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Diagnostic Techniques
(The following additional keywords have been used
to categorize articles within this section and may assist your search.)
biochemical marker, biopsy, blood pressure,
computed tomography, cytology, diagnostic techniques, EKG, fecal
analysis, field technique, MRI, necropsy, thermography, trunk wash,
ultrasound, urinalysis, xray,
Elephant
Bibliographic
Database
www.elephantcare.org
References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent
first.
Bartlett, S.L.,
Abou-Madi, N., Kraus, M.S., Wiedner, E.B., Starkey, S.R., Kollias, G.V.,
2009. Electrocardiography of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J.
Zoo. Wildl. Med. 40, 466-473.
Abstract: Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are infrequently performed on Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus), and few studies have been reported in the
literature. The aim of this study was to determine reference ranges of
ECG parameters in Asian elephants and to ascertain if age, body weight,
and position of the elephant significantly affected the ECG.
Electrocardiograms were obtained from 27 captive, nonsedated apparently
healthy Asian elephants while they were standing (ST), in right lateral
recumbency (RL), and/or in left lateral recumbency (LL). Six-lead ECGs
were obtained using novel clamps and long ECG cables (71 cm). From lead
I, standard waveforms and intervals were analyzed, including PR
interval, QT interval, ST segment, P, QRS, T, and U waves if they were
present. One animal was determined to have a previously undiagnosed
conduction abnormality and was not included in the study. Most elephants
had a sinus arrhythmia in at least one position. With increasing age,
there was a trend toward a slower heart rate and significantly longer P
waves. Increasing body weight was significantly correlated with longer
QT intervals and T waves with lower amplitude. Compared with
measurements in ST, LL resulted in P waves and QRS complexes with
shorter amplitude, U waves with greater amplitude, PR intervals with
shorter duration, and an increased heart rate. Compared with
measurements in LL, RL resulted in larger QRS complexes. U waves were
most commonly detected in RL and LL. Mean electrical axis calculated in
the frontal plane were as follows: standing range -125 to +141 degrees,
mean -5 degrees; left lateral range -15 to +104 degrees, mean 27
degrees; right lateral range -16 to +78 degrees, mean 9 degrees.
Position-specific reference ranges should be used when interpreting ECGs,
and clinicians must be aware of how age and body weight may affect the
ECG
Behr, B.,
Rath, D., Hildebrandt, T.B., Goeritz, F., Blottner, S., Portas, T.J.,
Bryant, B.R., Sieg, B., Knieriem, A., de Graaf, S.P., Maxwell, W.M.,
Hermes, R., 2009. Germany/Australia index of sperm sex sortability in
elephants and rhinoceros. Reprod. Domest. Anim 44, 273-277.
Abstract: Flow cytometric sexing of spermatozoa followed by application
in artificial insemination or in vitro fertilization provides a unique
opportunity to predetermine the sex of offspring and might enhance the
conservation management of endangered species in captivity such as the
elephant and rhinoceros. To obtain an indication of the sortability of
spermatozoa from these species, the relative DNA differences between X
and Y chromosome bearing spermatozoa (fresh, frozen thawed, epididymal)
from three rhinoceros species [white (Ceratotherium simum), black (Diceros
bicornis), Indian (Rhinoceros unicornis)] and both elephant species, the
Asian and the African elephant (Elephas maximus, Loxodonta Africana),
were determined through separation of spermatozoa into X and Y
chromosome bearing populations, using a modified high speed flow
cytometer. The head profile areas of spermatozoa from all five species
were measured using light microscopy. By multiplying the relative DNA
differences and the head profile areas, the sperm sorting indices were
calculated to be 47, 48 and 51 for white, black and Indian rhinoceros
respectively. The calculated sorting index for the Asian elephant was
66. In the African elephant, we determined the highest sorting index of
76. These results indicate the practicability of flow cytometric sex
sorting of spermatozoa from the tested rhinoceros species and both
elephant species. The lower sorting indices in rhinos indicate that sex
sorting of spermatozoa from the rhinoceros will be more challenging than
in elephants
Chandrajith,
R., Kudavidanage, E., Tobschall, H.J., Dissanayake, C.B., 2009.
Geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of elephant geophagic
soils in Udawalawe National Park, Sri Lanka. Environ. Geochem. Health 31,
391-400.
Abstract: Geophagy or deliberate ingestion of soils was observed among
Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in the Udawalwe National Park, Sri
Lanka, for several years. The geochemical and mineralogical composition
of the clayey soil layers which are purposefully selected and eaten by
elephants in the park were studied, in order to identify the possible
reasons for elephant geophagy. The concentrations of major and trace
elements were determined by means of X-ray fluorescence spectrometry in
21 soil samples from eight geophagic sites and six soil samples
collected from four non-geophagic sites. The mineralogical composition
of selected soil samples was investigated using X-ray diffractometry (XRD).
These geochemical analyses revealed that geophagic soils in the study
areas are deeply weathered and that most of the elements are leached
from the soil layers under extreme weathering conditions. The XRD data
showed that the soils of the area consisted mainly quartz, feldspar, and
the clay minerals kaolinite, Fe-rich illite, and smectite. Although no
significant geochemical differences were identified between geophagic
and non-geophagic soils, a clear difference was observed in their clay
mineralogical content. Soils eaten by elephants are richer in kaolinite
and illite than non-geophagic soils, which contain a higher amount of
smectite. It is suggested that elephants in Udawalawe National Park
ingest soils mainly not to supplement the mineral contents of their
forage but to detoxify unpalatable compounds in their diet
Greenwald,
R., Lyashchenko, O., Esfandiari, J., Miller, M., Mikota, S., Olsen, J.H.,
Ball, R., Dumonceaux, G., Schmitt, D., Moller, T., Payeur, J.B., Harris,
B., Sofranko, D., Waters, W.R., Lyashchenko, K.P., 2009. Highly accurate
antibody assays for early and rapid detection of tuberculosis in African
and Asian elephants. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 16, 605-612.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants is a reemerging zoonotic
disease caused primarily by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Current methods
for screening and diagnosis rely on trunk wash culture, which has
serious limitations due to low test sensitivity, slow turnaround time,
and variable sample quality. Innovative and more efficient diagnostic
tools are urgently needed. We describe three novel serologic techniques,
the ElephantTB Stat-Pak kit, multiantigen print immunoassay, and
dual-path platform VetTB test, for rapid antibody detection in
elephants. The study was performed with serum samples from 236 captive
African and Asian elephants from 53 different locations in the United
States and Europe. The elephants were divided into three groups based on
disease status and history of exposure: (i) 26 animals with
culture-confirmed TB due to M. tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis, (ii)
63 exposed elephants from known-infected herds that had never produced a
culture-positive result from trunk wash samples, and (iii) 147 elephants
without clinical symptoms suggestive of TB, with consistently negative
trunk wash culture results, and with no history of potential exposure to
TB in the past 5 years. Elephants with culture-confirmed TB and a
proportion of exposed but trunk wash culture-negative elephants produced
robust antibody responses to multiple antigens of M. tuberculosis, with
seroconversions detectable years before TB-positive cultures were
obtained from trunk wash specimens. ESAT-6 and CFP10 proteins were
immunodominant antigens recognized by elephant antibodies during
disease. The serologic assays demonstrated 100% sensitivity and 95 to
100% specificity. Rapid and accurate antibody tests to identify infected
elephants will likely allow earlier and more efficient treatment, thus
limiting transmission of infection to other susceptible animals and to
humans
Greenwald,
R., Lyashchenko, O., Esfandiari, J., Miller, M., Mikota, S., Olsen, J.H.,
Ball, R., Dumonceaux, G., Schmitt, D., Moller, T., Payeur, J.B., Harris,
B., Sofranko, D., Waters, W.R., Lyaschenko, K.P., 2009.
Highly accurate antibody assays for early and rapid detection of
tuberculosis in African and Asian elephants.
Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 16, 605-612.
Abstract:
Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants is a reemerging zoonotic disease caused
primarily by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Current methods for screening
and diagnosis rely on trunk wash culture, which has serious limitations
due to low test sensitivity, slow turnaround time, and variable sample
quality. Innovative and more efficient diagnostic tools are urgently
needed. We describe three novel serologic techniques, the ElephantTB
Stat-Pak kit, multiantigen print immunoassay, and dual-path platform
VetTB test, for rapid antibody detection in elephants. The study was
performed with serum samples from 236 captive African and Asian
elephants from 53 different locations in the United States and Europe.
The elephants were divided into three groups based on disease status and
history of exposure: (i) 26 animals with culture-confirmed TB due to M.
tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis, (ii) 63 exposed elephants from
known-infected herds that had never produced a culture-positive result
from trunk wash samples, and (iii) 147 elephants without clinical
symptoms suggestive of TB, with consistently negative trunk wash culture
results, and with no history of potential exposure to TB in the past 5
years. Elephants with culture-confirmed TB and a proportion of exposed
but trunk wash culture-negative elephants produced robust antibody
responses to multiple antigens of M. tuberculosis, with seroconversions
detectable years before TB-positive cultures were obtained from trunk
wash specimens. ESAT-6 and CFP10 proteins were immunodominant antigens
recognized by elephant antibodies during disease. The serologic assays
demonstrated 100% sensitivity and 95 to 100% specificity. Rapid and
accurate antibody tests to identify infected elephants will likely allow
earlier and more efficient treatment, thus limiting transmission of
infection to other susceptible animals and to humans.
Hakeem, A.Y.,
Sherwood, C.C., Bonar, C.J., Butti, C., Hof, P.R., Allman, J.M., 2009.
Von Economo neurons in the elephant brain. Anat. Rec. (Hoboken. ) 292,
242-248.
Abstract: Von Economo neurons (VENs), previously found in humans, all of
the great ape species, and four cetacean species, are also present in
African and Indian elephants. The VENs in the elephant are primarily
found in similar locations to those in the other species. They are most
abundant in the frontoinsular cortex (area FI) and are also present at
lower density in the anterior cingulate cortex. Additionally, they are
found in a dorsolateral prefrontal area and less abundantly in the
region of the frontal pole. The VEN morphology appears to have arisen
independently in hominids, cetaceans, and elephants, and may reflect a
specialization for the rapid transmission of crucial social information
in very large brains
Hermes, R.,
Behr, B., Hildebrandt, T.B., Blottner, S., Sieg, B., Frenzel, A.,
Knieriem, A., Saragusty, J., Rath, D., 2009. Sperm sex-sorting in the
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Anim Reprod. Sci. 112, 390-396.
Abstract: In captive Asian elephants, there is a strong need for
production of female offspring to enhance reproduction, counter
premature aging processes in female animals and reduce challenging
management situations derived from husbandry of several bulls in one
institution. Artificial insemination of flow cytometrically sex-sorted
spermatozoa offers the possibility to predetermine the sex of offspring
with high accuracy. The aims of this study were to determine a suitable
semen extender and basic parameters for flow cytometrical sex-sorting of
Asian elephant spermatozoa. In total 18 semen samples were collected by
manual rectal stimulation from one bull. Sperm quality parameters and
sex sortability of spermatozoa were evaluated after dilution in three
semen extenders (MES-HEPES-skim milk, MES-HEPES, TRIS-citric acid) and
DNA staining. MES-HEPES-skim milk was the only semen extender found
suitable to sex Asian elephant spermatozoa. From 18 ejaculates
collected, 12 were successfully sorted with a purity of 94.5+/-0.7% at
an average sort rate of 1945.5+/-187.5 spermatozoa per second. Sperm
integrity, progressive and total motility were 42.6+/-3.9%, 48.1+/-3.3%,
59.4+/-3.8% after DNA labelling, and 64.8+/-3.2%, 58.0+/-5.0%,
70.8+/-4.4% after sorting, respectively. After liquid storage of sorted
spermatozoa for 12h at 4 degrees C, sperm integrity, progressive and
total motility were 46.4+/-5.2%, 32.2+/-4.2% and 58.2+/-3.9%,
respectively. The obtained results provide a promising base to
inseminate Asian elephants with sexed semen
Mason, G.J.,
Veasey, J.S., 2009. How should the psychological well-being of zoo
elephants be objectively investigated?
47. Zoo. Biol.
Abstract: Animal welfare (sometimes termed "well-being") is about
feelings - states such as "suffering" or "contentment" that we can infer
but cannot measure directly. Welfare indices have been developed from
two main sources: studies of suffering humans, and of research animals
deliberately subjected to challenges known to affect emotional state. We
briefly review the resulting indices here, and discuss how well they are
understood for elephants, since objective welfare assessment should play
a central role in evidence-based elephant management. We cover
behavioral and cognitive responses (approach/avoidance; intention,
redirected and displacement activities; vigilance/startle; warning
signals; cognitive biases, apathy and depression-like changes;
stereotypic behavior); physiological responses (sympathetic responses;
corticosteroid output - often assayed non-invasively via urine, feces or
even hair; other aspects of HPA function, e.g. adrenal hypertrophy); and
the potential negative effects of prolonged stress on reproduction (e.g.
reduced gametogenesis; low libido; elevated still-birth rates; poor
maternal care) and health (e.g. poor wound-healing; enhanced disease
rates; shortened lifespans). The best validated, most used welfare
indices for elephants are corticosteroid outputs and stereotypic
behavior. Indices suggested as valid, partially validated, and/or
validated but not yet applied within zoos include: measures of
preference/avoidance; displacement movements; vocal/postural signals of
affective (emotional) state; startle/vigilance; apathy; salivary and
urinary epinephrine; female acyclity; infant mortality rates; skin/foot
infections; cardio-vascular disease; and premature adult death.
Potentially useful indices that have not yet attracted any validation
work in elephants include: operant responding and place preference
tests; intention and vacuum movements; fear/stress pheromone release;
cognitive biases; heart rate, pupil dilation and blood pressure;
corticosteroid assay from hair, especially tail-hairs (to access
endocrine events up to a year ago); adrenal hypertrophy; male
infertility; prolactinemia; and immunological changes. Zoo Biol 28:1-19,
2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc
Sherwood,
C.C., Stimpson, C.D., Butti, C., Bonar, C.J., Newton, A.L., Allman, J.M.,
Hof, P.R., 2009. Neocortical neuron types in Xenarthra and Afrotheria:
implications for brain evolution in mammals. Brain Struct. Funct. 213,
301-328.
Abstract: Interpreting the evolution of neuronal types in the cerebral
cortex of mammals requires information from a diversity of species.
However, there is currently a paucity of data from the Xenarthra and
Afrotheria, two major phylogenetic groups that diverged close to the
base of the eutherian mammal adaptive radiation. In this study, we used
immunohistochemistry to examine the distribution and morphology of
neocortical neurons stained for nonphosphorylated neurofilament protein,
calbindin, calretinin, parvalbumin, and neuropeptide Y in three
xenarthran species-the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), the
lesser anteater (Tamandua tetradactyla), and the two-toed sloth (Choloepus
didactylus)-and two afrotherian species-the rock hyrax (Procavia
capensis) and the black and rufous giant elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon
petersi). We also studied the distribution and morphology of astrocytes
using glial fibrillary acidic protein as a marker. In all of these
species, nonphosphorylated neurofilament protein-immunoreactive neurons
predominated in layer V. These neurons exhibited diverse morphologies
with regional variation. Specifically, high proportions of atypical
neurofilament-enriched neuron classes were observed, including
extraverted neurons, inverted pyramidal neurons, fusiform neurons, and
other multipolar types. In addition, many projection neurons in layers
II-III were found to contain calbindin. Among interneurons, parvalbumin-
and calbindin-expressing cells were generally denser compared to
calretinin-immunoreactive cells. We traced the evolution of certain
cortical architectural traits using phylogenetic analysis. Based on our
reconstruction of character evolution, we found that the living
xenarthrans and afrotherians show many similarities to the stem
eutherian mammal, whereas other eutherian lineages display a greater
number of derived traits
Thitaram, C.,
Chansitthiwet, S., Pongsopawijit, P., Brown, J.L., Wongkalasin, W.,
Daram, P., Roongsri, R., Kalmapijit, A., Mahasawangkul, S., Rojanasthien,
S., Colenbrander, B., van der Weijden, G.C., van Eerdenburg, F.J., 2009.
Use of genital inspection and female urine tests to detect oestrus in
captive Asian elephants
116. Anim Reprod. Sci. 115, 267-278.
Abstract: Captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations are
decreasing due to low birth rates compared to wild elephants. Improving
oestrous detection in female elephants is required to ensure successful
mating in captive and semi-captive herds. Responsive behaviours of eight
semi-captive bull elephants to the uro-genital area (genital inspection
test) or urinary pheromones (urine test) of 14 female elephants
throughout the oestrous cycle were evaluated. Weekly blood samples were
collected for 27 consecutive months (14 months for the genital
inspection test and 13 months for the urine test) from female elephants
to characterize the patterns of circulating progestagen. Responsive
behaviours of bulls were compared between females in the follicular
versus the luteal phase of the cycle. The sensitivity and specificity of
the genital inspection test were 65% and 68%, while those of the urine
test were 52% and 61%, respectively. The bulls showed significantly
higher "genital inspection", "flehmen from genital area" and "trunk on
back" behaviours during the genital inspection test, and "flehmen"
behaviours during the urine test in oestrous than in non-oestrous
females. In sum, this study showed that monitoring sexual behaviours of
Asian elephant bulls towards females or their urine can be used to
detect the oestrous period. Although the sensitivity and specificity of
both tests were not as high as expected, still, these methods appear to
be more efficient at detecting oestrous than traditional methods based
on mahout estimations of female receptivity. The use of genital
inspection and urine tests may lead to more successful matings and thus
to creating self-sustaining populations of captive elephants in range
countries
Aupperle, H.,
Reischauer, A., Bach, F., Hildebrandt, T., Goritz, F., Jager, K.,
Scheller, R., Klaue, H.J., Schoon, H.A., 2008. Chronic endometritis in
an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 39,
107-110.
Abstract: A 48-yr-old female Asian elephant with a history of
pododermatitis developed recurrent hematuria beginning in 2002.
Transrectal ultrasonography and endoscopic examination in 2004
identified the uterus as the source of hematuria and excluded
hemorrhagic cystitis. Treatment with Desloreline implants, antibiotics,
and homeopathic drugs led to an improved general condition of the
elephant. In July 2005, the elephant was suddenly found dead. During
necropsy, the severely enlarged uterus contained about 250 L of purulent
fluid, and histopathology revealed ulcerative suppurative endometritis
with high numbers of Streptococcus equi ssp. zooepidemicus and
Escherichia coli identified on aerobic culture. Additional findings at
necropsy included: multifocal severe pododermatitis, uterine leiomyoma,
and numerous large calcified areas of abdominal fat necrosis.
Microbiologic culture of the pododermatitis lesion revealed the presence
of Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus equi ssp. zooepidemicus,
Staphylococcus sp., Corynebacterium sp., and Entercoccus sp
Bechert, U.,
Southern, S., Chase, M.
Minimally invasive molecular health analysis in elephants.
Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and
Amphibian Veterinarians. 88. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
This paper describes the application of a new assay platform called
Stress Response Profiling (SRP) to the analysis of health status in
elephants. SRP assays use a large biomarker panel as an indicator of
chronically perturbed physiologic homeostasis ("chronic stress"),1,2
which is a known predictor of increased morbidity, infertility and
mortality rates.3-8 SRP assays have a broad-based sensitivity to diverse
types of stressors in multiple species of vertebrates.2 A minimally
invasive SRP assay is based on skin microsamples obtained using routine
biopsy procedures.9 The skin SRP assay was applied to captive African
elephants with clinically diagnosed gastrointestinal infections and to
healthy wild elephants.10 The elephant health status was classified
using a reference database of SR biomarker profiles corresponding to
eight species of normal and stressed animals. The biomarker profiles
were converted into pathway profiles indicating that the molecular
mechanism of the elephant gastrointestinal infections preferentially
involved responses to misfolded proteins and DNA lesions. To rapidly and
economically screen samples from 70 free-ranging African elephants
sampled in Northern Botswana, we used a multiplexed SRP assay called
multi-SRP.1,2 Statistical analysis of the multi-SRP scores showed
correlations with population density, movements, and human-elephant
conflict reports. In
summary, this paper documents that SRP and multi-SRP assays are suitable
for the elephant skin and relevant to both symptomatic diseases and
asymptomatic effects of environmental and anthropogenic stressors. We
anticipate that the SRP technology might have a wide range of potential
applications in veterinary medicine and ecosystem conservation.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Southern, S.O., A.C. Allen, and N. Kellar. 2002. Molecular
signature of physiological stress in dolphins based on protein
expression profiling of skin. Administrative Report LJ-02-27, National
Marine Fisheries Service, SW Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla,
California.
2. Southern, S.O., and G.W. Lilienthal. 2008. New technology for early
detection of health threats. Proc. SPIE 69450F.
3. Camougrand, N., and M. Rigoulet. 2001. Aging and oxidative stress:
studies of some genes involved both in aging and in response to
oxidative stress. Respir. Physiol. 128:393-40.
4. Epel, E.S., J. Lin, F.H. Wilhelm, O.M. Wolkowitz, R. Cawthon, N.E.
Adler, C. Dolbier, W.B. Mendes, and E.H. Blackburn. 2006. Cell aging in
relation to stress arousal and cardiovascular disease risk factors.
Psychoneuroendocrinology. 31:277-87.
5. Feder, M.E., and G.E. Hofmann. 1999. Heat-shock proteins, molecular
chaperones, and the stress response: evolutionary and ecological
physiology. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 61:243-82.
6. Kapahi, P., M.E. Boulton, and T.B.L. Kirkwood. 1999. Positive
correlation between mammalian life span and cellular resistance to
stress. Free Radical Biol. Med. 26:495-500.
7. Selye, H.A. 1936. Syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents. Nature
138:32.
8. Wilson, J.F., and E.J. Kopitzke 2002. Stress and infertility Curr.
Womens Health Rep. 2: 194
Drews, B.,
Hermes, R., Goritz, F., Gray, C., Kurz, J., Lueders, I., Hildebrandt,
T.B., 2008. Early embryo development in the elephant assessed by serial
ultrasound examinations. Theriogenology 69, 1120-1128.
Abstract: The elephant has an extraordinary long pregnancy, lasting 21
months. However, knowledge on embryo development is limited. To date,
only single morphological observations of elephant embryo development
associated with placentation are available, all lacking correlation to
gestational age. The present study describes morphological
characteristics of early embryo development in the elephant with exact
biometric staging. Six pregnancies in five Asian and one African
elephants with known conception dates were followed by 2D and 3D
ultrasound, covering the embryonic period from ovulation to day 116
post-ovulation. The embryonic vesicle was earliest observed was on day
50 p.o. The proper embryo was not detected until day 62 p.o. Embryonic
heartbeat was first observed on day 71 p.o. The allantois, which became
visible as a single sacculation on day 71 p.o. was subdivided in four
compartments on day 76 p.o. By day 95 p.o., head, rump, front and hind
legs were clearly distinguished. Between days 95 and 103 p.o. the
choriovitelline placenta was replaced by the chorioallantoic placenta. A
physiological midgut herniation was transiently present between days 95
and 116 p.o. On the basis of the late appearance of the embryonic
vesicle, delayed implantation in the elephant is discussed. The study
provides a coherent description of elephant embryonic development,
formation of the extraembryonic organs and their role in placenta
formation, all of which are of interest for both comparative
evolutionary studies and the improvement of assisted reproduction
techniques
Kilgallon,
C., Flach, E., Boardman, W., Routh, A., Strike, T., Jackson, B., 2008.
Analysis of biochemical markers of bone metabolism in Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 39, 527-536.
Abstract: Two human enzyme immunoassays (EIA) and one radioimmunoassay (RIA)
were validated and used to measure osteocalcin (OC), bone alkaline
phosphatase (BAP), and the cross-linked telopeptide domain of type I
collagen (ICTP), in serum from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Sera
from four adult females sampled on 7 consecutive days were also analyzed
to assess the existence and magnitude of intraindividual day-to-day
variability of the serum concentration of these markers. Sample dilution
curves were parallel with assay standard curves, which demonstrated that
excellent cross reactivity existed between assay antibodies and
elephants marker antigens. Statistically significant inverse
correlations were found between age and concentrations of all three
markers: BAP, r = -0.862 (P < 0.01); OC, r = -0.788 (P < 0.002); and
ICTP, r = -0.848 (P < 0.01). Strong positive correlations were found
between BAP and OC (r = 0.797, P < 0.01), OC and ICTP (r = 0.860, P <
0.01), and between BAP and ICTP (r = 0.958, P < 0.01). No statistically
significant intraindividual variability was found over 7 days in the
four adult females for any of the markers assessed (OC: P = 0.089; ICTP:
P = 0.642; BAP: P = 0.146; n=4 in each case). The overall coefficient of
variability observed in this group of animals was 10.3%, 7.4%, and 5.5%
for OC, BAP, and ICTP, respectively. These results suggest a potential
role for biochemical markers of bone turnover in monitoring skeletal
health and bone disease in Asian elephants
Thongtip, N.,
Saikhun, J., Mahasawangkul, S., Kornkaewrat, K., Pongsopavijitr, P.,
Songsasen, N., Pinyopummin, A., 2008. Potential factors affecting semen
quality in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Reprod. Biol.
Endocrinol. 6, 9.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: One of the major obstacles in using artificial
insemination to manage genetics of elephant population in captivity is
the large variations in semen quality among ejaculates within the same
and among individuals. The objectives of this study were to determine
the influences of (1) age (2) seasonality (3) and circulating
testosterone (SrTest), triiodothyronine (SrT3) and tetraiodothyronine
(SrT4), as well as seminal (4) testosterone (SpTest), zinc (SpZn) and
protein (SpTP) on semen quality in the Asian elephant METHODS: Analyses,
including motility, viability and morphology were performed in semen
samples collected twice monthly from 13 elephant bulls (age range, 10-to
72-years) by manual stimulation between July 2004 and June 2005. Serum
samples obtained monthly were assessed for SrTest, SrT3, SrT4, and
seminal plasma samples were evaluated for, SpTest, SpZn and SpTP.
RESULTS: The highest semen quality was observed at age 23 to 43 years.
Percentages of progressive motility and viable sperm were lowest at age
51 to 70 years (P < 0.05); on the other hand, sperm concentration was
lowest at age 10 to 19 years (P < 0.05). Percentage of sperm with normal
morphology was highest at age 23 to 43 years. The levels of SrT3, SrTest,
SpTest and SpZn were lowest at age 51 to 70 years, whereas SrT4 was
lowest at age 23 to 43 years. Seasonality significantly affected semen
characteristics in which percentage of viable sperm and cell
concentration were highest during rainy season and lowest during summer
months (P < 0.05). However, percentage of sperm with normal morphology
was highest in summer and lowest in rainy season (P < 0.05). Seasonality
significantly influenced SrTest with elevated concentrations observed in
rainy season and winter (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: This study indicates
that age and seasonality had influence on semen characteristics in the
Asian elephant. The knowledge obtained in this study will improve our
understanding of the reproductive biology of this species
Viijoen, J.J.,
Ganswindt, A., du Toit, J.T., Langbauer, W.R., 2008.
Translocation stress and faecal glucocorticoid
metabolite levels in free-ranging African savanna elephants.
South African Journal of Wildlife Research 38, 146-152.
Abstract:
There are local populations of African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
which have increased to levels where they are implicated in altering
vegetation types. The local reduction of elephant numbers for wildlife
management objectives can involve contraception, killing excess animals,
or translocation to alternative habitats. The effects these management
decisions can have on the physiological stress response of free-ranging
African savanna elephants are still not fully understood. We examined
the effect of translocation on faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels
of an African elephant family group, which was translocated within the
Kruger National Park, South Africa. We found that translocation resulted
in a significant increase in faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels (up
to 646 ng/g wet weight) compared to (1) pre-translocation levels in this
group, (2) post-translocation levels in this group, and (3) levels
measured in undisturbed 'control' groups in the area. However, the
faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels had returned to <100 ng/g by the
time the translocated animals had navigated their way back to their
previous home range, covering 300 km in 23 days.
Hildebrandt,
T., Drews, B., Gaeth, A.P., Goeritz, F., Hermes, R., Schmitt, D., Gray,
C., Rich, P., Streich, W.J., Short, R.V., Renfree, M.B., 2007. Foetal
age determination and development in elephants. Proc. Biol. Sci. 274,
323-331.
Abstract: Elephants have the longest pregnancy of all mammals, with an
average gestation of around 660 days, so their embryonic and foetal
development have always been of special interest. Hitherto, it has only
been possible to estimate foetal ages from theoretical calculations
based on foetal mass. The recent development of sophisticated ultrasound
procedures for elephants has now made it possible to monitor the growth
and development of foetuses of known gestational age conceived in
captivity from natural matings or artificial insemination. We have
studied the early stages of pregnancy in 10 captive Asian and 9 African
elephants by transrectal ultrasound. Measurements of foetal crown-rump
lengths have provided the first accurate growth curves, which differ
significantly from the previous theoretical estimates based on the cube
root of foetal mass. We have used these to age 22 African elephant
foetuses collected during culling operations. Pregnancy can be first
recognized ultrasonographically by day 50, the presumptive yolk sac by
about day 75 and the zonary placenta by about day 85. The trunk is first
recognizable by days 85-90 and is distinct by day 104, while the first
heartbeats are evident from around day 80. By combining ultrasonography
and morphology, we have been able to produce the first reliable criteria
for estimating gestational age and ontological development of Asian and
African elephant foetuses during the first third of gestation.
