiovascular disease, in which the determination of relative age formed an integral part.

144.    Johnson O.W. and Buss I.O. 1965. Molariform teeth of male African elephants in relation to age, body dimensions and growth.Journal of Mammalogy 46: 373-384.
Abstract: This paper is based upon the teeth, body dimensions and weights of 58 male elephants (Loxodonta africana) collected in Uganda and represents an attempt to relate dental status to approximate age as revealed by a hypothetical growth curve.  The elephant bears a successional series of six molars in each half of its jaw during its potential life of about 70 years.  Molars 1, 2,3 and 6 can be readily identified.  Molars 4 and 5 are difficult to identify, but satisfactory designations appear possible by reference to the body weight of the individual.  The correlation coefficient between body weight and shoulder height is 0.99.  This relationship, when compared to data from an elephant of known age, makes possible the construction of a growth curve.  Comparisons of tooth data with the growth curve reveal the approximate times that the teeth appear in an individual and also their subsequent periods of usage.  By knowing the approximate longevity of each tooth, one can satisfactorily estimate the ages of individual animals.

145.    Johnson O.W. 1964. Histological and quantitative characteristics of the testes, observations on the teeth and pituitary gland, and the possibility of reproductive cyclicity in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA.

146.    Colyer F. and Miles A.E.W. 1957. Injury to and rate of growth of an elephant tusk.Journal of Mammalogy 38(2): 243-247.

147.    Perry J.S. 1954. Some observations on growth and tusk weight in male and female African elephants.Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 124: 97-104.

148.    Morrison-Scott T.C.S. 1947. A revision of our knowledge of African elephants' teeth, with notes on Forest and "Pygmy" elephants.Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 117: 505-527.

149.    Seidemann R.M. and Wheeler H.M. 1947. Human anthrax from elephant's tusks.Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 135: 837.

150.    Weatherford H.L. 1940. Some observations on the tusks of an Indian elephant.  The innervation of the pulp.Anatomical Record 76: 81-93.

151.    Coyler E.J. 1926. The pathology of the teeth of elephants.Dental Record 46: 1-80.

152.    Humphreys H.F. 1926. Particulars relating to the broken tusk of a wild Indian elephant.Brit.Dent.J. 47: 1400-1407.

153.    Stannus H.S. 1911. Diseases of elephants' tusks.The Lancet 1: 617.

154.    Bland-Sutton J. 1910. The diseases of elephants' tusks in relation to billiard balls.The Lancet 2: 1534-1537.

155.    Mitchell W.D. 1903. Some notes upon the dentition of the elephant and injuries thereto.Dent.Rev.,London 17: 83-110.

156.    Busch F. 1890. Ueber Verletzungen, Abscesse und Dentikel am Stosszahn des Elephanten.Dtsch.Mschr.Zahnheilk. 8: 62-65.

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