Lacasse, C.,
Terio, K., Kinsel, M.J., Farina, L.L., Travis, D.A., Greenwald, R.,
Lyashchenko, K.P., Miller, M., Gamble, K.C., 2007. Two cases of atypical
mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium szulgai associated with
mortality in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). J. Zoo.
Wildl. Med. 38, 101-107.
Abstract: Mycobacterium szulgai was associated with mortality in two
captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed at Lincoln Park
Zoo. The first elephant presented with severe, acute lameness of the
left rear limb. Despite extensive treatments, the animal collapsed and
died 13 mo after initial presentation. Necropsy revealed osteomyelitis
with loss of the femoral head and acetabulum and pulmonary granulomas
with intralesional M. szulgai. The second elephant collapsed during
transport to another institution with no premonitory clinical signs.
This animal was euthanized because of prolonged recumbency.
Granulomatous pneumonia with intralesional M. szulgai was found at
necropsy. Two novel immunoassays performed on banked serum samples
detected antibody responses to mycobacterial antigens in both infected
elephants. It was not possible to determine when the infection was
established or how the elephants were infected. When reviewing the
epidemiology of this organism in humans, however, transmission between
elephants seemed unlikely because human-to-human transmission of this
organism has never been reported and a third elephant in the herd was
not affected. In addition to Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterial organisms need to be considered
potentially pathogenic in elephants
Morley, R.C.,
van Aarde, R.J., 2007. Estimating abundance for a savanna elephant
population using mark-resight methods: a case study for the Tembe
Elephant Park, South Africa. Journal of Zoology 271, 418-427.
Abstract: Elephants living in dense woodlands are difficult to count.
Many elephant populations in Africa occur in such conditions. Estimates
of these populations based on total counts, aerial counts and dung
counts often lack information on precision and accuracy. We use standard
mark-recapture field methods to obtain estimates of population size with
associated confidence limits. We apply this approach to a closed
elephant population in the Tembe Elephant Park (300 km(2)), South
Africa. A registration count completed in 4 months gives a known
population size. We evaluate mark-recapture models against the known
population size. Individual identification profiles obtained for
elephants during the registration count and mark-recapture events
indicate that at least 167 elephants live in the park. We consider this
value as an estimate of the minimum number alive. We include 189
sightings of bulls and 37 sightings of breeding herds in the
mark-recapture modelling. Of the models we test (Petersen, Schnabel,
Schumacher, Jolly-Seber, Bowden's, Poisson and negative binomial),
Bowden's gives an estimate closest to the registration count.
Assumptions of the model are not violated. For all models except one
(negative binomial), our estimates improve with increased sampling
intensity. Confidence intervals do not improve with increased effort
except for the Schnabel model. Mark-recapture methods should be
considered as reliable estimators of population size for elephants
occurring in dense woodlands and forests when other methods cannot be
relied on.
Wittemyer,
G., Ganswindt, A., Hodges, K., 2007. The impact of ecological
variability on the reproductive endocrinology of wild female African
elephants. Hormones and Behavior 51, 346-354.
Abstract: Non-invasive endocrine methods enable investigation of the
relationship between ecological variation and ovarian activity and how
this impacts on demographic processes. The underlying physiological
factors driving high variation in inter-calving intervals among multi-parous
African elephants offer an interesting system for such an investigation.
This study investigates the relationship between Normalized Differential
Vegetation Index (NDVI), an ecosystem surrogate measure of primary
productivity, and fecal progestin concentrations among wild female
elephants. Matched fecal samples and behavioral data on reproductive
activity were collected from 37 focal individuals during the two-year
study. Linear mixed models were used to explore the relationship between
fecal 5 alpha-pregnane-3-ol-20-one concentrations and the independent
variables of NDVI, calf sex, female age, gestation day, and time since
last parturition. Among both non-pregnant and pregnant females, fecal 5
alpha-pregnane-3-ol-20-one concentrations were significantly correlated
with time-specific NDVI indicating a strong relationship between
ecological conditions and endocrine activity regulating reproduction. In
addition, the age of a female and time since her last parturition
impacted hormone concentrations. These results indicate that the
identification of an individual's reproductive status from a single
hormone sample is possible, but difficult to achieve in practice since
numerous independent factors, particularly season, impact fecal hormone
concentrations. Regardless of season, however, fecal 5
alpha-pregnane-3-ol-20-one concentrations below 1 mu g/g were
exclusively collected from non-pregnant females, which could be used as
a threshold value to identify non-pregnant individuals. Collectively the
information generated contributes to a better understanding of
environmental regulation of reproductive endocrinology in wild elephant
populations, information salient to the management and manipulation of
population dynamics in this species.
Witter, K.,
Egger, G.F., Boeck, P., 2007. Renaut bodies in nerves of the trunk of
the African elephant, Loxodonta africana. J. Morphol. 268,
414-422.
Abstract: Renaut bodies are loosely textured, cell-sparse structures in
the subperineurial space of peripheral nerves, frequently found at sites
of nerve entrapment. The trunk of the elephant is a mobile, richly
innervated organ, which serves for food gathering, object grasping and
as a tactile organ. These functions of the trunk lead to distortion and
mechanical compression of its nerves, which can therefore be expected to
contain numerous Renaut bodies. Samples of the trunk wall of an adult
African elephant (Loxodonta africana) were examined histologically using
conventional staining methods, immunohistochemistry, and lectin
histochemistry. Architecture of nerve plexuses and occurrence of Renaut
bodies in the elephant trunk were compared with those in tissues
surrounding the nasal vestibule of the pig. Prominent nerve plexuses
were found in all layers of the elephant trunk. Almost all (81%) nerve
profiles contained Renaut bodies, a basophilic, discrete subperineurial
layer resembling cushions around the nerve core. In contrast, Renaut
bodies were seen in only 15% of nerve profiles in the porcine nasal
vestibule. Within Renaut bodies, fusiform fibroblasts and round,
ruff-like cells were placed into a matrix of acidic glycosaminoglycans
with delicate collagen and very few reticular fibers. The turgor of this
matrix is thought to protect nerves against compression and shearing
strain. Renaut bodies are readily stained with alcian blue (pH 2.5)
favorably in combination with immunohistochemical markers of nerve
fibers. They should be regarded as a physiological response to repeated
mechanical insults and are distinct from pathological alterations.
alterations
Agnew, D.W.
Brain removal in charismatic mega-vertebrates: A not-so-charismatic
chore. 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.
2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Examination of the central nervous system, both grossly and
histologically, is an important component of a complete necropsy.
Cerebral nematodiasis, West Nile Virus infection, rabies, distemper, and
organophosphate toxicity are just a few of the possible diseases with
serious herd and public health significance which may only be diagnosed
by careful analysis of the brain and/or spinal cord. Removal of the
brain is strongly suggested for a complete necropsy, and though it may
appear a daunting task, a few guidelines and power tools will allow
efficient removal of the brain and a complete necropsy.
It is usually preferred that the brain be removed whole by removal of
the skull cap. This technique has been well documented in necropsy
texts and is commonly taught in veterinary schools. Briefly, after
skinning the skull, a saw or ax may be used to cut on either side from
the foramen magnum and the occipital condyles cranially and dorsally in
a circular pattern (Fig. 1). This technique is useful to examine the
brain in situ and remove it whole, but unfortunately requires skinning
of the head, can be time-consuming, and is almost impossible to complete
in rhinoceros and elephants. There are many alternative approaches to
brain removal, but the author has found the following methods using
commonly available tools are quick, leave a relatively intact skull, and
the brain itself is removed in two parts. Certainly, the techniques
presented here can be adapted to the individual preferences of the
prosector and to other similar species. If nothing else, a discussion
of brain removal techniques will reinforce the importance of collecting
a complete set of tissues during a post-mortem examination.
Ball, R.,
Fad, O. Serum cortisols in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in
different management systems at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay. 2006
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 177-180. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Introduction:Cortisol is a widely accepted measure of stress
in wild and captive animals. In the past, captive elephant management
systems have been criticized as potential stress inducers. The analysis
of fecal cortisols is non-invasive and has been used to give long term
evalutions of social and ecologic pressures in elephants and other
species. Salivary cortisols have also been used as a minimally invasive
technique to measure social stress in captive elephants. The herd of
Asian elephants at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay (BGT) changed from a
traditional contact managemnt (free ccontact, FC) to a protected contact
(PC) system utilizing positive-reinforcement based operant conditioning
in 2004. Serum cortisols were measured after the change and evaluated
along wth banked samples from before. Long term sampling will be
utilized to measure this transition but evaluating a single process will
hopefully reflect the overall changes that can be expected with this
change in management. While the individual variations are notable and
other issues potentially confound the issue, it appears that this
transition has lowered the serum cortisols in this herd. In addition to
serum cortisol measurements, the actual process of collecting the
samples appears to be less stressful behaviorally. Pathologic processes
should not be discounted when considering cortisol levels in evalauting
stress in captive elephants.
Methods and Materials: Six female Asian elephants (Studbook numbers 30,
32, 304, 34, 35, 3) had been managed in a free contact system for many
years. Studbook number 304 was captive born and the others were wild
born. Serum was collected intermittently during this management system
to bank and for reproductive hormone analysis. The elephants were
placed in lateral recumbency by the handlers and blood collected from
the ear vein on the caudal aspect of the down ear. Reproductively sound
animals were bled more frequently than the others. Serum was frozen at
-80°C until analyzed. In August 2004, the first group of three animals
was moved to the new barn and started the new positive-reinforcement, PC
management system. Within 5 wk, all animals had been moved over. All
animals had been trunkwashed and were culture negative for Mycobacterium
tuberculosis and negative on the newly developed MultiAntigen Print
ImmunoAssay (MAPIA) and lateral-flow technology (Rapid Test) developed
to detected antigen to M. tuberculosis. As the caudal aspect of the ear
was used for sampling, each elephant was asked to station in a static
chute designed to allow training of voluntary ear-presentation for
manipulation and blood collection. Handler safety and creating an
effective learning environment for the elephants required training each
to proceed to the chute solo and station there calmly. General
desensitization techniques were applied as session durations were
increased. Within the chute,individual elephants had significant room to
maneuver. Since no physical restraint or sedation was utilized,animals
were trained to cooperate fully and voluntarily allowing for blood
sampling and other husbandry procedures. By May 2005, training for
voluntary bloods draws was firmly established on all six animals. The
first approximately 20 samples collected under this new system were
matched against the samples collected in the previous system. Samples
were selected against if the animal had an active problem or was on
therapy for any reason. Several animals had undergone a drug trial and
these samples were selected against as well. Serum was again stored in
-80°C freezer until analyzed at Conservation and Research Center (CRC)
Endocrine Research Laboratory, Smithsonian Institution, National
Zoological Park, Front Royal, VA. T-tests were utilized to discern any
statistically significant results in the mean serum cortisols collected
from animals before and after the implementation of the new husbandry
systems. Results were considered significant at alpha levels <0.05.
Results: The results and simple means of serum cortisols are listed in
Table 1. Elephant No. 34 had essentially the same level of cortisol in
both systems. Elephant No. 32 had a reduction in the mean cortisol
level of approximately 32% (20.84 versus 14.28 ng/ml) from the FC to the
PC system. Elephant No. 304 had a similar reduction of 37% in the mean
cortisol (22.59 versus 14.29 ng/ml). Statistical analyses results are
reported here (means, standard deviations, t-test results).
Discussion: Serum was chosen over salivary and fecal sampling as a means
to measure cortisol for several reasons. While fecal and salivary
cortisol changes can reflect stresses within a reasonable period after
the stressor (approximately 24 hr), serum cortisols is more likely to be
reflective of the stressors closer to the moment of sampling. The
methodology is straightforward and less subject to the hazards for
sample storage. Timeliness of the sample result is also a benefit to
serum sampling. Blood sampling is a required husbandry practice in all
elephant holding facilities belonging to the American Zoo and Aquarium
Association (AZA). While fecal cortisol samples may be useful to look
at over a long term period to evaluate the transition from FC to PC, we
choose to additionally look at how one specific task, blood collection,
was affected by making this transition. Fecal cortisols have been used
to measure stress in transportation and environmental stress in some
species, but are not thought to be reflective of the stress in a
diagnostic procedure itself. For this evaluation, the lag time period
between the potential stressor (blood collection) and the means to
measure the stressor are same. Elephants No. 304 and 32 both had
significant reductions in the mean serum cortisol levels. Both are in
good health and had no apparent inflammatory problems. The logical
deduction here is that the sampling process itself is less stressful in
the PC management than the FC management. Elephant 34 and 30 had
essentially the same level of serum cortisol as measured by the mean in
the different management systems. Elephant 34 has developed significant
uterine leiomyomas during the time period measured. Elephant 30 has
recently had clinical bouts of anterior enteritis and is suspected of
having a dietary hypersensitivity to wheat. Even with these two
pathologic processes, the serum cortisol did not rise. Elevations in
cortisol are quite often explained as resulting from social, behavioral,
or environmental causes and little attention is paid to inflammatory
causes. Associations between infections and elevated cortisols have
been noted in wild animals. It is reasonable to assume that if these
two processes did not exist, these levels would indeed be lower. Based
on the other two elephants, a reduction of approximately 30% could be
expected. Overall it appears that collecting blood from the elephants at
BGT in the PC system is less stressful that the FC system. As this is
an example of how the routine husbandry and medical husbandry is now
conducted, it can be expected that the overall net effect is going to be
lowered stress in the elephants at BGT. ……………………………………………………………………………
Ball, R.,
Dumonceaux, G., Olsen, J., Burton, M.S., 2006. Comparison of trunk wash
results matched to Multiantigen Print Immunoassay (MAPIA) in a group of
captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Proceedings International
Elephant Conservation and Research Symposium 242-243.
Ball, R.L.,
Dumonceaux, G., Olsen, J.H., Burton, M.S., Lyashchenko, K. Comparison of
trunk wash results matched to multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA) in
a group of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). 2006 Proceedings
American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 303-304. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Introduction: Between 1994 and June 2005, there were 34
confirmed cases of tuberculosis in elephants in the U.S. population.
Thirty-one Asian (Elephas maximus) and three African (Loxodonta
africana) elephants were affected. Mycobacterium tuberculosis was the
etiologic agent in 33 cases and M. bovis in one case. Cases of
tuberculosis caused by an unusual nontuberculous mycobacteria, M.
szulgai have recently occurred as well. Currently, TB in elephants
remains a diagnostic dilemma. The sensitivity of trunk wash culture, the
currently recommended test for diagnosis, is unknown. False negatives
have been documented (trunk wash negative elephants that were
subsequently found to be culture positive at necropsy). Other
non-culture techniques for TB diagnosis include ELISA, and PCR. A novel
technology, MultiAntigen Print ImmunoAssay (MAPIA) and lateral-flow
technology (Rapid Test) has been evaluated and used to diagnose
tuberculosis in captive elephants with encouraging results. One concern
with this serologic testing is the possibility of Mycobacterium other
than tuberculosis (MOTT) cross-reacting with the antigen used in the
Rapid Test or the MAPIA and leading to a false positive. With numerous
MOTT routinely cultured from trunk washes, this is a valid concern.
Methods and Materials: A retrospective analysis was done at Busch
Gardens Tampa Bay and Chembio, Inc. that matched trunk wash results to
serum samples. All serum was collected within 7 days of the trunk wash
and analyzed with the Rapid Test and MAPIA. Four Asian elephants with a
total of 18 samples met this criteria and had serum submitted for
testing. Results and Discussion: Table 1 lists the results and the
organisms cultured. While the sampling is limited in this pilot project,
it appears that MOTT does not evoke a response when assayed with the
Rapid Test or MAPIA. The recent cases of M. szulgai do demonstrate the
potential usefulness for this test when a disease develops from MOTT.
The usefulness of this new technology, taken in conjunction with other
clinical data including trunk washes when indicated, is a valuable tool
in the healthcare of captive elephants.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Lacasse, C., K.C. Gamble, K. Terio, L.L. Farina, D.A. Travis, and
M.Miller. 2005. Mycobacterium szulgai osteroarthritis and pneumonia in
an African elephant (Loxdonta africana). Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Ann.
Meet. Pp. 170-172.
2 Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J.
Triantis. 2000. Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
infection in captive elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31:291-302.
3 Lyashchenko, K., et al. 2000. A multiantigen print immunoassay for
the serological diagnosis of infectious diseases. J. Immunol. Methods
242:91-100
4 Lyashchenko, K., M. Miller, and W.R. Waters. 2005. Application of
multiple antigen print immunoassay and rapid lateral flow technology for
tuberculosis testing of elephants. Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Ann. Meet.
Pp. 64-65
Drews, B.,
Göritz, F., Hermes, R., Streich, J.W., Rich, P., Schmitt, D., Lung, N.,
Renfree, M.B., Gaeth, A.P., Short, R.V., Hildebrandt, T.B. Morphological
and ultrasonographic characterization of the embryonic development in
elephants. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research
Symposium. 82-83. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Fidgett, A.L.,
Newman, E.C., Sanderson, S. Using faecal analysis as an indicator of
dental condition: A case study at Chester Zoo. Proceedings International
Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium. 250. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Hermes, R., Ratanakorn, P., Rietschel, W., Fickel, J., RetNat, D.,
Frey, R., Reid, C., Goeritz, F. Ultrasonographic assessment and
ultrasound-guided biopsy of the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in
elephants. 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.
117-118. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: So far there are no valid diagnostic tools available for
identifying latent carriers of endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV).
For this reason, the lateral retropharyngeal lymph node complex (LARELYNOC)
of elephants, identified during postmortem studies as target organ for
EEHV and suitable for transcutaneous biopsy, was grossly described.
Transcutaneous ultrasound (3.5 MHz) was applied behind the ear region to
identify the LARELYNOC containing up to four single lymph nodes on each
side. The lymph node tissue is situated 20-50 mm below the skin surface.
An ultrasonographic assessment of the LARELYNOC and two biopsies were
performed on 39 healthy Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Samples were
tested for EEHV via PCR. Whole blood samples were also collected and
tested for active EEHV infection. Lymph nodes were ultrasonographically
classified as active (calculated mean volume=17.4 ± 6.9 cm3, P>0.001),
inactive (calculated mean volume=3.1 ± 0.6 cm3, P<0.001), or chronic
active (calculated mean volume=10.6 ± 1.0 cm3, P<0.05). Histology
confirmed not only the presence of lymph tissue but also the
ultrasonographically diagnosed reactivity status of the lymph node
biospies. Although all samples including whole blood were found to be
negative for the EEHV DNA particles, the successful development of this
procedure in elephants could prove beneficial for the screening of not
only latent EEHV infections but might also be a less dangerous
alternative method for the diagnosis of zoonotic infections such as
tuberculosis.
Kilgallon,
C., Flach, E., Boardman, W., Routh, A., Strike, T., Jackson, B.
Biochemical markers of bone in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): a
cross sectional analysis of two serum markers of bone formation and one
serum marker of bone resorption.
2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 183-184.
2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Conventional radiography has traditionally been employed for
investigations of skeletal disease of captive elephants. However, it is
predominantly cortical bone which is assessed by standard radiography,
and quantitative assessment of bone is only possible when pathology is
advanced. A precise and relatively non-invasive method of quantitatively
assessing bone, in isolation, or as a compliment to standard radiography
would have positive health and welfare implications for elephants,
because skeletal disease is prevalent in both extant species in
captivity. The advent of biochemical markers of bone metabolism
represents a watershed in non-invasive diagnostics of normal bone
homeostasis and pathology in humans and animals alike. These markers are
classified as markers of formation and resorbtion and are comprising of
enzymes expressed by osteoblasts or osteoclasts, or organic compounds
released during the synthesis or resorption of bone matrix. In this
study, two human enzyme immunoassays (METRA™ Osteocalcin EIA kit, METRA™
BAP EIA kit, Quidel Corporation, San Diego, California 92121 USA) and
one radioimmunoassay (UniQ™ ICTP RIA, Orion Diagnostica, Espoo, Finland)
were validated and used to measure osteocalcin (OC), bone alkaline
phosphatase (BAP), and the C-terminal telopeptide domain of type I
collagen (ICTP) respectively, three biochemical markers of bone, in
serum procured from a small sample population (n=12) of captive Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) of various ages, from three European zoos.
Serum from four adult females sampled on 7 days consecutively were as
also analyzed to assess the existence and magnitude of the
intra-individual, day-to-day variability of these markers. Excellent
cross reactivity was found to exist between assay antibodies and
elephants marker antigens. Significant inverse correlations were found
between the age of the animals and concentrations of all three markers.
Strong significant positive correlations were also noted between serum
concentrations of all three markers. No statistically significant
intra-individual variability was found over 7 days in the population of
adult females for any of the markers assessed. The results suggest a
promising role for biochemical markers of bone turnover in monitoring
skeletal growth and bone disease in captive Asian elephants.
Lyashchenko,
K.P., Greenwald, R., Esfandiari, J., Olsen, J.H., Ball, R., Dumonceaux,
G., Dunker, F., Buckley, C., Richard, M., Murray, S., Payeur, J.B.,
Andersen, P., Pollock, J.M., Mikota, S., Miller, M., Sofranko, D.,
Waters, W.R., 2006. Tuberculosis in elephants: antibody responses to
defined antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, potential for early
diagnosis, and monitoring of treatment
438. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 13, 722-732.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants is a re-emerging zoonotic
disease caused primarily by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Current
diagnosis relies on trunk wash culture, the only officially recognized
test, which has serious limitations. Innovative and efficient diagnostic
methods are urgently needed. Rapid identification of infected animals is
a crucial prerequisite for more effective control of TB, as early
diagnosis allows timely initiation of chemotherapy. Serology has
diagnostic potential, although key antigens have not been identified and
optimal immunoassay formats are not established. To characterize the
humoral responses in elephant TB, we tested 143 serum samples collected
from 15 elephants over time. These included 48 samples from five
culture-confirmed TB cases, of which four were in Asian elephants
infected with M. tuberculosis and one was in an African elephant with
Mycobacterium bovis. Multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA) employing a
panel of 12 defined antigens was used to identify serologic correlates
of active disease. ESAT-6 was the immunodominant antigen recognized in
elephant TB. Serum immunoglobulin G antibodies to ESAT-6 and other
proteins were detected up to 3.5 years prior to culture of M.
tuberculosis from trunk washes. Antibody levels to certain antigens
gradually decreased in response to antitubercular therapy, suggesting
the possibility of treatment monitoring. In addition to MAPIA, serum
samples were evaluated with a recently developed rapid test (RT) based
on lateral flow technology (ElephantTB STAT-PAK). Similarly to MAPIA,
infected elephants were identified using the RT up to 4 years prior to
positive culture. These findings demonstrate the potential for TB
surveillance and treatment monitoring using the RT and MAPIA,
respectively
Mikota, S.K.,
Dumonceaux, G., Miller, M., Gairhe, K., Giri, K., Cheeran, J.V.,
Abraham, D., Lyashchenko, K., Larsen, S., Payeur, J., Waters, R.,
Kaufman, G., \, 2006. Tuberculosis in elephants: An update on diagnosis
and treatment; implications for control in range countries. Proceedings
International Elephant Conservation and Research Symposium 109-118.
Mikota, S.K.,
Miller, M., Dumonceaux, G., Giri, K., Gairhe, K., Hamilton, K., Paudel,
S., Vincent, B. Elephant tuberculosis diagnosis: implications for
elephant management in Asian range countries. 2006 Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 142-143. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Serologic tests including the ELISA, MAPIA (Multi-Antigen
Print Immunoassay), and a rapid test, VetTB StatPak® (Chembio Diagnostic
Systems, Inc., Medford, New York 11763 USA) have recently been developed
and show great promise for the diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) in
elephants. These serologic tests detect antibodies to antigens of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organisms and in some cases have
detected infection years in advance of active disease and mycobacterial
shedding. The diagnosis of active TB (by culture) or serologic
conversion presents management challenges for captive elephants in Asian
range countries. Of the 2 billion humans world-wide infected with TB,
fewer than 10% will develop active disease. This figure is unknown for
elephants. The identification and management of infected elephants has
ramifications for elephants and humans alike and issues such as public
health and tourism may be impacted. TB is endemic among humans in Asia
and where there is intermingling of elephants and humans, both species
may act as reservoirs for disease transmission. The various situations
in which elephants are kept in Asia (government-owned, privately-owned,
festivals, temples, zoos, etc.) make it difficult to develop a
management strategy that will address all circumstances. Other concerns
are the cost of treatment for an elephant (~ $50,000 USD) and
appropriate monitoring in resource-poor countries. The authors have
recently undertaken the screening of 120 elephants in Nepal to further
evaluate the above-mentioned (and other) diagnostic tests. To our
knowledge, this is the first organized, large-scale initiative to screen
Asian elephants within a range country. Preliminary discussions
regarding the management of both culture and serologically positive
government-owned and privately-owned elephants in Nepal have been
initiated and may serve as a starting point for other countries as more
elephants are screened within Asia. Basic options for active (culturepositive)
cases include (1) treatment, (2) segregation or (3) euthanasia. Options
for latent disease (culture-negative, serologically positive) cases
include (1) treatment, (2) segregation and monitoring for active disease
and (3) euthanasia. The particular ownership/husbandry system,
available resources and cultural constraints may dictate final
management choices in range countries.
Moller, T.,
Roken, B.O., Lewerin, S.S., Lyashchenko, K., 2006. The elephant Rapid
Test (RT) the future diagnostic test for TB (M. tuberculosis) in
elephants? Call for a validation study in Europe. Proceedings
International Elephant Conservation and Research Symposium 119-124.
Riley, L.W.,
2006. Of mice, men, and elephants: Mycobacterium tuberculosis cell
envelope lipids and pathogenesis
454. J. Clin. Invest 116, 1475-1478.
Abstract: Mycolic acids and structures attached to them constitute a
major part of the protective envelope of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and
for this reason, their role in tuberculosis pathogenesis has been
extensively studied. In this issue of the JCI, Rao et al. examine the
effect of trans-cyclopropanation of oxygenated mycolic acids attached to
trehalose dimycolate (TDM) on the murine immune response to infection
(see the related article beginning on page 1660). Surprisingly, they
found that an M. tuberculosis mutant lacking trans-cyclopropane rings
was hypervirulent in mice. The recent recognition of a hypervirulence
phenotype in mice associated with laboratory and clinical M.
tuberculosis strains with altered cell wall components has provided new
insights into how M. tuberculosis may establish persistent infection.
However, to date, characterization of these bioactive products in
pathogenesis has been largely reductionistic; the relationship of their
effects observed in mice to the persistent infection and tuberculosis
caused by M. tuberculosis observed in humans remains obscure
Siegal-Willott, J., Isaza, R., Johnson, R., Blaik, M. Clinical
evaluation of distal limb radiography and growth plate closure in the
juvenile Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 181-182.
2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The thoracic limb digits of 11 healthy juvenile Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) were evaluated radiographically to assess
normal developmental anatomy. Parameters evaluated included: the
location(s) of centers of ossification, relative age at time of
phalangeal ossification, and relative times of growth plate closure in
the bones of the distal forelimb. Specifically, the third phalanx (P3)
of each digit was evaluated, as well as the first (P1) and second (P2)
phalanges of the third digit (D3). A retrospective evaluation of
radiographs from juvenile elephants was also done to augment the data
set. This study reports the methods used to obtain high-quality
radiographs of the elephant foot, the locations of centers of
ossification based on radiographic evaluation, and the relative times of
growth plate closure within the digital bones. The settings used to
obtain the radiographs used in this study for P3 are presented in Table
1. Radiographs of D3, P1, and P2 were obtained in a similar manner,
using a 45° angle for focal spot positioning. The kilovoltage power and
milliampere seconds were adjusted as needed. Radiographic evaluation of
the juvenile Asian elephants revealed variability in the shape of P3
based on age of the animal and degree of ossification of P3. The
relative times of growth plate closure and number of ossifications were
also determined. The information presented will help clinicians in
radiographing elephants, interpreting foot radiographs, and recognizing
normal versus abnormal anatomy. It will also help in aging juvenile
elephants, investigating diseases and deaths, and recognizing normal
patterns of toe and foot development.
Suedmeyer,
W.K., Fine, D. Indirect oscillometric blood pressure measurement in four
African elephants (Loxodonta africana).
2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 170-172.
2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The elephant is the largest living land mammal and in danger
of extinction. The few literature citations involving blood pressure
(BP) measurements have utilized direct arterial measurement of
immobilized or stationary conditioned elephants. These investigations
determined that BP's in the healthy elephant are generally higher than
most other clinically normal mammals studied but similar to unsedated
domestic cattle and horses, and increased in laterally recumbent
elephants. This project was undertaken to compare cited direct arterial
measurements to indirect oscillometric BP measurement of systolic,
diastolic, and mean arterial pressure (MAP), and heart rate (HR) in four
stationary, non-sedated African elephants. Four female African elephants
ranging in age from 28-38 yr of age were used in this study. One
elephant (E3) had a history of fetal retention of 5 yr and bilateral
scleral injection but was clinically normal in all other regards. The
three remaining elephants had no significant clinical histories. All
four elephants were conditioned to present the tail for placement of a
standard occlusive BP cuff (Cardell™, CAS Medical Systems, Inc.
Branford, Connecticut 06405 USA). Use of this indirect oscillometric
unit has been compared with simultaneous direct arterial measurement in
anesthetized African lions (Panthera leo), and an immobilized African
elephant at the Kansas City Zoo. Blood pressure results in each animal
studied were virtually identical in both techniques. The width of the
cuff was approximately 40% the circumference of the tail (12 cm cuff on
an average 27.5 cm tail circumference) of the elephant, in accordance
with general recommendations for obtaining BP measurements in domestic
animals. Cuff placement was at the distal extent of the caudal tail
fold. Three sets of BP's, heart rates, and respiratory rates were
obtained on three different occasions in each elephant (Table 1). Each
elephant was sampled at the same time of day and had not been exercised.
Blood pressure measurements obtained in three of the four elephants in
this population compared favorably with reference ranges obtained
invasively (direct arterial) in unsedated African elephants. In the
elephant with scleral injection and retained fetal mummy (E3), overall
BP measurements were higher, on average, than the other three elephants
and ranges reported in a previous study of direct arterial pressures in
unsedated African elephants. This may reflect a hypertensive state
related to increased systemic vascular resistance associated with a
retained calf. However, this elephant is the oldest of the four animals
studied, and blood pressure parameters generally increase with age in
humans and this may be the case with this elephant. Further
investigation into the potential causes for a clinical hypertensive
state in this elephant is being pursued. The advantages of this
technique are the non-invasive application, portability, and comparable
results to direct arterial measurement. Disadvantages are that BP
measurement can be altered by cuff size, placement, and movement. In
this study, cuff placement and size was identical in all elephants, and
the only movement was associated with masticatory efforts involved with
positive food enrichment, eliminating two of the three variables.
Additional elephants are being evaluated and refinement of BP
measurement techniques is being completed to help define normal indirect
oscillometric BP values in the African elephant. Use of an indirect
oscillometric measuring device for obtaining BP measurements in African
elephants may prove to be an easily applied valuable ancillary
diagnostic tool when evaluating cardiovascular parameters without the
need for sedation or immobilization.
Tremblay, Y.,
Shaffer, S.A., Fowler, S.L., Kuhn, C.E., McDonald, B.I., Weise, M.J.,
Bost, C.A., Weimerskirch, H., Crocker, D.E., Goebel, M.E., Costa, D.P.,
2006. Interpolation of animal tracking data in a fluid environment. J
Exp Biol. 209 (Pt 1), 128-140.
Abstract: Interpolation of geolocation or Argos tracking data is a
necessity for habitat use analyses of marine vertebrates. In a fluid
marine environment, characterized by curvilinear structures, linearly
interpolated track data are not realistic. Based on these two facts, we
interpolated tracking data from albatrosses, penguins, boobies, sea
lions, fur seals and elephant seals using six mathematical algorithms.
Given their popularity in mathematical computing, we chose Bézier,
hermite and cubic splines, in addition to a commonly used linear
algorithm to interpolate data. Performance of interpolation methods was
compared with different temporal resolutions representative of the
less-precise geolocation and the more-precise Argos tracking techniques.
Parameters from interpolated sub-sampled tracks were compared with those
obtained from intact tracks. Average accuracy of the interpolated
location was not affected by the interpolation method and was always
within the precision of the tracking technique used. However, depending
on the species tested, some curvilinear interpolation algorithms
produced greater occurrences of more accurate locations, compared with
the linear interpolation method. Total track lengths were consistently
underestimated but were always more accurate using curvilinear
interpolation than linear interpolation. Curvilinear algorithms are safe
to use because accuracy, shape and length of the tracks are either not
different or are slightly enhanced and because analyses always remain
conservative. The choice of the curvilinear algorithm does not affect
the resulting track dramatically so it should not preclude their use. We
thus recommend using curvilinear interpolation techniques because of the
more realistic fluid movements of animals. We also provide some
guidelines for choosing an algorithm that is most likely to maximize
track quality for different types of marine vertebrates. University of
California, Santa Cruz, Long Marine Laboratory, Center for Ocean Health,
100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA. tremblay@biology.ucsc.edu
Varma, S.,
Pittet, A., Jamadagni, H.S., 2006. Experimenting usage of
camera-traps-for population dynamics study of the Asian elephant Elephas
maximus in southern India. Current Science 91, 324-331.
Abstract: To evaluate the application of camera-trap technology in
population dynamics studies of the Asian elephant, indigenously
designed, cost-effective infrared-triggered camera-traps were used.
Usability of pictures was defined based on quality, clarity and
positioning of the subject. With 99 pictures of 330 elephants, 20
sequence's were obtained and 44 distinct individuals were identified. It
was found that 38.6% were adult females, 4.5% adult males 13.6%
sub-adult females, 6.8% sub-adult males, 20.4% juvenile females, while
juvenile males were poorly represented (2%), and 13.6% were calves.
These results were surprisingly identical with those of other systematic
and long-term studies.
Weissengruber,
G.E., Egger, G.F., Hutchinson, J.R., Groenewald, H.B., Elsasser, L.,
Famini, D., Forstenpointner, G., 2006. The structure of the cushions in
the feet of African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
380. Journal of Anatomy 209, 781-792.
Abstract: The uniquely designed limbs of the African elephant, Loxodonta
africana, support the weight of the largest terrestrial animal. Besides
other morphological peculiarities, the feet are equipped with large
subcutaneous cushions which play an important role in distributing
forces during weight bearing and in storing or absorbing mechanical
forces. Although the cushions have been discussed in the literature and
captive elephants, in particular, are frequently affected by foot
disorders, precise morphological data are sparse. The cushions in the
feet of African elephants were examined by means of standard anatomical
and histological techniques, computed tomography (CT) and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI). In both the forelimb and the hindlimb a 6th
ray, the prepollex or prehallux, is present. These cartilaginous rods
support the metacarpal or metatarsal compartment of the cushions. None
of the rays touches the ground directly. The cushions consist of sheets
or strands of fibrous connective tissue forming larger
metacarpal/metatarsal and digital compartments and smaller chambers
which were filled with adipose tissue. The compartments are situated
between tarsal, metatarsal, metacarpal bones, proximal phalanges or
other structures of the locomotor apparatus covering the bones palmarly/plantarly
and the thick sole skin. Within the cushions, collagen, reticulin and
elastic fibres are found. In the main parts, vascular supply is good and
numerous nerves course within the entire cushion. Vater-Pacinian
corpuscles are embedded within the collagenous tissue of the cushions
and within the dermis. Meissner corpuscles are found in the dermal
papillae of the foot skin. The micromorphology of elephant feet cushions
resembles that of digital cushions in cattle or of the foot pads in
humans but not that of digital cushions in horses. Besides their
important mechanical properties, foot cushions in elephants seem to be
very sensitive structures
Weissengruber,
G.E., Fuss, F.K., Egger, G., Stanek, G., Hittmair, K.M., Forstenpointner,
G., 2006. The elephant knee joint: morphological and biomechanical
considerations
513. Journal of Anatomy 208, 59-72.
Abstract: Elephant limbs display unique morphological features which are
related mainly to supporting the enormous body weight of the animal. In
elephants, the knee joint plays important roles in weight bearing and
locomotion, but anatomical data are sparse and lacking in functional
analyses. In addition, the knee joint is affected frequently by
arthrosis. Here we examined structures of the knee joint by means of
standard anatomical techniques in eight African (Loxodonta africana) and
three Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Furthermore, we performed
radiography in five African and two Asian elephants and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) in one African elephant. Macerated bones of 11
individuals (four African, seven Asian elephants) were measured with a
pair of callipers to give standardized measurements of the articular
parts. In one Asian and three African elephants, kinematic and
functional analyses were carried out using a digitizer and according to
the helical axis concept. Some peculiarities of healthy and arthrotic
knee joints of elephants were compared with human knees. In contrast to
those of other quadruped mammals, the knee joint of elephants displays
an extended resting position. The femorotibial joint of elephants shows
a high grade of congruency and the menisci are extremely narrow and
thin. The four-bar mechanism of the cruciate ligaments exists also in
the elephant. The main motion of the knee joint is extension-flexion
with a range of motion of 142 degrees . In elephants, arthrotic
alterations of the knee joint can lead to injury or loss of the cranial
(anterior) cruciate ligament
Wiedner, E.,
Alleman, R., Isaza, R. Urinalysis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).
2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 265. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Elephants have been reported with renal disease, and arthritic
elephants are often maintained on long-term administration of
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs which have been associated with
renal injury in other species. Therefore, establishment of the
reference values of normal urine would be a useful tool to elephant
health care. Routine urinalysis was performed on urine collected from
healthy female adult Asian elephants (Elephas maximus, n=30). Elephants
were included in the study if they had normal serum urea nitrogen and
creatinine serum concentrations, no history of urinary tract disease,
and had not received any medication within the past 3 mo. Urinalysis
included gross description of urine color and clarity, measurement of pH
and specific gravity, biochemical analysis and sediment evaluation.
Presence of protein was assessed by the sulfosalicylic acid tubidimetric
test. All urine samples were submitted for aerobic bacterial culture.
Initial findings included identification of calcium carbonate crystals
in the urine of most of the animals in this study; some (n=5) contained
small numbers of struvite crystals (magnesium ammonium phosphates). Most
samples were alkaline and clarity ranged from clear to flocculent.
Specific gravity tended to be fairly low, and isosthenuria was frequent.
Trace bilirubin was detected in some samples. No ketonuria or
proteinuria was found. Glucosuria, which has been reported as a
transient and normal finding in captive elephants, was not detected in
any samples.
Wynne, J.,
Greer, L. Management of digital osteomyelitis in an Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus).
2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 185-186.
2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: A 47-yr-old female Asian elephant was diagnosed with
osteomyelitis of the left front digit 5, involving phalynges 1 and 2.
Based on culture results of Pseudomonas and Bacteroides, enrofloxacin
and metronidazole rectal suppository treatment was started. Serum levels
were measured and different formulations were developed to attempt to
deliver appropriate drug levels. The osteomyelitis progressed over the
next 55 days. Enrofloxacin was discontinued based on culture and
sensitivities (C&S) and regional limb perfusion (RLP) using amikacin
started. From this point on, daily treatments with RLP have been
performed. The 3-g amikacin dose was based on 5% of the elephant's
systemic dose. Two weeks later, RLP with 6 g of ampicillin was started
on alternate days based on C&S, and the following week, 400 mg
fluconazole was added on a third day in response to C&S and tissue
biopsies indicating invasive Candida. Despite aggressive medical
therapy, radiographs and bone biopsy indicated the osteomyelitis
continued. Surgery was performed 3 mo after systemic antibiotics were
initiated. All infected bone and tissue was identified with methylene
blue, and removed. Only the most proximal third of P1 remained post
surgery. Post surgery, daily sterile bandage changes were performed and
rotational RLP treatment was continued with amikacin (8 g), ampicillin
(15 g), and fluconazole (800 mg). This daily treatment regime, with
some drug adjustments, has been continued for 6 mo. One month after
surgery P1 was radiolucent at the distal margin, and was progressing to
a fragmented appearance, indicating the osteomyelitis may still be
present. Amikacin serum levels were collected post RLP, before the
tourniquet was removed. Systemic theraputic levels were reached, but
not the recommended 10 times MIC. Amikacin was replaced with 12 g of
ceftazidime in the RLP rotation. Two months post surgery a fragment of
the remaining P1 was easily biopsied from the healing surgical tract
with culture results indicating Enterococcus, but not Pseudomonas. Three
months post surgery we reinstituted enrofloxacin suppositories at a
higher dose. At 5 mo post surgery, cultures indicated that we had
successfully eliminated Pseudomonas and anaerobic growth; however, the
healing site continued to yield various gram-negative bacteria,
including a Klebsiella resistant to ceftazidine. We replaced
ceftazidine with 12 g of ceftriaxone and continued ampicillin and
fluconazole in the 3-day RLP rotation. Since this last medical
alteration the remaining P1 fragments have been radiographically
unchanged for 3 mo and the surgical wound has been reduced to a tract
that is <2 mm in diameter and 4 cm deep. The current success of this
treatment is attributed to a very tractable patient that has allowed
daily medical care for over 8 mo. We are continuing her daily treatments
and I will give an update on the progression of the case.
Zuba, J.R.,
Oosterhuis, J.E., Pessier, A.P. The toenail "abscess" in elephants:
treatment options including cryotherapy and pathologic similarities with
equine proliferative pododermatitis (canker). 2006 Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 187-190. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Foot problems potentially represent the single most important
clinical disease of captive elephants. Predisposing factors include
obesity, lack of exercise, nail or sole overgrowth, improper foot care,
poor hygiene, inappropriate enclosure surfaces, poor conformation,
malnutrition and secondary skeletal disorders such as degenerative joint
disease. Furthermore, factors such as elephant management philosophy,
disposition of elephants, facilities and competency of staff in caring
for elephant feet will contribute significantly to the foot health of
captive animals. It is important to note that these conditions are
rarely reported in free-ranging elephants. The elephant toenail abscess
is characterized grossly by proliferative outgrowth of "crab meat-like"
tissue that may acutely rupture through the surface of the nail wall
and/or adjacent cuticle or sole. True abscess formation with localized
collections of suppurative material is not a consistent clinical
feature. In most cases, the inciting cause of these lesions are
typically not found and are likely due to one or more of the
predisposing factors listed above. Once established, these frustrating
lesions require extensive, intensive and prolonged medical attention.
If not cared for properly, these wounds may progress to phalangeal
osteomyelitis and the need for surgical intervention. Sole abscesses
are equally frustrating and difficult to manage with proposed etiologies
similar to toenail lesions. There are no reports in the literature
describing the pathology of the classic proliferative abscess tissue of
the elephant nail abscess. Although variously interpreted as fibrous or
granulation tissue, the authors are unaware of previous histologic
descriptions of this tissue. Biopsy samples of toenail abscess tissue
from two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at the San Diego Wild Animal
Park (SDWAP) consisted of stratified squamous epithelium arranged in
columns resembling horn tubules. The predominant histologic finding was
marked, near diffuse, hydropic degeneration of keratinocytes. There
were multifocal areas of suppurative inflammation with admixed bacterial
colonies. Inflammatory foci comprised only a small portion of the
lesion and were interpreted as the external surfaces of the biopsy with
likely secondary bacterial colonization. Because descriptions of the
normal histology of the elephant toenail could not be located, a grossly
normal toenail from a different Asian elephant was obtained to compare
histologic features with those of the toenail abscesses. Sections
demonstrated formation of the toenail in a manner similar to that of the
hoof of the horse and cattle with tubular, intertubular and laminar
horn. Primary and secondary epidermal laminae were identified.
Proliferative lesions of horn-producing epithelium associated with
ballooning degeneration and inadequate keratinization of keratinocytes,
have been described in horses as equine "canker" and coronary band
dystrophy. Equine canker is most commonly observed in the hind feet of
draft horses and begins in the frog sometimes with extension to the sole
and hoof wall. Grossly, lesions are characterized by soft white
papillary to "cauliflower-like" tissue associated with a foul odor.
Similar to what is noted in elephant foot problems, predisposing factors
for the development of equine canker include poor hygiene or wet
environmental conditions. There is a lack of gross and histologic
description of the normal nail and sole tissue of the elephant and
further investigations are warranted. A review of the anatomy and
histology of the normal equine hoof may provide a basic understanding of
the elephant nail until more specific and detailed elephant information
is available. From our investigation, the authors offer that a more
accurate description of the elephant toenail abscess would be
proliferative pododermatitis, the term synonymous with equine canker. A
more colloquial term such as "elephant canker" may be appropriate, as
well. Canker in the horse is an uncommon but difficult to treat disease
of the hoof. Historically, treatment options for elephant toenail
abscesses include corrective trimming, superficial debridement and
application of topical disinfectants or antibiotics. Others have
constructed innovative sandals to treat and protect the affected sole or
nail with success. The use of regional intravenous perfusion of the
affected limb with antibiotics has also been successful. Since the
elephant nail abscess now appears to be histologically and clinically
comparable to equine canker, this novel characterization of an old
disease may offer unique insight for treatment. In the least, it has
provided our practice with a new list of treatment options and
experienced equine clinicians for consultation who have been managing
patients with a similar disease for many years. One of the Asian
elephants at the SDWAP has had chronic toenail abscesses for over 2 yr.
Radiographs of the affected digits, as reported by others to assess
degree of involvement, have fortunately been negative for evidence of
osteomyelitis. Several bacterial and fungal cultures of deep tissue
biopsies and swabs of affected lesions have resulted in a mixture of
organisms with no consistent single etiologic agent. Biopsies were
found negative for presence of viral DNA (elephant papillomavirus and
herpesvirus) by PCR. Typical elephant foot care at the SDWAP includes
trimming and debriding with hoof knives, foot soaks and topical
antibiotics. Although difficult, attempts are made in keeping the
affected foot clean and dry. Following recommendations for the
treatment of equine canker, we recently implemented the routine use of
cryotherapy in all elephants with proliferative pododermatitis with
improved success in the control and recession of exuberant nail lesions.
The proliferative tissue of the nail is first cleaned then disinfected,
debrided, trimmed with hoof knives and allowed to dry. Modified brass
branding tools with contact surfaces of variable size (2-5 cm diameter)
and shape (round or ovoid) are placed into liquid nitrogen (-196 C) for
several minutes and then placed directly on the cankerous tissue for
30-60 sec. This process is then repeated 4-5 min later, following a
complete thaw of tissue. Within 24 hr, the cryoburned tissue becomes
macerated and necrotic and is readily removed with gentle scrubbing.
Cryotherapy offers the advantage of destroying tissue to a deeper level
than trimming alone and provides hemostasis, as well. Because of
decreased sensation at the cryotherapy treatment site, a memorable
painful event is avoided and the elephant patient is more routinely
accepting of this technique. With the use of hoof knives, we typically
remove 2-3 mm of proliferative tissue before the patient refuses further
treatment, presumably due to discomfort. With cryotherapy, we are able
to remove an additional 3-5 mm of tissue by cell freezing and necrosis.
The result is quicker resolution of cankerous lesions without the need
for aggressive, and potentially painful, interventions. In conclusion,
it appears that elephant nail abscesses can best be described as
proliferative pododermatitis, or canker, as is seen in other species.
Further gross and microscopic descriptions of normal and pathologic nail
or sole lesions are necessary. Routine cryotherapy has shown promise in
the treatment of these chronic, frustrating and potentially devastating
lesions of our captive elephants.
Agnew, D.W.,
Hagey, L., Shoshani, J., 2005. The elephants of Zoba Gash Barka,
Eritrea: part 4. Cholelithiasis in a wild African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36, 677-683.
Abstract: A 4.0-kg cholelith was found within the abdominal cavity of a
dead wild African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Eritrea. Analysis of
this cholelith by histochemistry, electron microscopy, electrospray mass
spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy revealed it was
composed of bile alcohols but no calcium, bilirubin, or cholesterol.
Bacteria were also found in the cholelith. Similar, but smaller, bile
stones have been identified previously in other wild African elephants
and an excavated mammoth (Mammuthus columbi). Choleliths have been
reported only once in a captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
Elephants, along with hyraxes (Procavia capensis) and manatees (Trichechus
manatus), are unique among mammals in producing only bile alcohols and
no bile acids, which may predispose them to cholelithiasis, particularly
in association with bacterial infection. Dietary factors may also play
an important role in cholelith formation.
Andrews, J.,
Mecklenborg, A., Bercovitch, F.B., 2005. Milk intake and development in
a newborn captive African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Zoo
Biology 24, 275-281.
Abstract: In August 2003 the San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park (WAP) and
the Lowry Park Zoo, under the auspices of the AZA's Elephant SSP and a
USFWS permit, imported 3.8 African elephants (Loxodonta africana
) from the Kingdom of Swaziland. When they were captured, transrectal
ultrasound examinations revealed that one nulliparous cow was
approximately 10 months pregnant. At the time of their arrival (August
2003), all of the animals were estimated to be approximately 13 years
old and were thought to be nulliparous. Based on the ultrasound
examination results and the average African elephant gestation period,
parturition was predicted to be 20 February 2004. In this report, we
provide the first detailed data about nursing activity around the clock
and newborn calf development, describe maternal and neonatal nighttime
activity budgets, and explore maternal weight changes during suckling
and lactation. The newborn calf suckled significantly more at night than
during the day, but suckled for only about 2 hr per 24-hr period.
Regression analysis revealed that through the first 3 months of life the
calf gained 0.385 kg/day while it suckled on a regular basis. We compare
our findings with published information on wild elephants, and conclude
that although the growth rate is reduced compared to hand-reared
elephant calves, the suckling patterns are almost identical to those
reported for wild calves.
Bonar, C.J.,
Lewandowski, A.H., Arafah, B., Capen, C.C., 2005. Pheochromocytoma in an
aged female African elephant (Loxodonta africana). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med.
36, 719-723.
Abstract: A 43 yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
collapsed acutely and died. Necropsy revealed an enlarged right adrenal
medulla. Histologic appearance was typical of pheochromocytoma. Special
stains and electron microscopy demonstrated chromaffin granules,
suggesting that the tumor was derived from catecholamine secreting cells
of the adrenal medulla, and may have been functionally secretory. Serum
levels of both norepinephrine and epinephrine were elevated at time of
death, supporting the functional nature of the tumor. Histologic
findings of arteriolar sclerosis and smooth muscle hyperplasia suggested
that the animal may have suffered from chronic systemic hypertension.
Pheochromocytoma should be considered as a differential diagnosis in
cases of suspected hypertension and acute death in elephants
Cousins, D.V.,
Florisson, N., 2005. A review of tests available for use in the
diagnosis of tuberculosis in non-bovine species. Rev. sci. tech. Off.
int. Epiz. 24, 1039-1059.
Abstract: Bovine tuberculosis is an important disease that has impacts
on regional and international trade. The disease can affect both social
and economic stability and have a deleterious affect on species
diversity. The intradermal tuberculin test has been in use for almost a
century and, despite the technological advances of the last two decades,
is still the only prescribed test for the
diagnosis of tuberculosis in cattle. Many other species of animal,
including humans, can be infected with Mycobacterium bovis. This paper
reviews the various tests that have been used by researchers for
detecting infection with M. bovis in a variety of animal species, and
attempts to prioritise or comment on the importance of having
appropriately validated diagnostics for the different species. The
difficulties of test validation using small numbers of animals,
especially when tuberculosis occurs in only a few instances or the
species of animal affected is rare and/or valuable, are discussed.
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Hermes, R., Ratanakorn, P., Rietschel, W., Fickel, J., Frey, R.,
Wibbelt, G., Reid, C., Goritz, F., 2005. Ultrasonographic assessment and
ultrasound-guided biopsy of the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus)
552. Veterinary Record 157, 544-548.
Abstract: Endotheliotropic herpesvirus causes a fatal disease in young
Asian elephants, but there are no methods for identifying latent
carriers of the virus. During the postmortem study of one female African
elephant and three male and two female Asian elephants, a lymph node
located bilaterally caudoventral to the parotid gland, approximately 1.5
to 5 cm below the skin, was identified as suitable for transcutaneous
ultrasound-guided biopsy. An ultrasonographic assessment and two
biopsies were performed on 39 Asian elephants, and these lymph nodes
were classified ultrasonographically as active, inactive or chronically
active. The calculated mean (se) volume of 10 active lymph nodes was
17.4 (6.9) cm(3), and that of three chronically active lymph nodes was
10.6 (1.0) cm(3), whereas the mean volume of 17 inactive lymph nodes was
3.1 (0.6) cm(3). The presence of lymph node tissue in samples obtained
by ultrasound-guided biopsy from three animals that were maintained
under conditions that allowed for additional sampling was confirmed
histologically. The dna extracted from the lymphoid tissue and the whole
blood of all the elephants was negative for endotheliotropic herpesvirus
by PCR.
Lacasse, C.,
Gamble, K.C., Terio, K., Farina, L.L., Travis, D.A., Miller, M.
Mycobacterium szulgai osteoarthritis and pneumonia in an African
elephant (Loxodonta Africana). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA
Nutrition Advisory Group. 170-172. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Tuberculosis, particularly Mycobacterium bovis and
M. tuberculosis, is an important health issue in zoological
collections. Zoos are a particular public health concern because of the
close contact between tuberculosis-susceptible animals and humans,
specifically animal handlers and visitors.16 Evidence of
M. tuberculosis transmission between humans and elephants, confirmed
by DNA fingerprinting, has been reported.13 Between 1994 and
2001, M. tuberculosis was isolated from trunk washes of captive
elephants from 11 herds in the United States.17 To date,
most reported cases of tuberculosis have occurred in captive Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus).14 In 1997, the National
Tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species partnered with
the USDA to formulate the "Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in
Elephants." 15 This document outlines criteria for the
testing, surveillance, and treatment of tuberculosis in elephants. The
guidelines recommend annual monitoring of elephants by mycobacterial
culture of three direct trunk washes collected over 1 wk. Isolation of
Mycobacterium avium and non-tuberculous mycobacteria from
elephant trunk wash samples is common, but these organisms have not been
associated with clinical disease.14,18 This case report
details clinical disease with fatal complications of an atypical
mycobacterial infection in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).
In September 2003, an African elephant presented with acute, severe
lameness of the left rear limb with subsequent swelling of the stifle.
Diagnostic procedures included aspiration cytology of the swelling,
radiographs, and thermographic imaging. The exact location of the
injury could not be detected, but a lesion to the stifle or coxofemoral
articulation was suspected. After 13 mo of treatment, including pulse
therapy with a variety of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),
weekly to biweekly injections of polysulfated glycosaminoglycan, and
intensive foot care efforts to treat secondary pedal lesions of both
rearlimbs, the animal died acutely. Gross necropsy revealed
granulomatous osteomyelitis with necrosis/loss of the femoral head and
acetabulum and pulmonary granulomas. Both of these lesions contained
acid-fast bacteria on cytology. While awaiting confirmatory culture
results, quarantine procedures were established for the elephant
facility and a program was established to screen all zoo personnel in
close contact with the elephant or who participated in the necropsy.
All personnel were tested by the Chicago Department of Public Health
without documented conversion. Mycobacterium szulgai was
ultimately cultured from both coxofemoral and pulmonary lesions.
Mycobacterium szulgai is an uncommon nontuberculous mycobacterium
that is usually isolated from pathologic lesions in humans.21
This bacterial species was first identified in 1972.11 The
lungs are the main locality for pathologic manifestation in humans and
several cases have been in patients with acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome.9,20,21 Infection due to M. szulgai most
frequently produces thin-walled cavities in lungs resembling
tuberculosis.4 Other documented sites of infection include
the skin, bone, and tendon sheath (causing a carpal tunnel syndrome).2,9,10,12,19,20
Intra-operative contamination from ice water has led to M.
szulgai keratitis after laser-assisted ophthalmic surgeries.6
A case of disseminated disease in a previously healthy young human has
been reported.5 No evidence of human-to-human transmission
of this organism has been documented and human cases are believed to
originate from environmental sources.12 The natural habitat
of the organism is unknown, but previous reports suggest an association
of the bacteria with water of swimming pools and fish tanks.1,21
The organism has been cultured from a snail and tropical fish.1,3
No standard recommendation for the treatment of M. szulgai
infection currently exists. In general, triple antibiotic therapies
used in standard mycobacterial treatments are reported with a low rate
of relapses and sterilization of sputum cultures within a mean of 3 mo.3
Pulmonary lesions in this elephant were chronic; it was not possible to
determine when initial infection occurred. Infection could have occurred
in captivity or in the wild prior to captivity. Three trunk washes over
the past year had been negative for mycobacterial culture. Osteomyelitis
in the hip may have developed secondary to hematogenous spread from the
lungs with the acute lameness resulting from a pathologic fracture
associated with this infection. Alternatively, though considered less
likely, a traumatic fracture of the hip could have occurred, with
bacterial inoculation and secondary osteomyelitis as a result of
increased blood flow to the site. The source of infection for this
elephant remains unknown. Prevalence of this organism in the natural
habitat or captive environment of the elephants has not been previously
documented.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Abalain-Colloc, M.L., D. Guillerm, M. Salaun, S. Gouriou, V. Vincent,
and B. Picard. 2003. Mycobacterium szulgai isolated from a
patient, a tropical fish, and aquarium water. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol.
Infect. Dis. 22: 768-769.
2.Cross, G.M., M. Guill, and J.K. Aton. 1985. Cutaneous
Mycobacterium szulgai infection. Arch. Dermatol. 121: 247-249.
3. Davidson, P.T. 1976. Mycobacterium szulgai: a new pathogen
causing infection of the lung. Chest 69: 799- 801.
4. Dylewski, J.S., H.M. Zackon, A.H. Latour, and G.R. Berry. 1987.
Mycobacterium szulgai: an unusual pathogen. Rev. Infect. Dis. 9:
578-580.
5. Gur, H., S. Porat, H. Haas, Y. Naparstek, and M. Eliakim. 1984.
Disseminated mycobacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium szulgai.
Arch. Intern. Med. 144: 1861-1863.
6.Holmes, G.P., G. Bond, R.C. Fader, and S.F. Fulcher. 2002. A cluster
of cases of Mycobacterium szulgai keratitis that occurred after
laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34:
1039-1046.
7.Horusitzky, A., X. Puechal, D. Dumont, T. Begue, M. Robineau, and M.
Boissier. 2000. Carpal tunnel syndrome caused by Mycobacterium
szulgai. J. Rheumatol 27: 1299-1302.
8.Hurr, H., and T. Sorg. 1998. Mycobacterium szulgai
osteomyelitis. J. Infect. 37: 191-192.
9.Luque, A.E., D. Kaminski, R. Reichman, and D. Hardy. 1998.
Mycobacterium szulgai osteomyelitis in an AIDS patient. Scand. J.
Infect. Dis. 30: 88-91.
10.Maloney, J.M., C.R. Gregg, D.S. Stephens, F.A. Manian, and D. Rimland.
1987. Infections caused by Mycobacterium szulgai in humans.
Rev. Infect. Dis. 9: 1120-1126.
11.Marks, J., P.A. Jenkins, and M. Tsukamura. 1972. Mycobacterium
szulgai: a new pathogen. Tubercle 53: 210.
12.Merlet, C., S. Aberrane, F. Chilot, and J. Laroche. 2000. Carpal
tunnel syndrome complicating hand flexor tenosynovitis due to
Mycobacterium szulgai. Joint Bone Spine 67: 247-248.
13.Michalak, K., C. Austin, S. Diesel, J.M. Bacon, P. Zimmerman, and J.
N. Maslow. 1998. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection as a
zoonotic disease: transmission between humans and elephants. Emerg.
Infect. Dis. 4: 283-287.
14.Mikota, S.K., R.S. Larsen, and R.J. Montali. 2000. Tuberculosis in
elephants in North America. Zoo Biol. 19: 393-403.
15.National Tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species.
2000. Guidelines for the control of tuberculosis in elephants. USDA
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services.
16.Oh, P., R. Granich, J. Scott, B. Sun, M. Joseph, C. Stringfield, S.
Thisdell, J. Staley, D. Workman-Malcolm, L. Borenstein, E. Lehnkering,
P. Ryan, J. Soukup, A. Nitta, and J. Flood. 2002. Human exposure
following Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple
animal species in a metropolitan zoo. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8: 1290-1293.
17.Payeur, J.B., J.L. Jarnagin, J.G. Marquardt, and D.L. Whipple.
2002. Mycobacterial isolations in captive elephants in the United
States. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 969: 256-258.
18.Shojaei, H., J.G. Magee, R. Freeman, M. Yates, N.U. Horadagoda, and
M. Goodfellow. 2000. Mycobacterium elephantis sp. nov., a
rapidly growing non-chromogenic Mycobacterium isolated from an
elephant. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 50: 1817-1820.
19.Stratton, C.W., D.B. Phelps, and L.B. Reller. 1978. Tuberculoid
tenosynovitis and carpal tunnel syndrome caused by Mycobacterium
szulgai. Am. J. Med. 65: 349-351.
20.Tappe, D., P. Langmann, M. Zilly, H. Klinker, B. Schmausser, and M.
Frosch. 2004. Osteomyelitis and skin ulcers caused by Mycobacterium
szulgai in an AIDS patient. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 36: 883-885.
21.Tortoli, E., G. Besozzi, C. Lacchini, V. Penati, M.T. Simonetti, and
S. Emler. 1998. Pulmonary infection due to Mycobacterium szulgai,
case report and review of the literature. Eur. Respir. J. 11: 975-977.
Larsen, R.S.,
Kay, M., Triantis, J., Salman, M.D. Update on serological detection of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in Asian elephants. 2005
Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group. 62-63. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Tuberculosis has become an important disease in captive
elephants, particularly Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Diagnosing
tuberculosis in elephants has been problematic as many tests have
inadequate sensitivity or specificity.2-4 A multiple-antigen
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was previously investigated
for detecting infection in Asian elephants and African elephants
(Loxodonta africana); this test had excellent sensitivity and
specificity, but needed further evaluation.1 Modifications to the
multiple-antigen ELISA panel have since been made. Valuable antigens
were retained, other antigens were removed, and new ones were added.
This modified ELISA was re-evaluated, using serum from 68 Asian
elephants. Sixteen had M. tuberculosis -positive trunk cultures, while
52 were either culture negative at necropsy or had a history of negative
trunk cultures and no contact with infected elephants. Seven elephants
were evaluated over time. The test was 100% (95% CI; 95-100%) specific
and 94% (95% CI; 79-100%) sensitive using two of the six antigens (M.
bovis strain AN5 culture filtrate and M. tuberculosis early secretory
antigenic target 6). "Effectively-treated" elephants had decreasing
seroreactivity, but those that were culture-positive post-treatment were
more consistently seroreactive. Although "effectivelytreated" elephants
had declining seroreactivity, they still usually had higher values than
animals that had never been infected. Serology continues to show great
promise in detecting tuberculosis in elephants, often detecting
infection months-to-years sooner than trunk wash culture. Advances in
techniques may soon make serology even more practical. While serology
should not replace trunk-wash culture, it is a useful adjunct for early
detection of infection in elephants and for monitoring treatment.
ACKNOLWEDGMENTS We thank the many veterinarians, owners, caretakers, and
managers of elephant-owning institutions that participated in this
investigation, as well as Drs. Michele Miller and Susan Mikota for
helping to coordinate sample collection. We also thank Kimberly Deines
and other laboratory personnel who processed ELISA samples. The study
was partially funded by a grant from USDA, CSREES to Colorado State
University Program of Economically Important Infectious Animal Diseases.
LITERATURE CITED
1.Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J.
Triantis. 2000. Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in
captive elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31: 291-302.
2. Mikota, S.K., L. Peddie, J. Peddie, R. Isaza, F. Dunker, G. West, W.
Lindsay, R.S. Larsen, M.D. Salman, D. Chatterjee, J. Payeur, D. Whipple,
C. Thoen, D.S. Davis, R.J. Montali and J. Maslow. 2001. Epidemiology
and diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in six groups of elephants.
J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 32: 1-16.
3. Mikota, S.K., R.S. Larsen, and R.J. Montali. 2000. Tuberculosis in
elephants in North America. Zoo Biol. 19: 393-403.
4. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2003. Guidelines for the control of
tuberculosis in elephants. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service;
Animal Care. Washington, D.C. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf.
Luikart, K.A.,
Stover, S.M., 2005. Chronic sole ulcerations associated with
degenerative bone disease in two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J.
Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36, 684-688.
Abstract: Chronic foot lesions and degenerative joint disease are common
causes of morbidity in elephants. Lesions may become intractable and
progressive despite intensive treatment regimens. The forelimbs of two
Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) with chronic nonhealing sole
ulcerations were examined using manual dissection and computed
tomography. Both elephants had abnormal limb conformation that preceded
the development of sole ulcerations. In both cases, sole ulcers were
associated with remodeling and degeneration of underlying bones of the
digits. Conformational abnormalities and altered weight distribution in
these individuals may have induced compensatory bony degeneration and
secondary ulcer formation. Sole ulcerations associated with digital
abnormalities may have a guarded prognosis for resolution, even with
aggressive treatment. Because limb conformational abnormalities could
predispose to or result from chronic digital lesions, elephants with
conformational abnormalities may have increased likelihood of having
chronic sole ulcerations
Lyashchenko,
K., Miller, M., Waters, W.R. Application of MAPIA (Multiple antigen
print immunoassay) and rapid lateral flow technology for tuberculosis
testing of elephants. 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition
Advisory Group. 64-65. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a serious re-emerging disease in
wildlife and zoo animals. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been
isolated from 30 captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus within
14 herds in the United States (1994-2004) and Mycobacterium bovis
has been isolated from one African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
(Mikota, pers. comm.).3 There are several challenges with elephant TB
diagnosis. Culture of trunk wash has relatively poor sensitivity and is
subject to contamination. Skin test is not validated in elephants and
there is little reliability in these results.4 Serologic tests are
appealing because samples can be stored for future analysis, archived
samples can be analyzed, various assay platforms can be directly
compared, and these assays are amenable to serial analysis (e.g., to
monitor therapy). There is currently a multiple antigen ELISA test
available for experimental use in elephants.1
To improve tuberculosis control, new diagnostic tools should be rapid,
accurate, and host species-independent. Two novel serologic methods,
MultiAntigen Print ImmunoAssay (MAPIA) and lateral-flow technology
(Rapid Test), have been adapted for use in white-tailed deer, European
badger, cattle, and Asian and African elephants for the detection of
TB-specific antibody. Serologic markers of diagnostic importance have
been identified for each host tested so far. With MAPIA, a machine
prints specific antigens horizontally on a nitrocellulose membrane which
can be cut into strips and used in Western blot.2 Strips are incubated
with test serum samples, then an anti-Ig conjugate and color developer.
Using this assay, an antibody response to multiple mycobacterial
antigens has been observed in sera from M. tb-infected elephants.
No antibody response was detected to any antigens in non-infected
elephant sera. Additionally, the kinetics of antibody responses by
elephants undergoing antibiotic therapy indicates that the MAPIA could
be used for monitoring treatment and to determine recrudescence of
infection.
Using selected antigens, a lateral-flow test was developed for rapid
antibody detection that can be used in multiple species. The Rapid Test
can use serum, plasma, or whole blood and provides results within 15
min. These tests are similar to in-clinic tests for FIV/FeLV detection
(snap test, IDDEX). If a band is present in the test strip, it indicates
a positive reaction (antibody present).
A panel of sera from healthy and TB infected elephants showed good
correlation between the MAPIA and the rapid test (Table 1).
In summary, it appears that TB-infected elephants produce a robust
antibody response that can be detected in serologic assays. Of special
significance is the kinetics of the response, which may permit earlier
detection of infection than current diagnostic methods. While initial
results are promising, additional studies are required to validate these
two assays. A relatively small set of serum samples from documented
infected and non-infected elephants was used, and more samples are
needed to further validate the tests. MAPIA has been used to optimize
antigen selection in order to make the most sensitive and specific Rapid
Test. This strategy may also allow for identification of
"treatment-sensitive" antigens that could be used in the MAPIA format to
monitor TB therapy. While elephants will be used as an initial "proof
of concept" species for test development, additional samples from other
species will also be evaluated to determine applicability to other
species (i.e., a host species-independent test), thus benefiting other
groups such as primates, rhinos, cervids, etc.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the zoos and individuals that have provided samples
and assistance with this research, including Ray Ball, Carol Buckley,
Jenifer Chatfield, Genny Dumonceaux, Javan Esfandiary, Rena Greenwald,
Scott Larsen, Susan Mikota, Torsten Moller, Dick Montali, Mike Richards,
Heidi Riddle, Mo Salman, Scott Terrell, and many others. This research
was supported by Chembio Diagnostics, Inc.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J.
Triantis. 2000. Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
infection in captive elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31:291-302.
2 Lyashchenko, K., et al. 2000. A multiantigen print immunoassay for
the serological diagnosis of infectious diseases. J. Immunol. Methods
242:91-100.
3 Mikota, S.K., and J. Maslow. 2002. Epidemiology and treatment of
tuberculosis in elephants: 2002. Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Annu.
Meet. Pp. 384-387.
Mobasheri,
A., Gent, T.C., Womack, M.D., Carter, S.D., Clegg, P.D., Barrett-Jolley,
R., 2005. Quantitative analysis of voltage-gated potassium currents from
primary equine (Equus caballus) and elephant (Loxodonta africana)
articular chondrocytes
618. Am. J. Physiol Regul. Integr. Comp Physiol 289, R172-R180.
Abstract: In this comparative study, we have established in vitro models
of equine and elephant articular chondrocytes, examined their basic
morphology, and characterized the biophysical properties of their
primary voltage-gated potassium channel (Kv) currents. Using whole cell
patch-clamp electrophysiological recording from first-expansion and
first-passage cells, we measured a maximum Kv conductance of 0.15 +/-
0.04 pS/pF (n = 10) in equine chondrocytes, whereas that in elephant
chondrocytes was significantly larger (0.8 +/- 0.4 pS/pF, n = 4, P </=
0.05). Steady-state activation parameters of elephant chondrocytes (V =
-22 +/- 6 mV, k = 11.8 +/- 3 mV, n = 4) were not significantly different
from those of horse chondrocytes (V = -12.5 +/- 4.3 mV, k = 12 +/- 2, n
= 10). This suggests that there would be slightly more resting Kv
activation in elephant chondrocytes than in their equine counterparts.
Kinetic analysis revealed that both horse and elephant chondrocyte Kv
currents had similar activation and inactivation parameters.
Pharmacological investigation of equine chondrocyte Kv currents showed
them to be powerfully inhibited by the potassium channel blockers
tetraethylammonium and 4-aminopyridine but not by dendrotoxin-I.
Immunohistochemical studies using polyclonal antibodies to Kv1.1-Kv1.5
provided evidence for expression of Kv1.4 in equine chondrocytes. This
is the first electrophysiological study of equine or elephant
chondrocytes. The data support the notion that voltage-gated potassium
channels play an important role in regulating the membrane potential of
articular chondrocytes and will prove useful in future modeling of
electromechanotransduction of fully differentiated articular
chondrocytes in these and other species
Moller, T.,
Roken, B., Petersson, L., Vitaud, C., Lyashchenko, K. Preliminary
results of a new serological test for detection of TB-infection (Mycobacterium
tuberculosis) in elephants (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta
africanum) - Swedish Case studies. Verh.ber.Erkrg.Zootiere. 42,
173-181. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Raubenheimer,
E.J., Ngwenya, S.P., 2005. The role of ivory in the survival of the
African elephant
510. SADJ. 60, 426, 430.
Abstract: The unique chequered pattern of polished ivory has created a
perverted commercial demand for elephant tusks. The morphologic basis of
the pattern, which makes ivory a sought after product for the
manufacturing of works of art, is discussed. Chemical analyses of ivory
holds great potential in tracing the source of illegally harvested tusks
and exposing poorly managed elephant sanctuaries. The impact of
uncontrolled ivory hunting on the population genetics of the African
elephant is briefly reviewed
Rush, E.M.,
Brawner, W.R., Ogburn, A.L., Marshall, A., Hathcock, J.T. Comparison of
radiographs versus computed tomography evaluation of the distal limb in
an Asian elephant. 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory
Group. 68-69. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Feet problems are the most commonly seen ailment in captive
elephants. In the field of zoo and wildlife medicine, radiographs are
the accepted standard of skeletal evaluation of the distal limb of
elephants, to show changes in bone density and conformation .1
Although radiographs are considered reliable to show severe degenerative
change in the distal phalanges, it is difficult to assess detail of the
carpus and tarsus due to the anatomy and superimposition of the large
carpal and tarsal bones. Radiographic images of the distal limbs of a
geriatric, female Asian elephant, were compared with postmortem computed
tomography (CT) images. This animal had a long history of clinical nail
disease treated for many years with diligent foot care and aggressive
paring of multiple nails. Arthritis of the carpi, tarsi and/or digits
was suspected and had been treated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
medications. Serial radiographs from several years showed obvious
degenerative change in multiple digits, especially those most severely
affected clinically at the nail. Osseous detail in the carpi and tarsi
was suboptimal on radiographs even when postmortem specimens were
radiographed with a stationary, high capacity radiograph machine
designed for large animal radiology. CT images of the distal limbs
revealed degenerative skeletal changes that were not readily apparent on
radiographs. Most degenerative change was noted in the periosteal areas
of the carpal and tarsal bones, particularly at articular surfaces.
Realizing that CT of feet and distal limbs of live elephants is
impractical, if not impossible, this comparison of radiographs and CT
demonstrates that radiographs may not reveal all abnormalities present
in joints of the distal extremities. Comparative CT images of younger or
clinically normal animals were not available, so it has not been
possible to determine the clinical significance of the apparent
degenerative changes noted on these radiographs and CT images at the
time of this publication. Nonetheless, consideration should be given
for the lack of detail when evaluating radiographs of elephant feet.
When radiographic changes are noted in the distal limbs of elephants
suffering from arthritis with a history of nail disease, the attending
veterinarian may consider prophylactic antibiotic therapy to treat
possible osteomyelitis in the bones of the distal limb. Also, in
animals with arthritic change on radiographs and no nail disease,
implementation of appropriate antiinflammatory drugs and/or joint
supplements should be considered. Hydrotherapy, acupuncture, limb
exercise and other topical therapies may be warranted, depending on each
individual case and the clinical signs exhibited. Routine and diagnostic
radiographs should be taken from several angles, including oblique
views, to assure the most accurate assessment of bony change in the
distal limb and to give the best overall images for retrospective
comparison. Radiographs should include the carpus and tarsus if the
radiograph machine has the capacity for the bone density of that region.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to the State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Auburn University
College of Veterinary Medicine Department of Radiology for all of their
time, expertise and contributions to this study. Also, thanks to Marcia
Riedmiller and the pachyderm care staff at the Birmingham Zoo.
LITERATURE CITED
1.Fowler, M.E., and R.E. Miller. 2003. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, 5th
Edition. St. Louis: Elsevier Science. Pp 547-548.
Suedmeyer,
W.K., Oosterhuis, J., Kollias, G., Fagan, D., Hornoff, B., Dodam, J.,
Shafford, H. Elephant restraint device assisted anesthesia in an African
elephant (Loxodonta africana). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA
Nutrition Advisory Group. 189-191. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Modern elephant management programs often include the use of
protected contact. This allows improved safety for the elephant staff
but may limit access to medical conditions occurring in elephants.
A 27-yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) weighing
an estimated 3,700 kg was anesthetized for evaluation of a chronic,
progressive, fistulous tract of the left ventral mandible. The mandible
was routinely cultured, flushed with diluted peroxide, chlorhexidine,
betadine solution, or alternating antibiotics, based on microbial
sensitivities. To properly assess the left mandible, the elephant had to
be placed in right lateral recumbency, which was accomplished with the
use of a commercially available rotational elephant restraint device (ERD).
Because of the protected contact management program, right lateral
recumbency could not be guaranteed at the time of immobilization.
Malpositioning, tusk fracture and/or related injury could occur upon
recumbency without the additional control afforded by the ERD. The ERD
is a hydraulically operated unit that comfortably restrains an elephant,
minimizing safety risks to the animal and staff. The ERD consists of one
solid wall, three side panels, and hinged floor. The ends of the
restraint are closed with moveable shift doors. The three side panels
can be moved independently depending upon the size of the animal and are
further subdivided with moveable "subpanels" to allow direct access to
various areas of the animal. In addition, support straps help gently
stabilize limbs when performing medical procedures. The unit is
positioned within the elephant holding facility at the Kansas City Zoo.
The unit was installed in 1994 during renovation of the elephant
exhibit, whereupon the elephant management program was changed from
free-contact to protected contact. The ERD is utilized for reproductive
assessments, semen collection, transabdominal ultrasound, evaluation of
integumentary wounds, ophthalmic and aural examination, and
administration of injectable medications. However, no elephant had been
anesthetized and rotated in the restraint. The affected animal could not
be guaranteed to re-enter the ERD once rotated, but would enter and
station in the ERD on a daily basis. Because of this, a conspecific was
conditioned to allow rotation without the use of sedatives or
tranquilizers, to prepare for the actual immobilization. Adjustments in
strap placement, cushioning, critical evaluation of mechanical
stability, and placement of hydraulic panels allowed staff to prepare
for the actual immobilization, minimizing complications. The elephant
was conditioned to enter and station in the ERD. After strapping the
distal limbs, thorax and caudal abdomen for support, the elephant was
immobilized with a combination of 3,000 IU of hyaluronidase (O'Brien
Pharmacy, Kansas City, MO USA), 10 mg acepromazine maleate, and 7 mg
etorphine hydrochloride (Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc., Fort Collins, CO
USA) via pole syringe. Close monitoring of induction was performed and
when stage III anesthetic plane was achieved, the elephant was rotated
into right lateral recumbency, elevating the elephant 6 feet above the
floor. No voluntary movement of the animal was noted while the restraint
was in motion. Direct arterial blood pressure, indirect oscillometric
blood pressure, blood gases, respiratory rate, excursion
characteristics, cardiac rate and rhythm, and pulse oximetry was
routinely monitored during the procedure. Anesthesia was maintained with
intermittent boluses of etorphine hydrochloride. Intravenous physiologic
fluids (lactated Ringers solution) were maintained via an i.v. aural
catheter, and insufflation with oxygen was provided on a continual
basis. Oral examination and palpation demonstrated an incomplete
transverse fissure of the left mandibular molar, intact gingival, and
proper dental occlusion with the upper arcade. Digital radiographs of
the left mandible were performed based on exposures obtained with a set
of skeletonized jaws. Advantages of this diagnostic modality are the
immediate imaging results, portability, and digital imaging and storage,
and does not require a developer or fixative. Adjustments in
radiographic angle and technique were made to obtain the best diagnostic
image. Radiographic imaging demonstrated a sequestrum consisting of a
fractured enamel plate 2of the mandibular molar with a
fistulous tract that coursed ventrally to communicate through the skin.
The elephant was elevated 6 feet above the ground, which presented
unique challenges. Because of the relatively small operating space,
intubation was not possible, but insufflation was readily achieved and
successful based on pulse oximetry trends. A commercial lift was
utilized to elevate two large-animal circle anesthetic units to the
level of the elephant's head. During immobilization the legs were
cushioned and restraint straps removed to lessen the potential for
occlusive damage to the tissues. The ERD allows an elephant to be
positioned in either right or left lateral recumbency.
Upon completion of diagnostic procedures, the narcotic agent was
reversed with 1,400 mg naltrexone hydrochloride (Zoopharm, Laramie, WY
USA) administered 25% intravenously and 75% subcutaneously. The elephant
awoke within 90 sec and was rotated to a standing position within the
restraint. Thereafter, the elephant was confined in the restraint for
approximately 45 min, until no untoward effects were likely to occur.
The elephant was released from the restraint and resumed normal eating
and drinking within 8 hr, and voluntarily entered the restraint within 2
wk following the procedure. The elephant was stable throughout the
procedure; however, a predetermined objective for mean arterial blood
pressures (<200 MAP) was not achieved. Hyaluronidase was utilized to
promote rapid absorption of the narcotic and neuroleptic agents.3
Acetylpromazine was used to maintain peripheral perfusion by
reducing the hypertensive effects of etorphine,1 which has
been documented in previous immobilizations of African elephants.3-5
Etorphine hydrochloride, a powerful narcotic agent, has been
successfully used as an immobilizing agent in both wild and captive
African elephants.3-5 Use of an ERD allowed full control of
the immobilization, increasing safety for personnel, preventing injury
to the elephant, and positioning the left mandible on the dorsal plane.
Disadvantages are the elevated height of the elephant, relatively small
operating space, and disrupted line of sight communication. A second
procedure will be performed in the near future to address the fracture
and subsequent sequestrum diagnosed during the first immobilization. The
elephant is currently being conditioned to allow restraint in a holding
stall that will allow greater access to the oral cavity and surgical
manipulation of the affected mandible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the staff of the Kansas City Zoological Park for their care,
concern, and expertise in helping make this procedure a success.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Booth, N.H. Psychotropic agents. In: Booth, N.H., and R.E.
McDonald (eds.). Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. W.B.
Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA. P. 329.
2 Fagan, V.D.A., J.E. Oosterhuis, and A. Roocraft. 2001. Captivity
disorders in elephants: impacted molars and broken tusks. Der
Zoologische Garten 71:281-303.
3 Honeymoon, V.L., G.R. Pettifer, and D.H. Dyson. 1992. Arterial blood
pressure and blood gas values in normal standing and laterally recumbent
African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus)
elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 23:205-210.
4. Kock, R.A., P. Morkel, and M.D. Kock. 1993. Current immobilization
procedures used in elephants. In: Fowler,
M.E. (ed.). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3. W.B.
Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA. Pp. 436-441.
5 Raath, J.P. 1999. Relocation of African elephants. In: Fowler,
M.E., and R.E. Miller (eds.). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current
Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Co., Philadelphia, PA. Pp. 525-533.
Waters, W.R.,
Palmer, M.V., Bannantine, J.P., Greenwald, R., Esfandiari, J., Andersen,
P., McNair, J., Pollock, J.M., Lyashchenko, K.P., 2005. Antibody
responses in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) infected with
Mycobacterium bovis. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology
12, 727-735.
Abstract: Despite having a very low incidence of disease, reindeer (Rangifer
tarandus) are subject to tuberculosis (TB) testing requirements for
interstate shipment and herd accreditation in the United States.
Improved TB tests are desperately needed, as many reindeer are falsely
classified as reactors by current testing procedures. Sera collected
sequentially from 11 (experimentally) Mycobacterium bovis-infected
reindeer and 4 noninfected reindeer were evaluated by enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunoblotting, and multiantigen print
immunoassay (MAPIA) for antibody specific to M. bovis antigens.
Specific antibody was detected as early as 4 weeks after challenge with
M. bovis. By MAPIA, sera were tested with 12 native and
recombinant antigens, which were used to coat nitrocellulose. All M.
bovis-infected reindeer developed responses to MPB83 and a fusion
protein, Acr1/MPB83, and 9/11 had responses to MPB70. Other antigens
less commonly recognized included MPB59, ESAT-6, and CFP10.
Administration of purified protein derivatives for skin testing boosted
serum antibody responses, as detected by each of the assays. Of the
noninfected reindeer, 2/4 had responses that were detectable immediately
following skin testing, which correlated with pathological findings
(i.e., presence of granulomatous lesions yet the absence of acid-fast
bacteria). The levels of specific antibody produced by infected reindeer
appeared to be associated with disease progression but not with
cell-mediated immunity. These findings indicate that M. bovis
infection of reindeer elicits an antibody response to multiple antigens
that can be boosted by skin testing. Serological tests using carefully
selected specific antigens have potential for early detection of
infections in reindeer.
Wise, D.J.,
Carter, G.R., Flores, E.F. Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections.
Carter, G. R., Wise, D. J., and Flores, E. F. A Concise Review of
Veterinary Virology. Ithaca: International Veterinary Information
Service (www. ivis. org), 2005; Document No. A3407. 0305. 2005.
Ref Type: Electronic Citation
Wooding, F.B.,
Stewart, F., Mathias, S., Allen, W.R., 2005. Placentation in the African
elephant, Loxodonta africanus: III. Ultrastructural and functional
features of the placenta
598. Placenta 26, 449-470.
Abstract: Successful transfer of nutrients to the elephant fetus during
pregnancy relies on a variety of placental modifications. Our light and
electron microscopical investigations show that the structure is
endotheliochorial from implantation to term, with unicellular, never
syncytial trophoblast. Light and electron microscope immunocytochemistry
shows the restriction of the glucose transporter 1 isoform to the
basolateral surfaces of the trophoblast, with the glucose transporter 3
restricted to the apical plasmalemma of the trophoblast. Glucose
transport to the fetus therefore requires a sequential use of both
isoforms. Light and electron microscope cytochemistry indicate the
presence of iron deposits only in the haemophagous zones confirming
their iron transport function. No trophoblast areas with high
concentrations of Calcium binding protein, specialised for Calcium
transport were found. In situ hybridisation demonstrated the presence of
IGF-II mRNA in the trophoblast from the earliest stage, with TGFbeta1
and HGF-SF mRNA expressed subsequently but only IGF-II and HGF mRNA
present in the second half of pregnancy. The results are briefly
discussed in terms of placental growth and function and indicate that
the elephant placenta is another example of a unique solution to the
variety of problems posed by a resident fetus
Principles of validation of diagnostic assays for infectious diseases.
2004.
Ref Type: Electronic Citation
Brown, J.L.,
Olson, D., Keele, M., Freeman, E.W., 2004. Survey of the reproductive
cyclicity status of Asian and African elephants in North America. Zoo
Biology 23, 309-321.
Abstract: The Asian and African elephant populations in North America
are not self sustaining, and reproductive rates remain low. One problem
identified from routine progestagen analyses is that some elephant
females do not exhibit normal ovarian cycles. To better understand the
extent of this problem, the Elephant TAG/SSP conducted a survey to
determine the reproductive status of the captive population based on
hormone and ultrasound evaluations. The survey response rates for
facilities with Asian and African elephants were 81% and 71%,
respectively, for the studbook populations, and nearly 100% for the SSP
facilities. Of the elephants surveyed, 49% of Asian and 62% of African
elephant females were being monitored for ovarian cyclicity via serum or
urinary progestagen analyses on a weekly basis. Of these, 14% of Asian
and 29% of African elephants either were not cycling at all or exhibited
irregular cycles. For both species, ovarian inactivity was more
prevalent in the older age categories (>30 years); however, acyclicity
was found in all age groups of African elephants. Fewer elephant females
(B30%) had been examined by transrectal ultrasound to assess
reproductive-tract integrity, and corresponding hormonal data were
available for about three-quarters of these females. Within this subset,
most (B75%) cycling females had normal reproductive-tract morphologies,
whereas at least 70% of noncycling females exhibited some type of
ovarian or uterine pathology. In summary, the survey results suggest
that ovarian inactivity is a significant reproductive problem for
elephants held in zoos, especially African elephants. To increase the
fecundity of captive elephants, females should be bred at a young age,
before reproductive pathologies occur. However, a significant number of
older Asian elephants are still not being reproductively monitored. More
significantly, many prime reproductive-age (10-30 years) African females
are not being monitored. This lack of information makes it difficult to
determine what factors affect the reproductive health of elephants, and
to develop mitigating treatments to reinitiate reproductive cyclicity.
Brown, J.L.,
Goritz, F., Pratt-Hawkes, N., Hermes, R., Galloway, M., Graham, L.H.,
Gray, C., Walker, S.L., Gomez, A., Moreland, R., Murray, S., Schmitt,
D.L., Howard, J., Lehnhardt, J., Beck, B., Bellem, A., Montali, R.,
Hildebrandt, T.B., 2004. Successful artificial insemination of an Asian
elephant at the National Zoological Park. Zoo Biology 23, 45-63.
Abstract: For decades, attempts to breed elephants using artificial
insemination (AI) have failed despite considerable efforts and the use
of various approaches. However, recent advances in equipment technology
and endocrine-monitoring techniques have resulted in 12 elephants
conceiving by AI within a 4-year period (19982002). The successful AT
technique employs a unique endoscope-guided catheter and transrectal
ultrasound to deliver semen into the anterior vagina or cervix, and uses
the "double LH surge" (i.e., identifying the anovulatory LH (anLH) surge
that predictably occurs 3 weeks before the ovulatory LH (ovLH) surge to
time insemination. This study describes the 6-year collaboration between
the National Zoological Park (NZP) and the Institute for Zoo Biology and
Wildlife Research (IZW), Berlin, Germany, that led to the refinement of
this AI technique and subsequent production of an Asian elephant calf.
The NZP female was the first elephant to be inseminated using the new AI
approach, and was the fifth to conceive. A total of six AI trials were
conducted beginning in 1995, and conception occurred in 2000. Semen was
collected by manual rectal stimulation from several bulls in North
America. Sperm quality among the bulls was variable and was thus a
limiting factor for AI. For the successful AI, semen quality was good to
excellent (75-90% motile sperm), and sperm was deposited into the
anterior vagina on the day before and the day of the ovLH surge. Based
on transrectal ultrasound, ovulation occurred the day after the ovLH
surge. Pregnancy was monitored by serum and urinary progestagen, and
serum prolactin analyses in samples collected weekly. Fetal development
was assessed at 12, 20, and 28 weeks of gestation using transrectal
ultrasound. Elevated testosterone measured in the maternal circulation
after 36 weeks of gestation reliably predicted the calf was a male.
Parturition was induced by administration of 40 IU oxytocin 3 days after
serum progestagens dropped to undetectable baseline levels. We conclude
that AI has potential as a supplement to natural breeding, and will be
invaluable for improving the genetic management of elephants, provided
that problems associated with inadequate numbers of trained personnel
and semen donors are resolved.
Dahl, N.J.,
Olson, D., Schmitt, D., Blasko, D.R., Kristipati, R., Roser, J.F., 2004.
Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for
luteinizing hormone (LH) in the elephant (Loxodonta africana and Elephas
maximus). Zoo Biology 23, 65-78.
Abstract: A simple, rapid enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for
the measurement of LH in plasma and serum of elephants (Loxodonta
africana and Elephas maximus) has been developed, validated, and used
for comparative studies. Purified elephant LH (eleLH) diluted in
elephant plasma was used as standards (0.78-50 ng/ml). A monoclonal
antibody against the beta-subunit of bovine LH (518B(7)) was used as the
capture antibody. The second antibody (a polyclonal rabbit anti-human LH
antibody), conjugated to horseradish peroxidase, cleaved a substrate (tetramethyl
benzidine), resulting in a color change. The total assay time was
approximately 21/2 hr, with incubations at room temperature. Sensitivity
was found to be 1.56 ng/ml. Cross-reactivities to elephant FSH and TSH
were low: 0.9% and 0.15%, respectively. The accuracy of the assay was
demonstrated by comparing the ELISA with a validated eleLH
radioimmunoassay (RIA), progesterone data, and ultrasound observations.
Blood samples from 18 Asian and African elephant cows were analyzed with
the ELISA and RIA, and an additional 11 cows were used to describe
endocrine parameters for LH and progesterone using only RIA. No
difference was found in LH peak concentrations between the ELISA and RIA.
The time from the progesterone decline to the first LH peak, and the
time between the two peaks were similar between species. Asian cows had
higher LH peaks than African cows. Ultrasound confirmed the time of
ovulation occurring with the second LH peak. Three cows were inseminated
and confirmed to be pregnant using this ELISA as a timing device.
Instrumentation is not always required, as LH peaks approximating 3 ng/ml
can be visually observed. In conclusion, this ELISA can be used as a
field test to determine time of ovulation for artificial insemination
(AI) or natural breeding of both species of elephants, and thus is an
important tool for the preservation of captive populations worldwide.
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Hermes, R., Janssen, D.L., Oosterhuis, J.E., Murphy, D., Göritz,
F. Reproductive evaluation in wild African elephants prior to
translocation. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE.
75-76. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Translocations of wild African (Loxodonta africana)
elephants have increased significantly since 1993 after Clem Coetzee
developed a new method to move adult elephants in Zimbabwe. Since then
the technique have been optimized mainly by the staff of the Kruger
National Park (KNP) and over 750 elephants in family units and almost
100 mature bulls have been translocated by the KNP capture team.1 The
translocations were mainly performed for reducing the number of
elephants in KNP and for stocking other reserves. Few elephants were
also moved for overseas export to international zoological institutions.
However, each elephant translocation is always a logistic challenge and
is extremely costly. Therefore, it is very important to select the right
elephants or elephant groups for the future translocation. If the main
goal of a translocation is the establishment of a new breeding group, it
is especially important to select infertile individuals and highly
pregnant females which could have a miscarriage due to the transport
stress. The IZW team developed a field applicable portable ultrasound
technique which allows the reproductive ev ry Killmar (ZSSD), and Randy
Rieches (ZSSD).
LITERATURE CITED
1. Hofmeyr, M. 2003. Translocation as a management tool for control
of elephant populations. Managing African Elephant Populations: Act or
Let Die. Beekbergen, The Netherlands, 6.-7.Nov., Pp. 38-39.
2. Hildebrandt T. B., F. Göritz, N. C. Pratt, D. L. Schmitt, S. Quandt,
J. Raath and R. R. Hofmann. 1998. Reproductive assessment of male
elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus) by
ultrasonography. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 29: 114-128.
Janssen, D.L.,
Oosterhuis, J.E., Fuller, J., Williams, K. Field technique: A method for
obtaining trunk wash mycobacterial cultures in anesthetized free-ranging
African elephants (Loxodonta africana). 2004 PROCEEDINGS
AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE. 582-583. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants
2003 (Guidelines) of the National tuberculosis Working Group
for Zoo and Wildlife Species were written to protect the health and
safety of captive elephants together with their handlers and the viewing
public.1 The Guidelines specifically address the display and
transport of captive elephants but do not address the unique situation
of free-living elephants being imported and subsequently displayed to
the public.
Although the Guidelines describe a technique for collecting and
handling a trunk wash in a trained, standing, non-anesthetized elephant,
it does not describe a similar technique for anesthetized elephants in
lateral recumbency. In an attempt to detect active mycobacterial
infection in a group of 3 male and 8 female free-ranging African
elephants scheduled for import into the United States, a technique was
developed for collecting trunk washes in recumbent, anesthetized
elephants for mycobacterial culture.
A South African game-capture crew, experienced in translocating
elephants, anesthetized elephants in groups via remote drug delivery and
from a helicopter. The ground crew accomplished multiple simultaneous
procedures including anesthesia maintenance and monitoring, physical and
reproductive examinations, collection of general diagnostic and
investigative samples, and trunk washes for mycobacterial cultures. This
was accomplished while the capture crew was preparing animals for
loading into specially designed trailers for transport to a holding boma.
Little time was available for any one of procedure with multiple
animals being attended to at one time.
Once an elephant was stable in lateral recumbency, a 3-m foal stomach
tube, prepackaged and sterilized, was inserted into the dependent side
of the trunk tip. It was then gently fed up the trunk approximately 2.5
m. A 50-ml sample suction trap was attached to the end of the foal
tube.The suction trap was then attached to a battery powered, portable
aspirator pump designed for emergency medical care. The aspiration pump
was activated to collect secretions from the most proximal portion of
the trunk. If little or no secretions were collected by this means, the
system was disconnected between the sample trap and the foal tube. Then,
100 ml of sterile saline was placed into raised end of the foal tube
allowing it to drain toward the tip through gravity. The suction trap
and aspiration pump were reattached to collect a sample in the sample
trap. Then, the sample trap was replaced with a new trap, and the foal
tube was inserted into the oral pharynx for collection of a separate
oropharyngeal sample. This same procedure was repeated
with each elephant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
So African veterinarians, Mike Bester, Larry Killmar, Janet Payeur,
ARC/OVI, Thomas Hildebrant, Eric Zeehandelar, Kevin Reily, Denise
SoFranko.
LITERATURE CITED
1. National tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species.
2003. Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants 2003.
USDA-APHIS: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf
Kautenburger,
R., Wannemacher, J., Muller, P., 2004. Multi element analysis by X-ray
fluorescence: A powerful tool of ivory identification from various
origins. Journal Of Radioanalytical And Nuclear Chemistry 260,
399-404.
Abstract: The 11th CITES Conference in 2000 decided to maintain a total
worldwide ban on trade of elephant ivory. The 12th Conference in 2002
decided to allow a conditional trade in stockpiled ivory in 2004.
Reopening of the ivory trade would require methods to identify the
origin of the ivory so that legal ivory can be distinguished from the
black-market ones. In this study, we describe the X-ray fluorescence
multi-element analysis of ivory samples from various regions of Africa
and Southeast-Asia to characterize ivory of the various elephant
populations.
Kinsella, J.M.,
Deem, S.L., Blake, S., Freeman, A., 2004. Endoparasites of African
forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) from the Republic of
Congo and Central African Republic. Comparative Parasitology 71 ,
104-110.
Abstract: Fecal samples were collected from 6 African forest elephants,
Loxodonta africana cyclotis, from the Nouabale-Ndoki National Park,
Republic of Congo, and the Dzangha-Sangha National Park, Central African
Republic. One of the elephants was found freshly dead from natural
causes, and 12 species of intestinal parasites (2 bot fly larvae, 1
trematode, and 9 nematodes) were collected during a complete necropsy.
In addition, fecal samples revealed the presence of a schistosome,
Bivitellobilharzia sp., a tracheal nematode, Mammomonagamus sp., and a
complex of intestinal strongylids and ciliates. The nematode genera
Decrusia and Equimurbia are reported for the first time from African
elephants, and the ciliate genus Latteuria is reported for the first
time from wild elephants. The parasite fauna of the African elephant is
discussed in the light of recent genetic evidence that the forest and
savannah elephants may be separate species.
Liu, C.H.,
Chang, C.H., Chin, S.C., Chang, P.H., Zhuo, Y.X., Lee, C.C., 2004.
Fibrosarcoma with lung and lymph node metastases in an Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus)
672. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest 16, 421-423.
Abstract: A case of fibrosarcoma with lung and lymph node metastases in
a 54-year-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is described.
After pododermatitis of 2 years duration in the right forefoot, a mass
developed in the lateral toenail. At postmortem, metastasis to the right
axillary lymph node and both lungs was noted. Microscopic examination of
primary and metastatic sites revealed infiltrating bundles of spindle
cells, with fairly distinct cell borders, variable amounts of
eosinophilic cytoplasm, and elongate or oval nuclei. Tumor cells were
often arranged in interwoven bundles and herringbone patterns. Mitotic
figures were numerous and frequently bizarre. The diagnosis of
fibrosarcoma with lung and lymph node metastases was made on the basis
of histologic features and positive immunohistochemical staining for
vimentin
Loomis, M.R.,
Loomis, J.M. Equipment for use in monitoring anesthetized animals in
remote geographic locations. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT
CONFERENCE. 499-501. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Monitoring anesthetized animals in remote geographic locations
with no electrical power source can be accomplished with the use of
commercially available equipment or with modifications of available
equipment. The use of portable solar panels to recharge batteries can
supply adequate power to operate most equipment. Equipment for
monitoring oxygenation, ventilation, cardiac rhythm and rate, blood
pressure and core temperature have been successfully used in areas
without an electrical grid or electrical generators.
Criteria for Choice of Equipment for Field Use
Size, weight, power requirements, durability and the ability to
operate in harsh environmental conditions should be considered when
choosing monitoring equipment for field use. Of concern are the power
requirement and the source of the power, particularly in areas where
there is no power grid or generator available.
Power Source
There are a number of types of rechargeable batteries on the
market.1 Nickel metal halide batteries (NiMH) were chosen for use in
monitoring equipment in this study (MAHA Powerx 2100mAh, Thomas
Distributing, 128 East Wood, Paris, IL 61944). NiMH batteries have
several features that make them attractive for remote use.1 They can be
recharged 500 to 1000 times, have no memory, have a fairly steady
discharge curve and have the least negative environmental impact when
disposed of than other available batteries.1 One disadvantage of NiMH
batteries is that they have a self discharge rate of 2-3% per day when
not in use. AA NiMH batteries produce 1.2 volts.
Battery energy output is measured in milliamp hours (mAh)2. A battery
rated at 1700 mAh will produce 1700 mA for 1 hr. Different manufacturers
produce batteries with different power outputs. AA NiMH batteries are
rated at up to 2400 mAh. The higher the mAh, the greater the output of
the battery.
Batteries are charged using fast, smart chargers attached to portable
solar panels (iPowerUS fast smart charger, iPower corporation, CA, USA).
A fast charger delivers the amount of current necessary to recharge the
battery in 1 hr or less. In general, a slower charge rate will extend
the overall life of the battery.3 To overcome the deleterious effects of
rapidly charging a battery, a smart charger has a current-limiter built
into it that reduce the current as the battery is charged, thereby
preventing most of the deterioration.3 The fast smart charger is
attached to a portable solar panel (Sun Catcher Expedition solar
charger, PowerQwest, Inc.3400 Corporate Way, Suite C Duluth, GA 30096
USA) via a 12 volt "cigarette lighter" type plug. The panel produces 25
watts of power, which is more than enough power to charge 8 AA NiMH
batteries at a time. Equipment that uses AA or AAA batteries is
preferred so that a large number of different sized rechargeable
batteries are not required in the field.
Monitoring Equipment
Oxygenation is measured with a pulse oximeter or by arterial blood
gas determination using a portable clinical analyzer. Several brands of
pulse oximeters have been successfully used and recharged in the field.
An Invacare model 3402NV (Sims BCI, Inc., Waukesha, WI 53186) is
relatively small, light weight and operates on 6 AA batteries. This
oximeter is durable and operates well on rechargeable AA NiMH batteries.
An I-Stat portable clinical analyzer (Heska Corp. 1613 Prospect Parkway,
Fort Collins, CO 80525 USA) has been successfully used in the field
using rechargeable 9-volt NiMH batteries. A challenge of using the
I-Stat in the field is the analyzer's normal operating temperature of
16-30°C (61-86°F). The I-Stat has been kept in the proper operating
temperature range by placing it in a 12-volt thermoelectric cooler
(Coleman, Spirit Lake, IA 51360, USA). The thermoelectric cooler runs
directly off of the solar panel.
Ventilation is measured using capnography or arterial blood gas
determination. The criteria for choice of a capnograph include a
waveform display, mainstream and sidestream capabilities and powered by
rechargeable AA batteries. The Novametrix Tidal Wave model 615 (Novametrix
Medical Systems, INC., Wallingford, and CT USA 06492) meets these
criteria. The Tidal Wave comes standard with a rechargeable
computer-type battery, but can be ordered with a battery tray, which
holds 7 AA batteries. This instrument is durable and operates well on
rechargeable NiMH batteries. The sidestream capability allows a large
gauge needle to be placed in the lumen of a large endotracheal tube for
sampling.
Cardiac rate and rhythm are monitored by use of an electrocardiograph (ECG).
A compact ECG unit (Heska Vet/ECG 2000, Heska Corp., 1613 Prospect
Parkway, Fort Collins, CO 80525 USA) that operates on 3 AAA rechargeable
NiMH batteries is durable and dependable in the field. Blood pressure is
measured by a direct arterial line or by indirect methods. Of the
indirect methods, automated oscillometry has been successfully used in
the field. No automated oscillometric blood pressure machine that runs
on replaceable batteries could be found. A compact, durable instrument,
Oscillomate 9300 (CAS Medical Systems, Inc., 44 East Industrial Blvd.,
Branford, CT 06405), was modified for field use. A transformer was
manufactured which is inserted between the internal battery of the blood
pressure monitor and the solar panel. This allows the internal battery
of the blood pressure monitor to be recharged directly from the solar
panel.
All monitoring equipment, battery chargers and rechargeable NiMH
batteries are transported into the field in a backpack that is designed
for photographic equipment (Lowepro Supertrecker AW II, Lowepro USA,
P.O. Box 6189, Santa Rosa, CA 95406). All of the above equipment has
been dependably used to monitor immobilized elephants in a variety of
remote habitats in Cameroon, including dry, hot habitat,2 hot humid
habitat.
LITERATURE CITED
1. New technology batteries guide: available battery types.
http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/batype. htm, March, 2004.
2. New technology batteries guide: performance, economics and
tradeoffs.http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/ba-type.htm,
March, 2004.
3. New technology batteries guide: battery chargers and adapters.http://www.nlectc.org/txtfiles/batteryguide/ba-char.htm,
March, 2004.
4. Horne, W.A., M.N. Tchamba, and M.R. Loomis. 2001. A simple method of
providing intermittent positivepressureventilation to etorphine-immobilized
elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the field. J. Zoo Wildl.Med.
32: 519-522.
Stringfield,
C.E., Oh, P., Granich, R., Scott, J., Sun, B., Joseph, M., Flood, J.,
Sedgwick, C.J. Epidemiologic investigation of a Mycobacterium
tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a metropolitan
zoo. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE. 46-48.
2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: From 1997 to 2000, six cases of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(TB) infection were diagnosed in three species of animals at, or
recently originating from, the Los Angeles Zoo. Restriction fragment
length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis showed that five of six animal
isolates shared an identical IS6110 pattern, with the sixth differing
only by one additional band. A multiinstitutional epidemiologic
investigation was conducted to identify and interrupt possible
transmission among the animal cases, and to screen personnel for active
TB infection and TB skin-test conversion.
Animal Cases
In April and October of 1994, Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
#1 and Asian elephant #2 arrived at the Los Angeles Zoo from a private
elephant facility where they had lived together. They were housed
together at the zoo until November of 1996 when elephant #2 was returned
to the facility for several months before transfer to another zoo. In
the spring of 1997, Elephant #1 (30 yr old) died of salmonellosis, with
M. tuberculosis found in granulomatous lymph node lesions from
the thoracic and abdominal cavities, and Elephant #2 (30 yr old) was
found to have a positive trunk wash culture for M. tuberculosis.
In July of 1998, one of a closed herd of three Rocky Mountain goats (Oreamnos
americanus) consisting of a sire and two offspring, died of
pulmonary M. tuberculosis at 6 yr of age. The goat's asymptomatic
herdmates were screened and had negative chest radiographs and tracheal
wash cultures, but one of the two goats was positive on tuberculin
skin-test. In October of 1998, a clinically normal Black rhinocerus (Diceros
bicornis) was diagnosed with Mycobacerium tuberculosis after
a positive skin test and nasal wash culture. In the winter of 1998, the
two remaining goats were evaluated again with negative chest radiographs
and tracheal wash cultures. However, 1 yr later, both were humanely
euthanatized at 8 and 12 yr of age due to clinical evidence of
tuberculosis on chest radiographs (both animals), and active clinical
signs in one (neither were able to be orally treated). In January of
2001, a rhino was humanely euthanatized after a protracted illness that
was nonresponsive to aggressive treatment. The rhino was found to have
severe multifocal hemosiderosis and atypical mycobacterial infection in
her lungs, with no M. tuberculosis cultured. This animal had
been treated with oral Isoniazid and Rifampin for 1 yr, cultured
routinely, and was never culture positive again.
Epidemiologic Investigation
Investigators examined medical and location histories of the
affected animals, animal handling practices, health-care procedures, and
performed an infection control assessment of the animal compounds and
health-care facilities (including measuring air flow in the compounds by
smoke testing). We conducted a review of zoo employee medical records
for evidence of TB symptoms, tuberculin skin-test results, and chest
radiograph information. A list of current and former employees was
cross-matched with reported TB cases in the California state registry
from 1985 to 2000. As part of the annual occupational health screening
in June of 2000, zoo employees underwent questioning regarding TB
symptoms, received tuberculin skin tests, and completed a questionnaire
on medical history, job type, and history of contact with the infected
animals.
Epidemiologic Findings
No common cross-species contact outside the animal compounds and no
contact with an infectious human were found. The distance at which the
public was kept from the animals and the distance of the compounds from
each other (the elephant compound was 27 meters from the rhino compound
and the goat compound was 90 m from both) suggests that direct
transmission was unlikely. No active TB cases in humans were found, and
no matches were found in the database of reporte d cases. The RFLP
analysis of this strain of M. tuberculosis matched that of three
elephants with which #1 and #2 were housed at a private elephant
facility from September of 1993-February of 1994.1 We hypothesize that
elephants #1 and #2 were infected at the private facility and were
shipped with latent M. tuberculosis infection in 1994, subsequently
infecting the black rhino and Mountain goats at the Los Angeles Zoo.
Of interest, animal caretaking and animal contact were not associated
with a positive tuberculin skin-test, while groundskeepers were found to
have an increased risk of tuberculin skin-test conversion compared with
other job categories. Employees attending the elephant necropsy and
employees who trained elephants were more likely to have tuberculin
skin-test conversion than those who did not.
Conclusion
This is the first documented human and veterinary epidemiologic
investigation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis affecting multiple
species in a zoo. 2 No evidence of transmission from humans
to animals or active infections in humans were found. Genotyping
evidence strongly suggests transmission from one species to another,
although no evidence of transmission was discovered. Human tuberculin
skin-test conversions associated with the elephants were most likely due
to lack of respiratory protection for these employees when the risk of
TB infection was not known. The finding that groundskeepers and not
animal handlers were associated with a higher risk of tuberculin
skin-test conversion was surprising, and we hypothesized that this may
have to do with groundskeepers as a group being more likely to have
been born outside of the United States.
Control measures to eliminate the spread of disease to people and
animals were undertaken immediately and throughout this outbreak, and no
further cases of M. tuberculosis have been diagnosed at the zoo
in the past 3 yr despite ongoing surveillance. Four elephants and three
rhinos that had direct contact with the infected animals remain TB
negative by trunk and nasal wash culture methods as outlined by the USDA
for elephant TB surveillance. Methods of indirect transmission in
mammalian zoo species and causes of variability in infection and
morbidity within and among species warrant further investigation.
Ongoing vigilance, occupational health programs and infection control
measures in potentially exposed animals are recommended to prevent
ongoing transmission of M. tuberculosis in zoo settings.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Animal Care and Animal Health staff of the Los
Angeles Zoo who cared so well for these animals, and the veterinarians
(including consulting pathologists), technicians, and medical records
staff who collected, analyzed, and organized the clinical data. We could
not have performed this evaluation without Sue Thisdell, Safety Officer
at the Los Angeles Zoo; Jothan Staley and Donna Workman-Malcom of the
City of Los Angeles Occupational Health Services Division; Lee
Borenstein, Elenor Lehnkering, Patrick Ryan, Jeanne Soukup, and Annette
Nita of the Los Angeles County Department of Health Services; and Diana
Whipple for her RFLP expertise.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S.K., L. Peddie, J. Peddie, R. Isaza, F. Dunker, G. West,
W. Lindsay, R.S.Larsen, M. D. Salman, D. Chatterjee, J. Payeur, D.
Whipple, C. Thoen, D. Davis, C. Sedgwick, R.J. Montali, M. Ziccardi, J.
Maslow. 2001. Epidemiology and diagnosis of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in captive asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J.
Zoo Wildl. Med. 32: 1-16.
2. Oh, P., R. Granich, J. Scott, B. Sun, M. Joseph, C. Stringfield, S.
Thisdell, J. Staley, D. Workman-Malcolm, L. Borenstein, E. Lehnkering,
P. Ryan, J. Soukup, A.Nitta, J. Flood. 2002. Human exposure following
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a
metropolitan zoo. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 8 (11): 1290-1293.orte
Chakraborty,
A., 2003. Necropsy of elephant. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding
and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New
Delhi, pp. 145-151.
Cheeran, J.V.,
Nair, N.D., 2003. Techniques and Procedures for Post-Mortem of
Elephants. Project Elephant and Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi India.
Czekala,
N.M., MacDonald, E.A., Steinman, K., Walker, S., Garrigues, N.W., Olson,
D., 2003. Estrogen and LH dynamics during the follicular phase of the
estrous cycle in the Asian elephant. Zoo Biology 22, 443-454.
Abstract: Pituitary and corpus luteum hormone patterns throughout the
elephant estrous cycle have been well characterized. By contrast,
analysis of follicular maturation by measurement of circulating
estrogens has been uninformative. This study tested the ability of a
urinary estradiol-3-glucuronide radioimmunoassay to noninvasively assess
follicular development during the nonluteal phase of the elephant
estrous cycle, and to determine the relationship between estrogen
production and the "double LH surge." Daily urine and serum samples were
collected throughout seven estrous cycles from three Asian elephants,
and urine was collected from an additional three females, for a total of
13 cycles. Serum was analyzed for luteinizing hormone (LH), and urine
was analyzed for estrogens and progestins. Elephants exhibited a typical
LH pattern, with an anovulatory LH (anLH) surge occurring approximately
21 days before the ovulatory LH (ovLH) surge. The urinary estrogen
pattern indicated the presence of two follicular waves during the
nonluteal phase. The first wave (anovulatory) began 5 days before the
anLH surge and reached a maximum concentration the day before the peak.
Thereafter, urinary estrogens declined to baseline for 2 weeks before
increasing again to peak concentrations on the day of the ovLH surge.
Urinary progestins were baseline throughout most of the follicular
phase, increasing 2-3 days before the ovLH surge and continuing into the
luteal phase. These results support previous ultrasound observations
that two waves of follicular growth occur during the nonluteal phase of
the elephant estrous cycle. Each wave is associated with an increase in
estrogen production that stimulates an LH surge. Thus, in contrast to
serum analyses, urinary estrogen monitoring appears to be a reliable
method for characterizing follicular activity in the elephant.
Ganswindt,
A., Palme, R., Heistermann, M., Borragan, S., Hodges, J.K., 2003.
Non-invasive assessment of adrenocortical function in the male African
elephant (Loxodonta africana) and its relation to musth. Gen Comp
Endocrinol 134, 156-166.
Abstract: German Primate Centre, Department of Reproductive Biology,
Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Gottingen, Germany. ganswindt@www.dpz.gdwg.de
Adult male elephants periodically show the phenomenon of musth, a
condition associated with increased aggressiveness, restlessness,
significant weight reduction and markedly elevated androgen levels. It
has been suggested that musth-related behaviours are costly and that
therefore musth may represent a form of physiological stress. In order
to provide data on this largely unanswered question, the first aim of
this study was to evaluate different assays for non-invasive assessment
of adrenocortical function in the male African elephant by (i)
characterizing the metabolism and excretion of [3H]cortisol (3H-C) and
[14C]testosterone (14C-T) and (ii) using this information to evaluate
the specificity of four antibodies for determination of excreted
cortisol metabolites, particularly with respect to possible
cross-reactions with androgen metabolites, and to assess their
biological validity using an ACTH challenge test. Based on the
methodology established, the second objective was to provide data on
fecal cortisol metabolite concentrations in bulls during the musth and
non-musth condition. 3H-C (1 mCi) and 14C-T (100 microCi) were injected
simultaneously into a 16 year old male and all urine and feces collected
for 30 and 86 h, respectively. The majority (82%) of cortisol
metabolites was excreted into the urine, whereas testosterone
metabolites were mainly (57%) excreted into the feces. Almost all
radioactive metabolites recovered from urine were conjugated (86% 3H-C
and 97% 14C-T). In contrast, 86% and >99% of the 3H-C and 14C-T
metabolites recovered from feces consisted of unconjugated forms. HPLC
separations indicated the presence of various metabolites of cortisol in
both urine and feces, with cortisol being abundant in hydrolysed urine,
but virtually absent in feces. Although all antibodies measured
substantial amounts of immunoreactivity after HPLC separation of peak
radioactive samples and detected an increase in glucocorticoid output
following the ACTH challenge, only two (in feces against
3alpha,11-oxo-cortisol metabolites, measured by an
11-oxo-etiocholanolone-EIA and in urine against cortisol, measured by a
cortisol-EIA) did not show substantial cross-reactivity with excreted
14C-T metabolites and could provide an acceptable degree of specificity
for reliable assessment of glucocorticoid output from urine and feces.
Based on these findings, concentrations of immunoreactive
3alpha,11-oxo-cortisol metabolites were determined in weekly fecal
samples collected from four adult bulls over periods of 11-20 months to
examine whether musth is associated with increased adrenal activity.
Results showed that in each male levels of these cortisol metabolites
were not elevated during periods of musth, suggesting that in the
African elephant musth is generally not associated with marked
elevations in glucocorticoid output. Given the complex nature of musth
and the variety of factors that are likely to influence its
manifestation, it is clear, however, that further studies, particularly
on free-ranging animals, are needed before a possible relationship
between musth and adrenal function can be resolved. This study also
clearly illustrates the potential problems associated with
cross-reacting metabolites of gonadal steroids in EIAs measuring
glucocorticoid metabolites. This has to be taken into account when
selecting assays and interpreting results of glucocorticoid metabolite
analysis, not only for studies in the elephant but also in other
species.
Hunt, K.E.,
Wasser, S.K., 2003. Effect of long-term preservation methods on fecal
glucocorticoid concentrations of grizzly bear and african elephant.
Physiol Biochem Zool. 76, 918-928.
Abstract: Center for Conservation Biology, Department of Biology,
University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195-1800, USA.
Kruzic, J.J.,
Nalla, R.K., Kinney, J.H., Ritchie, R.O., 2003. Crack blunting, crack
bridging and resistance-curve fracture mechanics in dentin: Effect of
hydration. Biomaterials 24, 5209-5221.
Abstract: Few studies have focused on a description of the fracture
toughness properties of dentin in terms of resistance-curve (R-curve)
behavior, i.e., fracture resistance increasing with crack extension,
particularly in light of the relevant toughening mechanisms involved.
Accordingly, in the present study, fracture mechanics based experiments
were conducted on elephant dentin in order to determine such R-curves,
to identify the salient toughening mechanisms and to discern how
hydration may affect their potency. Crack bridging by uncracked
ligaments, observed directly by microscopy and X-ray tomography, was
identified as a major toughening mechanism, with further experimental
evidence provided by compliance-based experiments. In addition, with
hydration, dentin was observed to display significant crack blunting
leading to a higher overall fracture resistance than in the dehydrated
material. The results of this work are deemed to be of importance from
the perspective of modeling the fracture behavior of dentin and in
predicting its failure in vivo.
Pothiwong,
W., Kamonrat, P., Uthaichotiwan, P., 2003. A morphological study and
diagnotic ultrasonography of Asian elephant kidney. Thai Journal of
Veterinary Medicine 33, 79-88.
Schmitt, D.,
2003. Ultrasonography of elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare,
Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of
India, New Delhi, pp. 32-36.
Schmitt, D.L.,
2003. Proboscidea (Elephants). In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.),
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Elsevier Science USA, pp. 541-550.
Ziccardi, M.,
Wong, H.N., Tell, L.A., Fritcher, D., Blanchard, J., Kilbourn, A.,
Godfrey, H.P. Further optimization and validation of the antigen 85
immunoassay for diagnosing mycobacteriosis in wildlife. Proc Amer Assoc
Zoo Vet. 219-220. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis, M.
tuberculosis and M. avium has been a well-documented health
problem for zoological collections as long ago as the late 19th
century. Prevalence estimation in these captive wildlife populations,
however, has been hampered by diagnostic test methods that are
oftentimes difficult or impossible to conduct and/or interpret (due to
the requirement for multiple immobilizations for measurement of
response), the occurrence of non-specific results with methods such as
the intradermal skin test, and/or the near-total lack of validation,
optimization and standardization of any of the available test methods in
the species of interest. Additionally, because intradermal skin testing
is the primary screening method for many of these species, the ability
to compare exposure in captive wildlife with exposure in free-ranging
populations has been limited due to the difficulty with follow-up in
free-ranging populations. Lastly, unlike testing methods that use
serological techniques, skin testing precludes retrospective studies of
banked samples to determine onset of reactivity.
Recently, human tuberculosis researchers working with tuberculosis in
humans have developed an immunoassay that detects a serum protein
complex (the antigen 85, or Ag85, complex) produced by mycobacteria in
the early stages of mycobacterial infections1. Previous work
has shown that this method is a promising diagnostic tool in the
evaluation of tuberculosis exposure in some primate (including orangutan
(Pongo pygmaeus), a species known for non-specific tuberculin
responses)2 and captive hoofstock species3. In
order to determine the feasibility and applicability of a widespread use
of this method for captive and free-ranging wildlife species, we have
undertaken a number of pilot studies on different populations of
interest, with the goals of optimizing and validating the immunoassay
through analysis of serum from known infected and non-infected
individuals and through comparisons with other diagnostic methods. Thus
far, we have begun evaluating the applicability of the antigen 85
immunoassay in various avian, primate, rhinoceros and hoofstock species
for detecting tuberculosis and/or paratuberculosis (Johne's disease)
infections. Preliminary results, a summary of which will be presented,
indicate that this method may be a valuable adjunct to other testing
methods (including gamma interferon and multiple-antigen ELISA) to allow
a better evaluation of true mycobacterial status in these species.
LITERATURE CITED
1.Bentley-Hibbert, S. I., X. Quan, T. G. Newman, K. Huygen and H. P.
Godfrey. 1999. Pathophysiology of Antigen 85 in patients with active
tuberculosis. Infect Immun. 67(2):581-8.
2.Kilbourn, A. M., H. P. Godfrey, R. A. Cook, P. P. Calle, E. J. Bosi,
S. I. Bentley-Hibbert, K. Huygen, M. Andau, M. Ziccardi and W. B. Karesh.
2001. Serum Antigen 85 levels in adjunct testing for active
mycobacterial infections in orangutans. J. Wildl. Dis. 37(1): 65-71.
3.Mangold, B. J., R. A. Cook, M. R. Cranfield, K. Huygen, and H. P.
Godfrey. 1999. Detection of elevated levels of circulating antigen 85
by dot immunobinding assay in captive wild animals with tuberculosis.
J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 30(4): 477-483.
Zuba, J.R.,
Stetter, M.D., Dover, S.R., Briggs, M. Development of rigid laparoscopy
techniques in elephants and rhinoceros. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.
223-227. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Diagnostic and surgical laparoscopy has become a routine
procedure in human and veterinary medicine and has similar potential
uses in zoological medicine. Surgical telescopes and fiberoptic cables
allow the veterinarian to look inside body cavities of the patient and
specialized instruments provide the ability to perform a wide variety of
diagnostic and surgical procedures. Rigid laparoscopy is considered
minimally invasive surgery and is associated with a more rapid
post-operative recovery rate and an improved prognosis as compared to
conventional surgical techniques.3 Laparoscopic surgery is
commonly being utilized in horses and other zoo animals for a variety of
abdominal surgical procedures including tubal ligation and ovariectomy.7,8,12
Recent advances in technology now provide the ability to perform
laparoscopy in the largest mammalian species maintained in zoological
collections.11
A variety of disease problems and reproductive disorders have been
documented in the rhinoceros and elephant. Due to their size and
anatomy, many of the standard diagnostic tests available in human and
veterinary medicine are not routine in these animals (radiography,
advanced imaging techniques, liver biopsy, abdominal tap, etc.) at this
time. Although conventional abdominal surgery has been performed in
rhinoceros and elephants1,5,10 survival rates have been
extremely low. Laparoscopy can provide a variety of additional
diagnostic options, and may also provide an avenue for performing
surgical procedures that would otherwise be impossible in these animals.
A multi-institutional collaboration has been organized to address common
goals with regard to enhancing diagnostic capabilities and improving
surgical techniques in elephants and rhinoceros. Specifically, we are
aiming to: Develop laparoscopic techniques and equipment for use in
rhinoceros and elephants, which can be used to significantly expand our
diagnostic and treatment capabilities in these large mammals. Improve
international conservation efforts in both rhinoceros and elephants by
helping improve animal health and welfare of these species in captive
and free ranging situations.
This collaborative effort has been organized to critically review
current equipment, techniques and uses with the ultimate goal of
overcoming some of the inherent difficulties with laparoscopy in these
large vertebrates. This includes further development and modification
of equipment, investigation of surgical techniques, and expansion of
clinical applications.
Cooperation in the development of innovative surgical equipment for the
anatomic variety of our zoological species is necessary for the
advancement of zoological medicine. Karl Storz Veterinary Endoscopy of
America (KSVEA, Goleta, California 93117, USA) was instrumental in the
initial development of this specialized equipment at the San Diego Wild
Animal Park and by generously providing research and development for our
continuing investigations. The availability of appropriately sized
equipment has limited the application of laparoscopic techniques to
animals of a size consistent with the intended species of its
production. The largest laparoscopy equipment commercially available is
marketed for use in equine medicine (57 cm telescope and accessories).
This system has been used with limited success in rhinoceros11
and elephants. In many cases, to adequately visualize and manipulate
visceral organs, a longer telescope and associated instrumentation is
required. We continue to work closely with KSVEA on the production of
specialized equipment (Table 1). Standard light source, fiberoptic
light cable and electronic insufflator units manufactured for use in
domestic large animals have been used successfully in megavertebrates.
Due to its compact size and versatility, the authors suggest the use of
a portable, battery operated laparoscopy kit (Techno Pack, KSVEA)
(monitor, light source, camera and digital recording device) especially
under field conditions.
To date we have evaluated the utility of specially designed laparoscopic
equipment in approximately seven elephants and four rhinoceros.
Experiences from these limited cases have identified several technical
and procedural challenges, which need to be overcome if megavertebrate
laparoscopy is to be successfully performed.11 Some of these
challenges are summarized below:
Technical challenges:
·Equine
laparoscopic equipment too fragile and/or short for certain surgical
applications in rhinoceros and elephant
·Size
and disposition of megavertebrates (> 1000 kg)
·Thick,
non-pliable, pachydermatous skin puts unusual pressure (and risk of
damage) on equipment
·Insufflation
and illumination of large abdominal cavity
·Great
depth to visualize and physically reach/manipulate large organs
·Thick,
redundant, fibro-elastic peritoneum which is difficult to puncture
during surgical attempts to enter the abdominal cavity
·Influence
of patient positioning: unable to use conventional laparoscopic
positioning techniques in these species
·Both
rhinoceros and elephants are hindgut fermentors and have very large and
extensive lower intestinal tracts. Gas dilation of these bowel loops
combined with limited positioning options, can make laparoscopic
visualization of certain organs a problem
Procedural challenges:
·Cost
of developing new and specialized laparoscopic equipment is high;
duplicate equipment is not available at this time
·Charismatic
nature of megavertebrates makes it difficult to perform surgery on such
important and high exposure species
·Limited
clinical cases for testing equipment due to the relatively low number of
megavertebrates in zoological facilities
·Use
of laparoscopy in zoo mammals may be out of the comfort zone for many
veterinarians and curators due to lack of experience with this
instrumentation
·Lack
of published surgical procedures in these species
·Inability
to perform laparoscopic procedure in "surgical suite" as with most other
species
·Risks
associated with megavertebrate anesthesia and sedation including
difficulty in providing safe anesthetic procedures, proper restraint,
and safety of personnel
A multidisciplinary, systematic approach has been initiated to
critically review current instrumentation and procedures with the
objective of overcoming these technical difficulties.
The initial phase of our project has been to develop laparoscopic
techniques and equipment (Table 1) for use in rhinoceros and elephants
by utilizing individuals that may have died of natural causes, or live
animals with medical conditions that warrant abdominal surgery. We have
already had the opportunity to perform laparoscopic surgery on both live
and deceased white rhinoceros, black rhinoceros, African and Asian
elephants. From our initial studies, it is apparent that laparoscopy in
these megavertebrates is possible and may greatly enhance our ability to
care for and manage these animals in captive and free ranging
situations. The authors have received some funding and institutional
support that allows us to travel to institutions which may benefit from
the use of this equipment and/or our experience. We are also interested
in those zoological institutions which may find themselves dealing with
a terminal case in an elephant or rhinoceros, to please contact us
directly and to consider allowing laparoscopy to be conducted on the
animal prior to a post-mortem examination.
Ultimately, we envision the results of our studies on captive animals to
be applicable to the management and conservation of elephants and
rhinoceros in the wild. A variety of medical disorders are commonly
reported in black and white rhinoceros. Many of these medical
conditions are difficult to diagnose, monitor and treat. Furthermore,
there is a paucity of information on the incidence of these disease
conditions in free ranging populations. The use of minimally invasive
laparoscopic techniques will greatly enhance our diagnostic abilities in
this species and would be extremely valuable to the understanding of
medical conditions of captive and free ranging rhinoceros and to
conservation efforts overall.
Throughout many parts of Africa, wildlife professionals are seriously
concerned about the negative effects large elephant herds are having on
the native flora and fauna within parks and reserves.2,6,9
The historical rangelands of the elephant have become interrupted by
national borders and artificial barriers. Habitats surrounding wildlife
parks are increasingly being converted to agricultural lands. The
encroachment of human populations has caused a dramatic increase in the
number and severity of human-elephant conflicts.2,9 These
conflicts are commonplace in many parts of East and Southern Africa.
Although there have been a variety of plans to reduce human-elephant and
elephant environment impacts, little overall success has been achieved
in most countries.9
Historically elephant population control has primarily been limited to
culling and translocation of small groups.2,6
Immunocontraception has been attempted with a small population of
elephants but is not currently realistic in many situations.4,6
In wildlife parks where large herds of elephants exist there is
currently no effective, humane method of population control.
One of our long-range goals is to develop laparoscopic techniques, such
as ovariectomy and tubal ligation, in free ranging African elephants
that can be used to sterilize reproductive females. Once these
techniques have been developed, it is our intention to train local
wildlife veterinarians and health professionals to perform laparoscopic
sterilization of elephants in the field and thus provide local wildlife
officials with a tool to help manage elephant populations. It is our
hope this will improve conservation efforts across Africa by reducing
human-elephant conflicts and helping to save critical ecosystems.
Acknowledgements
This ongoing project is possible due to the generous contributions of
the following individuals: Hans Lunneman, Christopher Chambliss,
Michele McCutcheon, Lynn Richardson, Dean Hendrickson, Robin Radcliffe,
Rolf Radcliffe, Laurie Gage, Larry Galuppo, Bill Lindsay, John Olsen,
Genny Dumonceaux, and the veterinary staffs at the San Diego Wild Animal
Park and Disney's Animal Programs.
LITERATURE CITED
1.Byron, H., J. Olsen, M. Schmidt, J. Copeland, and L. Byron. 1985.
Abdominal surgery in three adult male Asian elephants. J Am Vet Med
Assoc. 187:1236-1237.
2.Chalfota J. and Owen-Smith N. 1996. Options for the management of
elephants in northern Botswana. Pachyderm. 22:67-73.
3.Cook, R.A., and D.R. Stoloff. 1999. The application of minimally
invasive surgery for the diagnosis and treatment of captive wildlife.
In: Fowler, M., Miller, E. (Eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current
Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. Pp 30-40.
4.Delsink, A.K., van Altena, J.J., Kirkpatrick, J. Grobler, D., and
Fayrer-Hosken, R.A. 2002. Field applications of immunocontraception in
African elephants (Loxodonta africana). J Soc.Reprod. Fert. 60:
117-124.
5.Fowler, M.E., and R. Hart. 1973. Castration of an Asian elephant using
etorphine anesthesia. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 163: 539-543.
6.Garai, M.E. 2001. Managing elephants on private reserves in South
Africa. Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research
Symposium. Vienna, Austria. 259-261.
7.Hendrickson, D.A. 2002. New techniques for performing equine
laparoscopic ovariectomy. DVM Best Practices Magazine. Oct. 2002.
8.Hendrickson, D.A., and D.G. Wilson. 1996. Instrumentation and
techniques for laparoscopic and thoracoscopic surgery in the horse. Vet.
Clin. N.A. Equine Pract.12; 2: 235.
9.Hoare, R., Update on the study and management of human-elephant
conflict in Africa. Pachyderm. 33: 91-92.
10.Olsen, J., and H. Byron. 1993. Castration of the elephant. In:
Fowler, M. (Ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3, 3rd
ed. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. Pp. 441-444.
11.Radcliffe R.M., D.A. Hendrickson, G.L. Richardson., J.R. Zuba, and
R.W. Radcliffe. 2000. Standing laparoscopicguided uterine biopsy in a
southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum). J. Zoo
Wildl. Med. 31:201207.
12.Rogerson, D., M. Brown, B. Watt, C. Keoughan, and M. Hanrath. 2002.
Hand-assisted laparoscopic technique for removal of ovarian tumors in
standing mares. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 220(10):1503-1507.
See source for Table 1. Current laparoscopy equipment specifically
manufactured for use in megavertebrates.a
a All equipment was specially manufactured by Karl Storz
Veterinary Endoscopy of America (KSVEA, Goleta, California, USA) and is
not commercially available at this time.
Bechert,
U.S., Southern, S. Monitoring Environmental Stress in African Elephants
(Loxodonta africana) through Molecular Analysis of
Stress-Activated Proteins. Baer, C. K. Proceedings American Association
of Zoo Veterinarians. 249-253. 2002. Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Many disease outbreaks appear to be facilitated by increased
stress due to overcrowding, and changing environmental conditions
triggered by climate variability and human activities. Currently, the
health of populations is typically assessed with the tools of population
dynamics: estimations of trends in abundance, mortality, and
reproductive rates. However, for populations that have long generation
times, this approach is sometimes too slow to provide an early warning
about the impact of environmental stressors such as disease, pollution,
and anthropogenic activities. We have developed new techniques for
detecting chronic physiologic stress and disease in mammals, based on
the molecular analysis of the expression patterns of multiple
stress-activated proteins and genes. This approach represents a novel
tool for health monitoring, and can provide an early warning of
increased environmental stress and compromised health in elephants and
other mammals. This paper describes a study in progress, in which the
molecular analysis of stress is being used to explore correlations
between stress level and information regarding population abundance,
distribution, habitat needs, human-elephant interactions, and movements
of elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the northern Botswana
region. This technique will provide a more objective way to assess
carrying capacity for African elephants, thus facilitating development
of effective management plans for this species.
Geddes, L.A.,
2002. Electrocardiograms from the turtle to the elephant that illustrate
interesting physiological phenomena. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 25,
1762-1770.
Abstract: This article describes a collection of ECGs from many species
obtained over the past 50 years. Presented are ECGs of species in which
the pacemaker is a separate contractile chamber with its own action and
recovery potentials. In such species, pacemaker atrial and AV block can
be produced. Shortening of the atrial refractory period and the negative
inotropic effect can be produced by vagal stimulation. The cardiac
electrogram and stroke volume are recorded from the turtle heart. The
ECG and respiration were recorded from the snake. ECG records were
obtained from the anesthetized and decapitated housefly. ECG records of
the rabbit show slowing when the nose encountered irritating vapors.
Records from a dog with atrial fibrillation exhibit rhythmic
fibrillation frequency changes correlated with respiration. In addition,
in a morphinized dog with atrial fibrillation, impulses crossed the AV
node only during inspiration. The ECGs of a cow and camel exhibit long
P-R intervals and biphasic P waves. Finally the elephant ECG shows a
clear U wave following the T wave.
Kumar, G.A.,
Ghosh, K.N.A., Sreekumaran, T., Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Reproduction
in elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7,
38-40, 48-48.
Mikota, S.K.,
Maslow, J. Epidemiology and Treatment of Tuberculosis in Elephants:
2002. Baer, C. K. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Annual
Conference. 384-387. 2002. 2002.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Oh, P.,
Granich, R., Scott, J., Sun, B., Joseph, M., Stringfield, C., Thisdell,
S., Staley, J., Workman-Malcolm, D., Borenstein, L., Lehnkering, E.,
Ryan, P., Soukup, J., Nitta, A., Flood, J., 2002. Human exposure
following Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal
species in a Metropolitan Zoo. Emerg Infect Dis 8, 1290-1293.
Abstract: From 1997 to 2000, Mycobacterium tuberculosis was diagnosed in
two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), three Rocky Mountain goats (Oreamnos
americanus), and one black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in the Los
Angeles Zoo. DNA fingerprint patterns suggested recent transmission. An
investigation found no active cases of tuberculosis in humans; however,
tuberculin skin-test conversions in humans were associated with training
elephants and attending an elephant necropsy.
Payeur, J.B.,
Jarnagin, J.L., Marquardt, J.G., Whipple, D.L., 2002. Mycobacterial
isolations in captive elephants in the United States. Ann N Y Acad Sci
969, 256-258.
Abstract: Interest in tuberculosis in elephants has been increasing over
the past several years in the United States. Several techniques have
been used to diagnose mammalian tuberculosis. Currently, the test
considered most reliable for diagnosis of TB in elephants is based on
the culture of respiratory secretions obtained by trunk washes.
Pearson,
E.G., 2002. Diseases of the hepatobiliary system. In: Smith, B.P. (Ed.),
Large Animal Internal Medicine. Mosby, St.Louis, pp. 790-795.
Reilly, J.,
2002. Growth in the Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus)
and age estimation based on dung diameter. J. Zool. , Lond 258,
205-213.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate age-related growth in
the Sumatran elephant Elephas maximus sumatranus and to use the
derived relationship to determine the age structure of the wild elephant
population in Way Kambas National Park (WKNP), Sumatra. Shoulder height,
forefoot circumference and diameter of dung bolus were found to be
related to age of captive Sumatran elephants using the Von Bertalanffy
growth function. All length measurements were highly correlated with age
in the Sumatran elephant and provide growth models for determining the
age structure of wild populations. Female captive elephants reached
their growth plateau earlier than male elephants who continued growing
throughout the ages observed. There was no clear evidence of a secondary
growth spurt in male elephants. The growth model relating dung diameter
to age was used to predict the age structure of the wild elephant
population in WKNP from dung measured along random line transects. The
wild elephant population in WKNP is
young and dominated by sub-adults (between 5 and 15 years of age). There
are marked differences between the age structure of the population as
revealed in the current survey and that reported from previous studies,
suggesting that changes have occurred within the population in the
intervening period. The use of dung diameter to predict age offers a
robust field technique for use in situations where direct observations
are limited, and the use of other age estimation methods is impractical.
It is easily coupled with dung counts for estimating the size, age
structure and biomass of elephant populations, and has considerable
potential for investigating the effects of poaching on age structure and
identifying where priority action should be directed in human-elephant
conflict situations.
Suedmeyer,
W.K. Conditioning programs for transabdominal ultrasound gestational
monitoring in an eastern black rhinoceros (Dicerosbicornis michaeli),
african elephant, (Loxodonta africana), african lion (Panthera leo), and
bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus). Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.
50-52. 2002.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Suedmeyer,
W.K. Transabdominal ultrasonic Gestational monitoring in an African
elephant (Loxodonta africana). Baer, C. K. American Association
of Zoo Veterinarians Annual Conference. 219-220. 2002. 2002.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Tresamol, P.V.,
2002. Elephant surra. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7,
60.
Tuntivanich,
P., Soontornvipart, K., Tuntivanich, N., Wongaumnuaykul, S., Briksawan,
P., 2002. Schirmer tear test in clinically normal Asian elephants.
Veterinary Research Communications 26, 297-299.
Abstract: The objective of the study was to evaluate normal tear
production in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand. 44
elephants (80 eyes) were studied. The mean value for a 1-minute Schirmer
tear test (STT), without topical anaesthesia, was 34.3±1.7 mm/min, with
a range of 14-70 mm/min. There was no significant difference between
males and females. STT values varied with age, being lowest in the 0-20
year age group and highest in the 41-60 year age group.
Vijayan, N.,
Nair, N.D., 2002. Autopsy in elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary
Association Kerala 7, 53-51.
Wise, D.J.,
Carter, G.R., 2002. Immunology A Comprehensive Review. Iowa State
University Press (Blackwell), Ames IA.
Woodford, M.H.,
Keet, D.F., Bengis, R.G., 2002. A guide to post-mortem procedure and a
review of pathological processes identified in the elephant. Post-mortem
Procedures for Wildlife Veterinarians and Field Biologists. IUCN, pp.
36-47.
Ball, R.L.
Ultrasound Evaluation of the Pleura Space and Associated Connective
Tissue in the Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus). A Research Update
on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and
Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 245. 2001. Vienna,
Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Fritsch, G.,
Hermes, R., Maltzan, J. New Aspects of Sexual Maturation in Male
Elephants. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the
International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11,
2001. 25. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Ganswindt,
A., Heistermann, M., Hodges, J.K. Faecal Glucocorticoid and Androgen
Metabolite Excretion in Male African Elephants (Loxodonta africana).
A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the
International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11,
2001. 258. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Ganswindt,
A., Heistermann, M., Borragan, S., Hodges, J.K., 2001. Assessment of
testicular endocrine function in captive African elephants by
measurement of urinary and fecal androgens. Zoo Biology 21,
27-36.
Goeritz, F.,
Hildebrandt, T.B., Hermes, R., Quandt, S., Jewgenow, K., Hofmann, R.R.,
Hofer, H., Meyer, H.H.D. Results of Hormonal Contraception in
Free-Ranging African Elephants. A Research Update on Elephants and
Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research
Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 262. 2001. Vienna, Austria,
Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Graham, L.,
Schwarzenberger, F., Möstl, E., Galama, W., Savage, A., 2001. A
versatile ezyme immunoassay for the determination of progestogens in
feces and serum. Zoo Biology 20, 227-236.
Abstract: The ability of zoos to monitor the reproductive status of
their animals can vastly improve the effectiveness of
husbandry/management practices, and noninvasive methods such as fecal
steroid analysis are the easiest to apply in a zoo setting. Furthermore,
enzyme immunoassay (EIA) is preferred to radioimmunoassay (RIA) as the
method of quantifying hormones because EIAs do not involve the use,
storage, and disposal of radioactive materials. However, progesterone is
excreted in the feces as predominantly unconjugated metabolites (progestogens)
and, until recently, antibodies able to cross-react with a variety of
progestogens were used primarily in RIAs. An EIA using a broad-spectrum
progestogen antibody is described and applied to serum and/or fecal
samples from female African elephants, black rhinoceros, white
rhinoceros, okapi, and hippopotami. The clear progestogen profiles
generated in these species suggest that the described EIA would be as
versatile as the RIA using the same antibody and could be a practical
and economical alternative to RIAs for monitoring gonadal function via
progestogen analysis in zoo species.
Isaza, R. The
elephant trunk wash - An update. ProcElephant Mangers Association Annual
Conference. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Lehnhardt,
J., Bolling, J., Pratt, N., Joseph, S., Miller, G., Graham, L., Miller,
M., Neiffer, D., Hildebrandt, T., Goeritz, F. Elephant Artificial
Insemination (AI) in Protected Contact. A Research Update on Elephants
and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research
Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 70. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling
Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Miller, M.,
Neiffer, D., Weber, M., Fontenot, D., Stetter, M., Bolling, J.
Salmonella Culture and PCR Results in a Group of Captive African
Elephants (Loxodonta africana). A Research Update on Elephants
and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research
Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 83-86. 2001. Vienna, Austria,
Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Montali,
R.J., Richman, L.K., Mikota, S.K., Schmitt, D.L., Larsen, R.S.,
Hildebrandt, T.B., Isaza, R., Lindsay, W.A. Management Aspects of
Herpesvirus Infections and Tuberculosis in Elephants. A Research Update
on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and
Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 87-95. 2001. Vienna,
Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) infections and
tuberculosis have emerged as causes of illness and mortality in captive
elephants. Twenty-six confirmed EEHV cases are documented. Since 1995, 7
have occurred in North America, 10 in Europe and 2 in Asia. A PCR test
was used to detect the virus in symptomatic animals; a serological test
to identify carrier elephants is under development. The African elephant
is a potential source of the EEHV that is lethal for Asian elephants.
Fatal infections have also occurred in Asian elephants without African
elephant contacts. Three of 6 elephants recovered after treatment with
antiviral famciclovir; however, more research is needed to improve the
usefulness of this drug. Asian elephants that are less than 10-years old
and have been moved to another facility and/or have had contact with
African elephants are at increased risk for contracting EEHV. Animals
traveling between facilities with a history of EEHV cases may be at
greater risk. All young elephants should be monitored daily for
anorexia, lethargy, body swellings and blue discoloration (bruising) of
the tongue, and be trained for blood sampling and potential oral and
rectal treatment with famciclovir.
Since 1996, Mycobacterium tuberculosis has affected about 3% of
Asian elephants in North America. Most were from 5 U.S. States with some
contacts between private herds. Mandatory annual testing for
tuberculosis by trunk wash cultures was established in 1998, and 22
culture-positive M. tuberculosis elephants were identified
between 1996-2001. Fifteen were treated with anti-tuberculosis drugs and
7 that died or were euthanized were proven to have tuberculosis at
necropsy. Antemortem sera was available from 4/7 4 (75%) were strongly
ELISA positive. Tuberculosis is uncommon in African elephants but was
recently associated with M. bovis in the U.S. and M.
tuberculosis in Germany. Conversely, M. bovis tuberculosis,
apparently unrecognized in Asian elephants, recently occurred in
Germany. Management issues of elephant tuberculosis will be discussed
relative to its complex epidemiology and clinical-pathological
correlations.
O'Sullivan,
T.J., Junge, E., 2001. The use of sonography in the follow-up care of a
foot abscess in a female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). In:
Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 115-116.
Schwammer, H.
From Artificial Insemination to Birth. A Case Study on African Elephants
(Loxodonta africana). A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos;
Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium,
Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 289-292. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling
Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Wyatt, J.
Elephant breeding soundness examination forms and database. Kirk Baer,
C. and Wilmette, M. W. Proceedings American Association of Zoo
Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians,
Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians, and the National
Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians Joint Conference 2001.
396-400. 2001. USA, AAZV. 1.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Routine use of standardized soundness examination forms for
male and female elephants provides data for an inter-relational
database. Through queries we may answer population-based reproductive
questions essential for promoting self-sustaining populations. This
poster presentation demonstrates breeding soundness examination forms
and accompanying database used in a pilot project to evaluate 25
elephants.
Brown, J.L.,
2000. Reproductive endocrine monitoring of elephants: an essential tool
for assisting captive management. Zoo Biology 19, 347-367.
Abstract: Considerable information now is available about the basic
reproductive biology of elephants, especially females. However, as
important as this knowledge is, it no longer is enough to simply compile
it into a database. The potential exists for using endocrine monitoring
techniques to solve real problems. This review summarizes our current
knowledge of elephant endocrinology and offers suggestions on how to use
the technology to maximize reproductive potential. The oestrous cycle
can be monitored through the analysis of serum progestogens, primarily
5alpha-reduced compounds, and consists of an 8- to 12-week luteal phase
and a 4- to 6-week inter-luteal period. Proof of ovarian cyclicity
currently is mandatory before Species Survival Plan breeding
recommendations are approved. However, because many adult females are
not cycling normally, the reproductive monitoring of all cows throughout
their life span is now encouraged. Complete endocrine evaluations in
conjunction with ultrasound examinations and behavioral assessments are
needed to identify causes of reproductive failure and develop mitigating
treatments. Progestogen analyses also are effective for monitoring
pregnancy, but only if longitudinal samples are collected.
Alternatively, pregnancy can be diagnosed in occasional samples using
serum prolactin or possibly relaxin measurements after 20 weeks of
gestation. Parturition can be predicted on the basis of the rapid
decrease in progestogens that occurs about 2-5 days before birth. An
updated model of ovarian dynamics during the oestrous cycle suggests
that two waves of follicular development occur 3 weeks apart during the
non-luteal phase, possibly under the control of follicle-stimulating
hormone. Each follicular wave culminates in a luteinizing hormone (LH)
surge, with the second surge inducing ovulation and corpus luteum
formation. The functional significance of the first, anovulatory LH
surge is under investigation, but from a practical perspective it can be
used to schedule breeding (by artificial insemination or natural mating)
to coincide with the ovulatory LH surge. Less is known about the
reproductive biology of bulls, aside from the fact that musth is
associated with dramatic changes in androgen secretion. Studies are
needed to determine whether poor libido and inadequate semen quality
observed in some mature elephants are due to testicular steroidogenic
dysfunction. When blood samples cannot be collected for routine hormone
analysis, gonadal activity can be monitored non-invasively through the
measurement of excreted steroid metabolites (males: androgens; females:
estrogens, progestogens) in urine and faeces. Lastly, suggestions for
future research priorities are provided.
Doi, O.,
Komatsumoto, M., Terazono, M., Wada, S., 2000. Exfoliative cytology in
vaginal vestibule of female Asian elephants: relation to circulating
progesterone concentrations. Zoological Science 17, 1303-1309.
Abstract: The oestrous cycle of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was
monitored by analysis of exfoliative cytology in the vaginal vestibule
and serum progesterone concentrations. Appearance frequency of each 5
exfoliative cells; parabasal, intermediate, superficial anuclear and
nuclear cells and leukocytes; on the smear collected from two elephants
was calculated, and serum progesterone concentrations were measured by
radioimmunoassay. Serum progesterone concentrations changed regularly
with the cycle between 14 and 17 weeks. Using spectrum analysis
(Yule-Walker method) to appearance frequency of exfoliative cells, it
was found that the time when a superficial cell markedly appeared in
vaginal vestibule corresponded to the time when serum progesterone
concentration was almost negligible. It is suggested that the time when
numbers of two kinds of superficial (anuclear and nuclear) cells and
parabasal and intermediate cells increase to the smear of the elephant,
means the period from pro-oestrus to oestrus and from metoestrus to
dioestrus, respectively.
Enoe, C.,
Georgiadis, M.P., Johnson, W.O., 2000. Estimation of sensitivity and
specificty of diagnostic tests and disease prevalence when the true
disease state is unknown. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 45,
61-81.
Fleming, G.J.,
Isaza, R. Thermography evaluation of trunk paralysis in an Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus) using digital thermography. Proc. AAZV
and IAAAM Joint Conf. 502-503. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Freeman, K.,
2000. Bone marrow evaluation. In: Feldman, B., Zinkl, J.G., Jain, N.C.
(Eds.), Schalm's Veterinary Hematology. Lippinicott, Williams & Wilkins,
Baltimore, Maryland, USA, pp. 29-32.
Greiner, M.,
Gardner, I., 2000. Epidemiologic issues in the validation of veterinary
diagnostic tests. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 45, 3-22.
Hermes, R.,
Olson, D., Goritz, F., Brown, J.L., Schmitt, D.L., Hagan, D., Peterson,
J.S., Fritsch, G., Hildebrandt, T.B., 2000. Ultrasonography of the
estrous cycle in female African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo
Biology 19, 369-382.
Abstract: The endocrinology of the elephant oestrous cycle has been well
characterized, but little emphasis has been placed on evaluating
corresponding changes in the reproductive tract. Ultrasound was used to
document changes in reproductive tract morphology throughout the
oestrous cycle in four cycling female African elephants. During a
7-month period, frequent ultrasound examinations (n=190) during the
luteal and non-luteal phase were compared with serum progesterone and
luteinizing hormone (LH) concentrations during a 7-month period.
Ultrasonographic images documented vaginal and cervical oedema and
changes in mucus consistency during the non-luteal phase. The
cross-sectional diameter of the endometrium showed a dramatic increase
during the non-luteal phase and followed cyclic changes. A different
pattern of follicular development on the ovary was associated with the
two LH surges. Follicle growth associated with the first, anovulatory LH
surge was characterized by the formation of multiple small follicles, in
contrast to the maturation of a single large follicle at the second,
ovulatory LH (ovLH) surge. Ovulation and the subsequent formation of a
corpus luteum (CL) were observed only after the ovLH surge. Ultrasound
data in combination with endocrine assessments suggest that the African
elephant is non-ovulatory, although multiple non-ovulatory luteal
structures developed during the late non-luteal phase of each cycle.
Both ovulatory CL and non-ovulatory luteal structures were present only
through one cycle and regressed at the end of the luteal phase in
conjunction with the drop in serum progesterone. We conclude that
periodic reproductive-tract ultrasound assessments in association with
continued endocrine monitoring of the oestrous cycle should be
incorporated into the routine reproductive health assessment of
elephants. This information is necessary for determining reproductive
fitness before making breeding recommendations. It also has proven to be
an invaluable tool for use with assisted reproductive techniques and has
enormous potential for evaluating the efficiency of hormonal therapies
used to treat reproductive dysfunction.
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Goritz, F., Pratt, N.C., Brown, J.L., Montali, R.J., Schmitt, D.L.,
Fritsch, G., Hermes, R., 2000. Ultrasonography of the urogenital tract
in elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus): an
important tool for assessing female reproductive function. Zoo Biology
19, 321-332.
Abstract: At present, the worldwide captive elephant population is not
self-sustaining. The major reason for low reproductive rates is the
heretofore undiagnosed reproductive disorders of nulliparous females of
prime breeding age. Recent advances in ultrasound technology have
facilitated the detection of these disorders in non-sedated animals.
Approximately 2000 ultrasonographic examinations were performed in more
than 280 captive and wild African and captive Asian female elephants.
The entire urogenital tract was scanned, measured and documented to
provide a reference for ultrasound specialists involved in elephant
breeding programs. The primary pathological lesions that influenced
reproductive rates in these females were uterine tumors and endometrial
cysts, and ovarian cysts that resulted in acyclicity. The detection of
these disorders and their stage of development can be used by elephant
managers to make decisions approximately which animals to include in
breeding programs. Ultrasonography can be used as an effective tool for
assessing the reproductive fitness of female breeding candidates in both
African and Asian elephants.
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Hermes, R., Pratt, N.C., Fritsch, G., Blottner, S., Schmitt, D.L.,
Ratanakorn, P., Brown, J.L., Rietschel, W., Goritz, F., 2000.
Ultrasonography of the urogenital tract in elephants (Loxodonta africana
and Elephas maximus): an important tool for assessing male reproductive
function. Zoo Biology 19, 333-345.
Abstract: The success rate of captive elephant breeding programs
worldwide is poor. Along with undiagnosed reproductive disorders in
females and fatal diseases such as the newly discovered herpesvirus
infection, male infertility now is considered a major contributing
factor in the failure to maintain self-sustaining captive populations.
To address questions related to male reproductive dysfunction,
approximately 309 ultrasonographic assessments combined with semen
collection were performed in captive (n=10) and wild (n=4) African
(Loxodonta africana) and captive (n=61) Asian (Elephas maximus)
elephants. Bulls ranged from 4 to 50 years of age and were examined at 9
institutions in North America, 13 in Europe, 2 in Africa, and 7 in Asia.
About half of the reproductive assessments were performed in protected
contact situations with elephants handled in a restraint device, and
half involved assessments of trained Asian bulls managed in free
contact. Four wild African and two Asian elephant bulls were evaluated
after receiving general anaesthesia. Transrectal ultrasound was used to
characterize the morphology and functionality of the entire urogenital
tract, including the testes and accessory sex organs. Bulls were
categorized on the basis of breeding status (breeders vs. non-breeders)
and social history (i.e., type of interaction with conspecifics and
keepers). Most of the bulls were non-breeders (designated Types I-V).
Type I (n=3 African, 6 Asian) and Type V (n=1 Asian) were immature and
castrate, respectively. On the basis of keeper evaluations, Type II
bulls (n=2, 4) were subordinate to older cows and keepers, whereas Type
III bulls (n=4, 28) were dominated by other bulls. Type IV (n=1, 8) were
older bulls of unknown history that exhibited numerous testicular
pathologies resulting in poor semen quality. Non-breeding bulls included
those that were exposed to females, but failed to breed, as well as
those that had no opportunities to breed. Type VI individuals (n=4, 14)
were proven breeders. The percentage of observable reproductive tract
pathology in adult males was remarkably low (14%), even in older bulls.
However, apparent infertility of non-organic cause (i.e., not due to
specific anatomical abnormalities) in these otherwise healthy bulls was
high (32%). Semen quality varied markedly in ejaculates collected from
the same bull, as well as from different bulls. In conclusion, although
many of these bulls could serve as semen donors for natural mating or
artificial insemination, the inconsistent production of good-quality
ejaculates raises questions as to the reliability of these individuals
to participate in breeding programs. The apparent inhibitory effect of
suppressive social interactions on reproductive potential also needs to
be investigated. Ultrasound examinations combined with semen collection
should be conducted periodically to estimate the reproductive value of
each bull and determine whether altered management strategies are needed
to enhance captive breeding.
Hittmair, K.M.,
Vielgrader, H.D., 2000. Radiographic diagnosis of lameness in African
elephants (Loxodonta Africana). Veterinary Radiology and Ultrasound 41,
511-515.
Abstract: Lameness in captive elephants is most commonly caused by
pododermatitis or degenerative joint disease. Hard surfaces such as
concrete, which produce a damp and cold environment, wet and muddy
conditions, as well as restricted movement are the major causes of these
problems. Radiography was performed in two African elephants at the
Schoenbrunn Zoo in Vienna to determine the cause and extent of lameness.
Various radiographic techniques are described for use in trained
elephants. Low time settings were used to avoid loss of detail through
movement and to minimize exposure while observing radiation safety. A
37-year-old elephant had front limb lameness due to an interdigital
abscess. In radiographs of the foot an inhomogenous soft-tissue swelling
without involvement of the phalanges was seen. Ultrasonography was
helpful in visualizing the fluid-filled abscess. In additional joint
radiographs severe degenerative joint disease was identified. A
13-year-old elephant had lameness of the hind limb. Radiographs of the
hind limb from the foot to the stifle were made. Open physes and early
signs of degenerative joint disease were identified on the radiographs.
Larsen, R.S.,
Salman, M.D., Mikota, S.K., Isaza, R., Triantis, J. Validation and use
of a multiple-antigen ELISA for detection of tuberculosis infections in
elephants. Proc. AAZV and IAAAM Joint Conf. 231-233. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Lyashchenko,
K., Singh, M., Colangeli, R., Gennaro, M.L., 2000. A multi-antigen print
immunoassay for the development of serological diagnosis of infectious
disease. Journal of Immunological Methods 242, 91-100.
Radcliffe,
R.M., Hendrickson, D.A., Richardson, G.L., Zuba, J.R., Radcliffe, R.W.
Considerations for laparoscopy in megavertebrates. Proceedings AAZV and
IAAAM Joint Conference. 81-82. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Tveden, H.,
Weiss, D.J., 2000. Classification and laboratory evaluation of anemia.
In: Feldman, B., Zinkl, J.G., Jain, N.C. (Eds.), Schalm's Veterinary
Hematology. Lippinicott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, Maryland, USA,
pp. 143-15.
Wasser, S.K.,
Hunt, K.E., Brown, J.L., Cooper, K., Crockett, C.M., Bechert, U.,
Millspaugh, J.J., Larson, S., Monfort, S.L., 2000. A generalized fecal
glucocorticoid assay for use in a diverse array of nondomestic mammalian
and avian species. Gen Comp Endocrinol 120, 260-275.
Abstract: Noninvasive fecal glucocorticoid analysis has tremendous
potential as a means of assessing stress associated with environmental
disturbance in wildlife. However, interspecific variation in excreted
glucocorticoid metabolites requires careful selection of the antibody
used in their quantification. We compared four antibodies for detecting
the major fecal cortisol metabolites in yellow baboons following (3)H
cortisol administration, ACTH challenge, and HPLC separation of fecal
glucocorticoid metabolites. The most effective antibody (ICN
corticosterone RIA; Cat. No. 07-120102) demonstrated relatively high
cross-reactivities to the major cortisol metabolites present in feces
during peak excretion, following both radiolabel infusion and ACTH
challenge. This same antibody also detected increased fecal
glucocorticoid metabolites after ACTH administration in the African
elephant, black rhinoceros, Roosevelt elk, gerenuk, scimitar-horned oryx,
Alaskan sea otter, Malayan sun bear, cheetah, clouded leopard,
longtailed macaque, and northern spotted owl. Results suggest that (1)
fecal glucocorticoid assays reliably detect endogenous changes in
adrenal activity of a diverse array of species and (2) where comparisons
were made, the ICN corticosterone antibody generally was superior to
other antibodies for measuring glucocorticoid metabolites in feces.
Bhat, M.N.,
Manickam, R., Ramkrishna, J., 1999. Screening of captive wild animals
for tuberculosis. Indian Veterinary Journal 76, 959-961.
Abstract: The passive haemagglutination (PHA) test was used to test 109
captive elephants (Elephas maximus), and spotted deer (Cervus axis),
blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) and common langurs (Semnopithecus
entellus?) (4 of each) for tuberculosis; 51 of the elephants and the 4
langurs were also assessed by the tuberculin test. PHA titres of 1:16 or
1:32 were found in 4 elephants, 1 deer and 2 langurs, but all were
apparently healthy except 1 langur that had clinical signs indicative of
tuberculosis. There were 4 positive reactors in the tuberculin tests,
all elephants, but these animals did not have significant PHA titres. It
is concluded that the procedures and reagents used for the diagnosis of
tuberculosis in domestic animals are not reliable for testing wild
animals.
Brown, J.L.,
Hildebrandt, T.B., Theison, W., Neiffer, D.L., 1999. Endocrine and
ultrasound evaluation of a non-cycling African elephant: identification
of an ovarian follicular cyst. Zoo Biology 18, 223-232.
Abstract: The reproductive rate of captive African elephants is low
because of logistical difficulties associated with transporting animals
for breeding, the danger of maintaining bulls and medical or
physiological problems. There also is growing evidence that a
significant number of mature female elephants are not experiencing
normal estrous cycles. The case described in this report involves the
diagnosis and attempted treatment of an ovarian follicular cyst in an
African elephant at the Pittsburgh Zoo. On the basis of serum
progesterone analysis, the female exhibited regular ovarian cycles from
July 1993 through March 1994, but from November 1994 to the present has
not shown any evidence of reproductive cyclicity. In April 1996, a large
follicular structure was identified on the right ovary using transrectal
ultrasound. In an attempt to luteinize the cyst, 500 ug gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH) was administered intravenously in October 1996, which
stimulated a modest increase in serum luteinizing hormone (LH)
(approximately twofold over baseline), but no resumption of ovarian
activity. The elephant was treated again 5 months later with a higher
dose of GnRH (5 mg, i.v.) with the same results. An ultrasound
evaluation in July 1997 indicated the structure was still present. In
October 1997, the female was given human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG;
10,000 IU, i.m.), which induced estrus and breeding, but no ovulation or
luteinizing of the cyst, and she remains acyclic. These results suggest
that conventional methods developed in other species for treating
ovarian follicular cysts may not necessarily be effective in the
elephant. It is also important that reproductive age females be
monitored via continuous progesterone analysis and occasional
reproductive tract ultrasound evaluations to understand better the
etiology of ovarian dysfunction so that effective treatments can be
developed to induce consistent ovarian activity.
Fies, M.,
Heistermann, M., Hodges, J.K., 1999. Patterns of urinary and fecal
steroid excretion during the ovarian cycle and pregnancy in the African
elephant (Loxodonta africana). Gen Comp Endocrinol 115, 76-89.
Abstract: The aims of the present study were to (I) determine the
relative abundance of the 5alpha-reduced progestins
5alpha-pregnane-3-ol-20-one (5alpha-P-3OH) and
5alpha-dihydroprogesterone (5alpha-DHP) and progesterone (P4) in African
elephant feces and to establish improved fecal progestin assays for
monitoring ovarian function; and (ii) describe longitudinal profiles of
urinary and fecal progestin and estrogen metabolites during pregnancy.
Matched urine and fecal samples were collected weekly from six adult
females throughout 18 nonfertile cycles and two complete pregnancies (89
and 93 weeks duration). Fecal samples were lyophilized and extracted
with 80% methanol in water and immunoreactive 5alpha-P-3OH, 5alpha-DHP,
and P4 and (for pregnant females only) estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2)
determined by enzyme immunoassay. Urine samples were hydrolyzed,
ether-extracted, and assayed for 5alpha-P-3OH, E1, and E2. HPLC
cochromatography of fecal extracts with various radioactive progestin
tracers confirmed the presence of large amounts of both 5-reduced
progestins (5alpha-P-3OH > 5alpha-DHP) but not of P4. 5-Reduced
progestins (but not P4) were excreted in a cyclic pattern and levels
were significantly correlated with urinary 5alpha-P-3OH. Fecal
5alpha-P-3OH showed the more pronounced and consistent luteal-phase
elevation and a better correspondence to urine with respect to timing of
the luteal-phase rise. Fecal and urinary 5-reduced progestins increased
gradually during early pregnancy to maximum values around week 40-45.
Levels gradually declined during the second half of pregnancy, reaching
baseline values 2 days before parturition. Urinary estrogens did not
show any cyclic pattern during the preconception period and levels
remained low during the first 30 weeks of gestation. Thereafter, there
was a rapid 10- to 20-fold increase to maximum values at mid-pregnancy,
followed by a gradual decline to birth. There was no mid-pregnancy
elevation in fecal estrogens, but there was a modest increase in E1
during the second half of gestation.
Fowler, M.E.,
Miller, R.E., 1999. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 4. W.B.
Saunders, Philadelphia.
Gage, L.J.,
1999. Radiographic techniques for the elephant foot and carpus. In:
Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current
Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia,PA,USA, pp. 517-520.
Green, E.M.,
1999. Thermography. In: Colahan, P.T., Merritt, A.M., Moore, J.N.,
Mayhew, I.G. (Eds.), Equine Medicine and Surgery. Mosby, St. Louis MO
USA, pp. 1333-1340.
Gual-Sill,
F., Pickard, A.R., Holt, W.V., Green, D. Preliminary Results of
Non-Invasive Monitoring of the Estrous Cycle in Female Asian Elephants (Elephas
maximus) through Fecal Steroid Analysis. 1999 Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 87-92. 1999. 1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: For a number of years, estrous cycle monitoring and pregnancy
detection in the Asian elephant has been performed using urinary steroid
hormone metabolite analysis; this technique presents some practical
problems. Monitoring the reproductive status through fecal steroid
analysis is possible in this and many other species. The steroid
metabolite profiles of female Asian elephants were monitored by
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), to provide detailed
information about the estrous cycle and pregnancy in this species, and
to investigate causes of reproductive failure. Fecal and matched urine
samples were non-invasively collected regularly for 6 mo from captive
female Asian elephants. (n = 4 cyclic; n = 1 acyclic). The samples were
frozen at -20ºC. Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS)
procedures were used to investigate the steroid hormone metabolite
profile and to identify the major excretory metabolites; no steroid
metabolites were found in the concentrated extracted feces of this
species using the currently available methodology. The fecal
pregnanetriol profile observed in three of the cyclic females showed a
clear relation with their matched urinary pregnanetriol profile and a
cyclic pattern was demonstrated. Fecal pregnanetriol values increased
from an overall mean of 94.67 ng/g of dry feces (+/- 13.24, range 31.5 -
219.12 ng/g) during the inter-luteal period to a luteal phase mean of
334.61 ng/g dry feces (+/- 43.48, range 34.35 - 1035.1 ng/g). All the
data collected from the fecal and urinary analysis of pregnanetriol in
all five individuals investigated demonstrated a significant
relationship between urinary and fecal pregnanetriol. The acyclic
individual showed a mean fecal pregnanetriol concentration of 84.91 ng/g
(+/- 13.06) and values ranged from 33.17 ng/g to 211.42 ng/g. Fecal
steroid hormone metabolite analysis for monitoring estrous cycles in
Asian elephants may be used in the future to monitor free-roaming, wild
or semi-wild individuals as well as those in captivity to assist
reproductive and conservation programs of this highly endangered
species.
Hietala, S.K.,
Gardner, I.A., 1999. Validity of using diagnostic tests that are
approved for use in domestic animals for non-domestic species. In:
Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, 4th
ed. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 55-57.
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Fritsch, G., Hermes, R., Jewgenow, K., Rudolph, M., Maltzan, J.,
Wiesner, H., Pratt, N.C., Schmitt, D.L., Goritz, F. Ultrasound
Monitoring of the Sexual Maturation in the Male Elephant. 1999
Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 203-204.
1999. 1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: In general, the reproductive rate of elephants in captivity is
low. This is partly because of logistic difficulties associated with
transporting these large animals for breeding purposes and there may be
physiologic problems which also contribute to this low reproductive
rate. In context with a reproductive assessment of potential breeding
bulls it appears that many adult bulls of both species (Loxodonta
africana and Elephas maximus) are not producing viable sperms
and/or sufficient ejaculate. Our current understanding of incomplete
sexual maturation or temporary infertility in male elephants is at best
fragmentary. The following study was performed for characterizing the
physiologic sexual maturation process in young male elephants. Two
adolescent individuals of both species have been examined in order to
investigate the time of their sexual maturity. The examination utilized
transrectal ultrasonography of the urogenital tract, rectal stimulation
for the collection of ejaculates as well as blood samples for plasma
testosterone determination. The development of the testes, the accessory
glands (especially the ampullae), the concentration of the testosterone,
the body-height and the success of ejaculation after manual stimulation
was documented and evaluated over a 3-yr period. The results were
compared with data from other bull elephants which had ultrasonographic
examinations or post mortem investigations. The findings of this study
led to important conclusions about the characterization of the
reproductive status of male elephants by means of ultrasonographic
examinations. We established criteria for reproductive soundness in
connection with the recruitment of potential semen donors for future
artificial insemination projects. The ultrasonographic examination
combined with the semen collection were appropriate methods for
characterizing the exact state of sexual maturity or for identifying
potential reproductive disorders in male elephants.
Hodges, J.K.,
Fieb, M., Heistermann, M. Non-Invasive Reproductive Assessment in the
African Elephant: Applications to Studies in Captivity and in the Wild.
Roth, T. L., Swanson, W. F., and Blattman, L. K. Seventh World
Conference on Breeding Endangered Species: Linking Zoo and Field
Research to Advance Conservation. 1999. Cincinnati, OH. 1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Isaza, R.,
Ketz, C.J., 1999. A Trunk Wash Technique for the Diagnosis of
Tuberculosis in Elephants. Verh. ber. Erkrg. Zootiere 39,
121-124.
Mangold, B.J.,
Cook, R.A., Cranfield, M.R., Huygen, K., Godfrey, H.P., 1999. Detection
of elevated levels of circulating antigen 85 by dot immunobinding assay
in captive wild animals with tuberculosis. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 30, 477-483.
Abstract: Antemortem diagnosis of tuberculosis in captive wild animals
is often difficult. In addition to the variability of host cellular
immune response, which does not always indicate current active
infection, reactivity to saprophytic or other mycobacteria is common and
may interfere with the interpretation of the intradermal tuberculin skin
test. Furthermore, the immobilization required for administrating the
test and evaluating skin reactions in these animals may result in
unacceptable levels of morbidity and mortality, of particular concern in
individuals of rare or endangered species. Proteins of the antigen 85
(Ag85) complex are major secretory products of actively metabolizing
mycobacteria in vitro. Production of these proteins by mycobacteria
during growth in vivo could result in increases in circulating levels of
Ag85 in hosts with active tuberculosis. A dot blot immunoassay has been
used to detect and quantify circulating Ag85 in captive wild animals
with tuberculosis. Elevated levels of Ag85 were observed in animals with
active tuberculosis as compared with uninfected animals. Study
populations included a herd of nyala (Tragelaphus angasi) (n=9)
with no history of exposure to Mycobacterium bovis. Serum Ag85
levels ranged from <5 to 15 uU/ml (median, 5 uU/ml). The other group
included 11 animals from a mixed collection with a documented history of
an M. bovis outbreak. Animals with pulmonary granulomatous
lesions (n=3) had serum Ag85 levels ranging from 320 to 1,280 uU/ml
(median, 320 uU/ml). Animals with only chronic mediastinal or mesenteric
lymphadenitis (n=4) had serum Ag85 levels ranging from <5 to 80 uU/ml
(median, <5 uU/ml). This assay could provide an important adjunct to
intradermal skin testing for antemortem diagnosis of tuberculosis in
nondomestic species.
Morris, D.D.,
Barton, M.H., 1999. Techniques for evaluating the hemostatic system. In:
Colahan, P.T., Merritt, A.M., Moore, J.N., Mayhew, I.G. (Eds.), Equine
Medicine and Surgery. Mosby, St. Louis MO USA, pp. 1986-1987.
Sood, R.,
1999. Medical Laboratory Technology: Methods and Interpretation. Jaypee
Brothers, New Delhi, India.
Walsh, M.T.,
Thompson, J. Use of thermography as a diagnostic and prognostic tool in
selected cetacean conditions. Proceedings of American Association of Zoo
Veterinarians. 358. 1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The measurement of change in core body temperature, and its
relation to infection or inflammation, is one of the oldest and most
widely recognized diagnostic tools in medicine. The use of a thermometer
is considered a basic part of the initial physical exam in most species
and is often followed by other more sophisticated techniques to try to
isolate the source of illness. With the development of affordable heat
sensitive cameras the clinician can now detect general or specific areas
of abnormal tissue temperatures. Detectable changes in temperature may
be related to superficial tissue involvement or a reflection of heat
production at a deeper level. These manifestations may include isolated
or general areas involving such conditions as abscess, trauma,
cellulitis, dermatitis, tendonitis, myositis, and pyothorax.
A thermographic camera was used in clinical cases in cetaceans to refine
previous findings that indicated it's potential applications in
diagnosis and prognosis. Individuals which showed clinical signs
compatible with trauma, dental disease, and dermal conditions were
examined with an EVS DTIS - 500 camera (Emerge Interactive, 10315 102nd
Terrace, Sebastian, Fl 32958 USA) and therapy monitored with periodic
thermal scans. Dental disease including trauma to oral tissues,
periodontal abscess, and mandibular infections could be readily located,
temperature measurements taken, and the size of area of involvement
noted. Post therapy follow-up illustrated the ability to gauge the
effect of therapy as evidenced by temperature decrease and a decrease in
the size of the area involved. The clinician can also better determine
the length of drug use based on the response. In one individual case it
showed the infection from an abscessed tooth spreading down the lingual
side of the mandible.External trauma to the skin can be monitored for
extent, complications and speed of resolution. Rake marks received from
other dolphins have shown an inflammatory response present much longer
than expected. A loss of normal temperature can also be used as a clue
to the presence of material that may require debridement. Dermatitis is
currently being investigated for possible application of this
technology. A Tursiops truncatus female with an extensive visual
roughening of the skin showed substantial heat in the affected areas of
the skin with thermography but no signs of inflammation on bloodwork.
The skin inflammation was readily monitored by thermography until total
resolution.
Gunasena, K.T.,
Lakey, J.R., Villines, P.M., Bush, M., Raath, C., Critser, E.S., McGann,
L.E., Critser, J.K., 1998. Antral follicles develop in xenografted
cryopreserved African elephant (Loxodonta africana) ovarian tissue. Anim
Reprod Sci 53, 265-275.
Abstract: The preservation of germ plasm from endangered species could
augment captive breeding programs aimed at maintaining genetic
diversity. Mammalian female germ plasm (oocytes) is extremely difficult
to collect and cryopreserve; however, a promising alternative is the
cryopreservation of ovarian tissue. In the present study, athymic nude
(nu/nu) Balb/C mice were used to evaluate in vivo viability of
cryopreserved ovarian tissue from Institute of Cancer Research genotype
(ICR) mice or elephants. Female mice were ovariectomized prior to
transplant of cryopreserved-thawed ovarian tissue from ICR mice (n=4) or
elephants (n=6). Control mice were sham operated (n=4) or ovariectomized
(n=5). Transplants were in the ovarian bursa, enabling in vivo ovulation
and pregnancies from allografts. Vaginal cytology was monitored daily,
and the intervals between andduration of epithelial cells present in
smears were evaluated. Appearance of epithelial cells in sham-operated
and allografted mice were at intervals of 4.3+/-0.6 and 3.3+/-0.5 days,
lasting for 1.4+/-0.1 and 1.6+/-0.2 days, respectively. Sporadic
incidence of epithelial cells in ovariectomized animals occurred at
longer intervals (8.6+/-3.8 days). Females with xenografted elephant
ovarian tissue demonstrated epithelial cells in vaginal smears at
intervals of 4.5+/-1.0 days, for 2.5+/-0.5 days duration, which was
significantly longer than the other groups (P < 0.05). Histological
evaluation of tissues at the time of epithelial cells in smears
demonstrated well-developed antral follicles, although oocytes were of
poor morphological appearance or only cumulus-like complexes were seen.
The nude mouse model is effective for assessing cryopreserved ovarian
tissue xenograft function which can support the development of antral
follicles.
Hildebrandt,
T., Goritz, F., Pratt, N.C., Schmitt, D., Quandt, S., Raath, J.P.,
Hofmann, R.R., 1998. Reproductive assessment of male elephants (Loxodonta
africana and Elephas maximus) by ultrasonography. Journal of
Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 29, 114-128.
Abstract: Transrectal ultrasonography was performed on five wild and two
captive male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and four
captive male Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to develop
standards for assessment of reproductive health and status. The entire
internal urogenital tract was visualized ultrasonographically by using a
3.5 MHz or a 7.5 MHz transducer in combination with a probe extension
adapted for elephant anatomy. The findings were verified by postmortem
ex situ ultrasound examinations in several individuals of each species.
Each part of the internal urogenital tract was sonographically
detectable except for the bulbourethral glands and the cranial portion
of the ureters and ductus deferentes, which were only observed in situ
in the neonate. Each structure visualized was measured and described.
The size and morphology of the urogenital structures, especially the
accessory glands, were indicative of breeding status, if known. There
was a notable difference between African and Asian males in the size and
morphology of the prostate gland and a slight difference in the shape of
the ampullae. No other structure showed significant species
differences. The detection of the location and description of the
testes may provide information for modifying present castration
procedures. Furthermore, ultrasound examination of the male accessory
glands may aid in the identification of potential semen donors for
assisted reproduction programs in captive elephants.
Jacobson, R.H.,
1998. Validation of serological assays for diagnosis of infectious
diseases. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz. 17, 469-486.
Montali,
R.J., Spelman, L.H., Cambre, R.C., Chattergee, D., Mikota, S.K. Factors
influencing interpretation of indirect testing methods for tuberculosis
in elephants. Proceedings AAZV and AAWV Joint Conference. 109-112.
1998.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Serologic and other laboratory tests (such as BTB, ELISA, and
gamma interferon) are often used in conjunction with the intradermal
tuberculin test to detect tuberculosis (TB) in animals. The skin test
is considered the "gold standard" in domestic cattle and humans, and the
BTB test has been highly rated for use in cervid species. However,
these indirect methods for TB diagnosis have not been proven valid in
most exotic species susceptible to Mycobacterium tuberculosis
complex (which includes M. bovis) infection. In addition, many
of the tuberculin skin testing methods used in exotic species are not
uniform in terms of tuberculin type(s) and sites used and interpretation
of the end points.
Wright, P.F.,
1998. International standrads for test methods and reference sera for
diagnostic tests for antibody detection. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz.
17, 527-533.
1997.
Laboratory Procedures for Veterinary Technicians. Mosby, St. Louis MO.
Furley, C.W.,
1997. Tuberculosis in elephants. Lancet British edition 350, 224.
Abstract: Tests on 171 elephants in zoos and circuses in the USA
revealed that 33% were positive to one or more skin tests and 11% were
positive by ELISA. As there is no standard procedure for testing
elephants caution should be used when interpreting the results.
Gage, L.J.,
Fowler, M.E., Pascoe, J.R., Blasko, D., 1997. Surgical removal of
infected phalanges from an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 28, 208-211.
Abstract: A 40-yr-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
developed cellulitis in her left front leg. A draining tract behind the
lateral nail of her left front foot was discovered. This lesion was
treated by aggressive irrigation using a variety of disinfectant
solutions. Radiographically, there was degeneration and fragmentation
of the distal phalanx of the fifth digit and patterns suggestive of
osteomyelitis of the second (middle) phalanx. The fragments of the
distal phalanx and the affected portion of the second phalanx were
removed surgically. Six months after surgery the incision had healed
but fistulous tract remained on the palmar surface of the foot. The
tract extended to the second phalanx, and there was radiographic
evidence of osteomyelitis in the second phalanx and the distal portion
of the proximal phalanx. The remainder of the second phalanx and the
distal potion of the proximal phalanx were surgically removed.
Aggressive aftercare allowed complete wound closure by second intention.
Gage, L.J.
Techniques for radiographing the elephant foot and carpus using a
portable equine radiographic unit. Proc. Amer.Assoc. of Zoo Vet. 190.
1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Göritz, F., Pratt, N.C., Schmitt, D.L., Lehnhardt, J., Hermes, R.,
Quandt, S., Raath, J., West, G., Montali, R.J. Assessment of health and
reproductive status in African elephants by transrectal ultrasonography.
Proc: Am Assoc Zoo Vet Ann Conf. 207-211. 1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Kania, S.A.,
Richman, L.K., Kennedy, M., Montali, R.J., Potgleter, L.N.D., 1997. The
isolation, detection, and cross-reactivity of Asian elephant IgG for the
development of serological diagnostic tests. Journal of Veterinary
Allergy and Clinical Immunology 5, 125-128.
Abstract: Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) IgG was isolated and purified
using a recombinant protein A and proteins G affinity matrix and DEAE
cibacron blue chromatography. Rabbits were inoculated with elephant IgG
to produce anti-Asian elephant IgG. Using an ELISA, it was determined
that the anti-Asian elephant sera has strong reactivity with Asian
elephant IgG and African elephant (Loxodonta africana) IgG, moderate
reactivity with manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) IgG and weaker
reactivity with IgG from hyrax (Procavia capensis) and black rhinoceros
(Diceros bicornis). Commercially available antisera produced against
cattle, deer, and rabbit IgG react weakly with Asian elephant IgG.
Keet, D.F.,
Grobler, D.G., Raath, J.P., Gouws, J., Carstens, J., Nesbit, J.W., 1997.
Ulcerative pododermatitis in free-ranging African elephant (Loxodonta
africana) in the Kruger National Park. Onderstepoort Journal of
Veterinary Research 64, 25-32.
Abstract: The occurrence of severe lameness in adult African elephant
bulls in a shrub Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) ecosystem was
investigated. Large ulcers in the soles of at least one front foot were
seen in each of the recorded cases. Microscopically, the lesion can be
described as a severe, chronic-active, ulcerative, bacterial
pododermatitis (complicated by hypersensitivity/septic vasculitis). A
variety of bacteria were isolated from these lesions as well as from
regional lymph nodes. Streptococcus agalactiae was the most
consistent isolate, while Dichelobacter nodosus, the only
organism known to be involved with foot disease in domestic ruminants,
was isolated from two cases. Contributory factors such as body mass,
portal of entry and origin of potential pathogens may have predisposed
to the development of the lesions.
Mikota, S.K.,
Maslow, J. Theoretical and technical aspects of diagnostic techniques
for mammalian tuberculosis. Proceedings, American Association Zoo
Veterinarians. 162-165. 1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Montali,
R.J., Hildebrandt, T., Goritz, F., Hermes, R., Ippen, R., Ramsay, E.C.,
1997. Ultrasonography and pathology of genital tract leiomyomas in
captive Asian elephants: implications for reproductive soundness.
Verh. ber. Erkrg. Zootiere 38, 199-204.
1996.
Principles of validation of diagnostic assays for infectious diseases.
Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines. Office
International des Epizooties (O.I.E.), Paris, pp. 8-15.
Briggs, M.,
Phillips, L.G., Kimball, V.P., Valli, V.E. Bone marrow collection in the
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 431-433. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The collection of bone marrow is a common practice for the
diagnosis of a variety of disease in mammals and birds. These include
disease which can cause any type of blood dyscrasias, anemias,
thrombocytopenias, and/or leukopenias. Examples of a few of these
diseases include feline leukemia, feline lymphosarcoma, lymphoma, bovine
leukosis, aplastic anemias of many etiologies, equine infectious anemia,
and various types of leukemia. Dependent upon the species involved,
marrow is routinely collected from a variety of locations, such as the
crest of the tibia in psittacines, or the ribs, iliac crest, or sternum
in equids, to the dorsal spinous processes or sternum in the cow.
Although in these species there is seldom a problem with collection,
obtaining marrow from some of the megavertebrates such as the elephant
or rhinoceros proves to be problematic due to both the restraint of the
animals and their size. This paper describes a simple and effective way
to obtain quality bone marrow samples from an Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) and thus likely applicable to other megavertebrate species.
Dalovision,
J.R., Montenegro-James, S., Kemmerly, S.A., Genre, C.F., Chambers, R.,
Pankey, G.A., Failla, D.M., Haydel, K.G., Hutchinson, L., Lindley, M.F.,
Praba, A., Eisenach, K.D., Cooper, E.S., 1996. Comparison of the
amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) direct test, aplicor MTB PCR
and IS6, 110-PCR for detection of MTB in respiratory specimens. Clin.
Infect. Dis. 23, 1099-1106.
Gardner, I.A.,
Hietala, S., Boyce, W.M., 1996. Validity of using serological tests for
diagnosis of diseases in wild animals. Rev. Sci Tech. Off. Int. Epiz. 15,
323-335.
Hama, N.,
Murata, K., Yasuda, S., Shimada, A., Sakai, H., Yanai, T., 1996. An
autopsy case of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) which died without
clinical signs. Japanese Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 1,
49-53.
Hildebrandt,
T., Goritz, F., Pratt, N.C., Quandt, S., Lehnhardt, J., Montali, R.J.,
Pitra, C., 1996. Ultrasonography as a tool to evaluate the reproductive
tract in female Asian elephants ultrasound in elephants. J. Ultras. Med
15, 59.
Sandin, R.L.,
1996. Polymerase chain reaction and other amplification techniques in
mycobacteriology. Clinical Mycobacteriology 16, 617-639.
Sarma, K.K.,
Kalita, D., Dutta, B., Barua, S.K., 1996. Determination of mean arterial
pressure (MAP) in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Indian Veterinary
Journal 73, 777-778.
Schwarzenberger, F., Mostl, E., Palme, R., Bamburg, E., 1996. Faecal
steroid analysis for non-invasive monitoring of reproductive status in
farm, wild, and zoo animals. Animal Reproduction Science 42,
515-526.
Wasser, S.K.,
Papageorge, S., Foley, C., Brown, J.L., 1996. Excretory fate of
estradiol and progesterone in the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana) and patterns of fecal steroid concentrations. General and
Comparative Endocrinology 102, 255-262.
Abstract: We developed and validated a noninvasive method to quantify
fecal estrogens and progestins as a tool for monitoring long-term
ovarian activity in free-ranging African elephants. The lag times
between iv injection of [(3)H]estradiol and [(14)C]progesterone and peak
excretion of radioactivity in urine and feces were approximately 4 hr
and 48 hr, respectively. The majority of progesterone metabolites
recovered was excreted in feces (55%) versus urine (45%), whereas
comparatively little of the recovered estradiol metabolites were
excreted in feces (5%) compared to urine (95%). Intrasample variation in
fecal hormone concentrations was extremely high but could be
substantially reduced by extracting well-mixed fecal powder from
freeze-dried samples, taken from the central or premixed portion of the
wet sample. This method resulted in a close correspondence between
matched serum and fecal progestins (mean correlation =0.81, range
0.61-0.94) collected from five nonpregnant adult females over a 7-month
period. Fecal estrogen profiles were more ambiguous, tending to overlap
with those of fecal progestins. We conclude that analyses of fecal
progestins can provide an effective, noninvasive means of characterizing
ovarian activity in free-ranging African elephants.
Brown, J.L.,
Wemmer, C.M., Lehnhardt, J., 1995. Urinary Cortisol Analysis for
Monitoring Adrenal Activity in Elephants. Zoo Biology 14 ,
533-542.
Abstract: Cortisol was measured in dichloromethane-extracted elephant
urine using an 125I solid-phase radioimmunoassay (RIA). The
cortisol RIA was validated by demonstrating 1) parallelism between
dilutions of pooled urinary extracts and the standard curve, 2)
significant recovery of exogenous cortisol added to elephant urine, and
3) a relationship between changes in the peripheral and urinary cortisol
after an adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) challenge. One African (Loxodonta
africana) and one Asian (Elephas maximus) elephant were given
three injections of ACTH (1.25 mg) at 2 h intervals. Serum cortisol
increased four- to eightfold within 30 min after the first injection and
peaked (nine- to twelvefold increase) after the second injection. Serum
concentrations began to decline 2-3 h after the last injection but were
still approximately fourfold higher than baseline at the end of the
collection period (hour 8). In the urine, cortisol concentrations were
increased in the first sample postinjection (1.5 - 4 h) and peaked
twenty- to fortyfold by ~6 h. Urinary cortisol remained elevated at 8 h,
but returned to baseline by the following morning. Analysis of high
performance liquid chromatography fractions of extracted urine revealed
that immunoactivity was associated with free cortisol (~90% of total
immunoactivity) and a more polar, unidentified metabolite. A method for
preserving urine was developed to allow storing unfrozen samples. One
pool of urine from each of one African and two Asian elephants was
divided into aliquots, placed in tubes containing absolute ethanol
(10%), sodium azide (0.1%) or distilled water (control), and frozen
after 0, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 24 weeks of storage at ~25ºC.
In unpreserved samples, cortisol concentrations were reduced 46% by 2
weeks and 95% by 24 weeks. In contrast, ethanol- and sodium azide-preserved
samples retained 100 and 95% of cortisol immunoactivity through 8 weeks
and 93 and 85% of activity through 12 weeks, respectively. We infer from
these data that changes in urinary cortisol excretion in the elephant
reflect fluctuations in adrenal activity and may be a useful indicator
of stress. Additionally, urine samples can be collected and stored
unfrozen for at least 2 months before any appreciable loss in cortisol
immunoactivity occurs, a finding potentially useful to field application
of this technique.
Hildebrandt,
T., Goritz, F., 1995. Sonographischer nachweis von leiomyomen im
genitaltrakt weiblicher elefanten. verh. ber Erkrankg. Zootiere 37,
287-294.
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Goritz, F. Transrectal ultrasonography for ovary and pregnancy in
Indian elephant. Verh ber Erkrg Zootiere. 261-268. 1995.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Papageorge,
S., Wasser, S.K., Foley, C., Brown, J. Fecal steroid analysis:
validation of extraction and radioimmunoassay for estradiol and
progestagens in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and analysis of
fecal samples utilizing a validated method. Joint Conf AAZV/WDA/AAWV.
447. 1995.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Watve, M.G.,
1995. Helminth Parasites of Elephants: Ecological Aspects. In: Daniel,
J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International
Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford
University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 289-295.
Abstract: The helminth parasites of free ranging as well as captive
elephants of the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary were studied
quantitatively by analysing over 200 dung samples and 7 autopsy
examinations. The prevalence and intensities of infection were high in
both captive as well as wild elephants. The helminth communities of both
were, however, species poor as compared to other mammalian host species.
The high prevalence and intensities are thought to be related to the
absence of predation and the low species diversity may be a result of
absence of other closely related host species. The age and sex of
individuals sampled did not affect their parasite loads significantly.
The faecal propagule densities were significantly greater during the dry
season as compared to the wet season. Stronglid nematodes of the genus
Quilonia dominated the helminth communities. Tapeworm infection
was significantly greater in captive elephants than the wild ones. The
possible reasons for this difference are discussed.
Hildebrand,
T., Göritz, F., 1994. Einsatz der transrektalen Sonographie zur
Beurteilung des Genitaltraktes weiblicher Elefanten. Imaging 61(suppl 2),
98.
Komoin-Oka,
C., Truc, P., Bengaly, Z., Formenty, P., Duvallet, G., Lauginie, F.,
Raath, J.P., N'-Depo, A.E., Leforban, Y., 1994. A study of the
prevalence of trypanosome infections in different species of wild
animals in Comoe National Park Cote d'Ivoire: preliminary results of a
comparison of three diagnostic methods. Revue d'Elevage et de Medecine
Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux 47, 189-194.
Abstract: Microscopic examination of thin smears, an ELISA, and kit for
in vitro isolation of trypanosomes (KIVI) were compared for diagnosis of
trypanosomiasis in 3 elephants, 53 African buffaloes, 12 roan antelope (Hippotragus
equinus), 9 hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), 19 waterbuck (Kobus
ellipisiprymnus), 61 Kob (Kobus kob), and 6 wart hogs (Phacochoerus
aethiopicus). In the 82 animals on which all 3 tests were carried out,
20% were positive by the thin smear method, 50% by the ELISA and 80% by
the KIVI test. The trypanosomes were probably T. brucei, T congolense
and T. vivax but these were not identified.
Mikota, S.K.,
Sargent, E.L., Ranglack, G.S., 1994. Medical Management of the Elephant.
Indira Publishing House, West Bloomfield MI.
Fowler, M.E.,
1993. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders,
Philadelphia.
Chakraborty,
A., Chaudhury, B., 1992. Pathology of Fasciola jacksoni infestation in
elephants. Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology 16, 98-101.
Abstract: Fasciola jacksoni infection was discovered in 2 out of 3
elephants autopsied at Assam State Zoo, India, during 1985 to 1989. The
parasites were attached to biliary epithelium. Microscopy demonstrated
that the biliary epithelium was distorted by necrotic tissue which
contained erythrocytes and ova of F. jacksoni. The epithelium was
analyzed by X-ray microanalysis, which showed that the infected
epithelium contained aluminum, silicon, calcium and iron, while
non-infected, normal biliary epithelium contained only phosphorus and
sulfur. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that both the dorsal
and ventral surfaces of the parasite possessed spines.
Kharchenko,
V.A., Marunchin, A.A., 1992. Helminths of mammals in the Kiev zoological
park. Vestnik Zoologii 3, 61-63.
Abstract: Necropsy of 6 animals that died in the Kiev Zoo, Ukraine,
revealed the presence of Trichuris trichiura and Subulura distans in
Macaca nemestrina, Prosthenorchis elegans in Saimiri sciureus,
Murschidia murchida and Hawkesius hawkesi in Elephas maximus and T.
globulosa in Giraffa camelopardalis. No helminths were found in Equus
hemionus and Felis lynx. The deaths of M. nemestrina and S. sciureus
were attributed to the helminth infections. The results of the
examination of faeces of other zoo animals for helminth ova are also
presented.
Schaedler,
J.M., Krook, L., Wootton, J.A., Hover, B., Brodsky, B., Naresh, M.D.,
Gillette, D.D., Madsen, D.B., Horne, R.H., Minor, R.R., 1992. Studies of
collagen in bone and dentin matrix of a Columbian mammoth (late
Pleistocene) of central Utah. Matrix 12, 297-307.
Abstract: A Columbian mammoth, Mammuthus columbi, was excavated at an
elevation of 9000 feet in Huntington Canyon, Emery County, Utah.
Radiocarbon dates on the skeleton indicated death approximately 11,200
years ago. The skeleton was removed from postglacial, Late Quaternary,
lake sediments deposited as glacial runoff approximately 9500 years ago.
The bones and teeth were especially well preserved in a saturated lake
bed. After excavation the bones and teeth were preserved by controlled
desiccation, without hardeners, over a period of 9 months.
Microradiography, light and electron microscopy, medium and high angle
X-ray diffraction, amino acid analysis and cyanogen bromide peptide
mapping were undertaken to evaluate the packing, organization, and
preservation of collagen in bone and dentin of this mammoth.
Microradiography and light microscopy showed that the bone consisted of
especially well preserved compact and trabecular bone, and electron
microscopy of demineralized bone and tusk showed that the matrix
consisted of lamellae of densely packed cylindrical collagen fibrils.
Cell remnants with intact nuclei, with or without a nucleolus, as well
as variable lengths of plasma membrane were occasionally present on the
surface of bony trabecula. Remnants of odontoblast processes were
present in some dentin tubules. High and low angle X-ray diffraction
demonstrated that the demineralized matrix contained native collagen
molecules and amino acid analysis showed that the composition was
comparable to that of type I collagen. Cyanogen bromide peptide mapping
indicated that the major peptides of type I collagen were present and
had the same electrophoretic mobility as that of type I collagen of
demineralized Asian elephant bone and rat tail tendon. Abstract
truncated at 250 words.
Vijayan, N.,
Gangadharan, B., Rajan, A., 1992. An autopsy study on certain diseases
of captive elephants. Indian Journal of Wildlife Health Management 1,
16-22.
John, M.C.,
Nedunchelliyan, S., Raghvan, N., 1991. Tuberculin testing in Indian
elephants. Indian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 11, 48-49.
Kramer, B.,
Teixeira, M., Hattingh, J., 1991. The histology of the adrenal gland of
the African elephant, Loxodonta africana. South African Journal
of Zoology 26, 193-198.
Abstract: The histology, particularly the ultrastructural cytology, of
the adrenal gland of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana, is
virtually unknown. Tissue from 14 adult male and female elephants was
processed for light and transmission electron microscopy. The gland is
surrounded by a thick capsule composed of an outer layer of dense
connective tissue and an inner layer in which smooth muscle fibres
predominate. Below the layer of smooth muscle, a continuous layer of
relatively undifferentiated "capsular" cells occur. Where the capsular
cells abut on the zona glomerulosa, they appear to be differentiating
into glomerulosa cells, as small lipid droplets are present in their
cytoplasm. The cortex is divided into three zones as is found in the
adrenal glands of other mammals. Large amounts of collagenous and
reticular tissue support the secretory cells, which have a marked lipid
content. With electron microscopy, the cortical cells show features
typical of steroid-producing cells. The medulla is characterized by an
outer region of pale-staining chromaffin-positive (adrenaline) cells and
an inner region of intensely staining chromaffin-positive (noradrenaline)
cells. The latter cells contain granules of different sizes and
structure.
Loypetjra,
P., 1991. Electrocardiography of the wildlife animals. Thai Journal of
Veterinary Medicine 21, 175-186.
Abstract: The electrocardiogram of wildlife animals was recorded using
hexaxial lead system. The animals were seventeen crocodiles, one
gibbon, three lorises, three tigers, four elephants and one binturong.
All of them were conscious during the measurement. The Lead II of
electrocardiogram was used in evaluating heart rate, rhythm and
measuring the amplitude, time interval and segment. Standard limb leads
were employed to calculate mean electrical axis of the ventricles.
Electrocardiographic features of P, QRS and T waves in all species were
normal without slurring or notching. The values of heart rate per
minute of crocodile, gibbon, loris, tiger, elephant, and binturong were
43-65, 166, 125-214, 90-154, 35-49 and 150, respectively. The duration
of P wave in crocodile was between 0.051-0.179 sec, QRS wave was
0.108-0.158 sec, P-R interval was between 0.24-0.42 sec, and Q-T
interval was between 0.282-0.454 sec. P wave duration in gibbon, loris,
tiger, elephant and binturong were nearly the same which were 0.04 to
0.08 sec. The mean electrical axes were between 66 deg-72 deg, 57 deg,
110 deg, 70 deg-85 deg, 40 deg-90 deg and 120 deg in crocodile, gibbon,
loris, tiger, elephant and binturong, respectively. The large
variation of ECG values within species was thought to be the
unrestrained and exciting effects. However, this was considered to be
normal and could be found in each species.
Sreekumar,
K.P., Nayar, K.N.M., Pillai, M.G.R., Sadanandan, K.P., Nayar, S.R.,
Chandrasekharan, K., Nirmalan, G., 1991. Electrocardiographic studies
before, during and after athirathra yajna in animals. Journal of
Veterinary and Animal Sciences 22, 112-115.
Wolfe, R.,
Cathey, M.A., Roberts, F.K., 1991. The latex test revisited. Arthritis
and Rheumatism 34, 951-959.
Abstract: Rheumatoid factor (RF) testing by latex fixation in 8,287
outpatients yielded a sensitivity of 81.6% and 78.0% at titers of 1:20
and 1:80, respectively, and a specificity against noninflammatory
rheumatic disorders (NIRD) of 96.6% and 97.7% and against NIRD plus
inflammatory disorders of 95.2% and 96.8%, respectively. The predictive
value of a positive test result at the clinic prevalence rate for
rheumatoid arthritis (RA) (16.4%) was approximately 80%, and was 70% at
10% prevalence and 10% at 1% prevalence. No associations of RA with age
or sex were found in non-RA patients. RF titers increased minimally
with age in RA patients and were higher in men than in women. This
study suggests that latex testing is far more specific than has been
believed and that the titer is not spuriously increased with age.
Haagsma, J.,
Eger, A. ELISA for diagnosis of tuberculosis and chemotherapy in zoo and
wildlife animals. Proceedings of American Association of Zoo
Veterinarians , 107-110. 1990.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The aim of this study was to improve the diagnosis of bovine
tuberculosis in zoo and wildlife animals, in particular by using an
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). In addition, suspected cases
of tuberculosis (TB) with a positive skin test and /or ELISA were
treated with antituberculosis drugs. The diagnosis of TB in animals is
based primarily on the intradermal tuberculin test, corresponding with
cellular immune response. Although this test has practical disadvantages
in zoo animals, the application is still of high value. For this purpose
tuberculins with a well controlled high potency and specificity should
be used. In order to diagnose hypergic or anergic animals it is
recommended to use PPD tuberculin with double strength (2 mg
tuberculoprotein per ml) or to double the dose (0.2 ml instead of 0.1
ml), so that about 10,000 I.U. are applied. A strict interpretation
scheme can increase the efficacy of the test, in particular in the
comparative test. In order to improve the diagnosis, we have studied for
some years the use of the ELISA which corresponds with humoral immunity.
Harris, C.R.
In search of a cervix. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 10. 43-50. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Hegel, G.V.,
Hanichen, T., Mahnel, H., Wiesner, H., 1989. Warts (papilloma/sarcoid)
in elephant. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 31, 201-205.
Abstract: Warts ( Papilloma, Sarcoid) in Elephants ( Hegel,G.)1989;
translated from German by Gerda Martin. Papilloma virus - from the group
Papova virus - is considered an etiological agents of wart- like skin
changes in cattle, sheep, mountain goat, and rabbit. (ROSENBERGER,1970;
ROLLE and MAYR, 1984). Equine sarcoid (PALMER. 1985) found in horses is
most likely caused by bovine papilloma virus. The alternate name is
based on clinical and morphological differences in the actual papilloma.
In the initial stage, the sarcoid is similar to that of the papilloma;
however in later stages, tumorous decay on the surface of the epidermis,
and proliferation of the mesenchymal part of the tumor in the subcutis
dominate (DIET and WIESNER, 1982). Wart- like changes in the skin of
elephants as described by PILASKI et al (1987, 1988), proved to be
caused by Herpes virus. Such skin changes in elephants are not rare and
require treatment since size and volume of the excrescences may cause
functional disturbances in the patient. Even if the animal's general
well being is not impaired, the importance of esthetics and hygiene
should not be disregarded in a place where there are spectators and
visitors (zoo, circus). The following paper reports findings of wart-
like skin changes in elephants. Observations and Therapy In the
elephants kept in the Hellabrunn Zoo, no case of papilloma or similar
skin tumors had occurred since 1972. First case: In 5-28 - 1987, a ca.
18 month old female L.a. named " Sabi" arrived In Hellabrunn. This
animal had a wart- like thickening of 1 cm at the dorsal end of the
trunk. After 8 weeks, more of those such skin changes appeared on trunk
and lower lip without impairment in general well being. Treatment
consisted of one daily, subcutaneous injection of 1 amp. Chelidonium D7
(DHU Chelidonium majus L.), and application of fresh ??Schoellkraut
juice dabbed onto the warts but was unsuccessful. After a change of
treatment was made: 10 drops of Thuja D4 (DHU Thuja occidentalis L) and
20 drops Acidum nitricum D12 (DHU Acidum nitricum), orally, once a day,
at separate times of the day, there remained, after 2 weeks, a wart on
the lower lip the size of a cherry pit, and the before mentioned wart
on the dorsal end of the trunk had now grown to the size of a cherry.
Even the strength of Thuja LM 6 (DHU Thuja occidentalis L.) 20 drops,
oral, the growth of the wart on the dorsal end of the trunk, now with a
diameter of 5 cm, could not be stopped: Exstirpation had to be
performed. Frequent sucking had promoted strong ulceration. A
secondary infection had set in, the surface showed granular tissue
exuding blood and pus.
On 10 - 6 - 1987 the growth was exstirpated and tissue was sent for
virolog. and histolog. examination. In addition, tissue was removed from
a fresh small wart for vaccine. During the operation the animal was
immobilized (anesthetic: 0.3 ml Immobilon* (large animal Immobilon Rc* -
Vet. Ltd.), 10mg Xylacin, 150 IE Hyaluronidase i. m.). There were no
complications during recovery. Two weeks post op., the first
vaccination was given, followed by a second vacc. four weeks there
after, of 5.0 ml, subcut.., of an auto vaccine developed by the
Institute for Medical Microbiology, Dept. of Infectious and Epidemic
Medicine. In February 1988, there occurred another bout with wart- like
growth on the ventral part of the trunk, lower jaw, shoulders and feet,
some with a diameter of 15 mm. From the sedated young animal tissue was
taken from several newly grown warts for the manufacture of auto vaccine
(sedation: "Hellabrunner Mischung" / 150 IE Hyaluronidase). After 10
days, the first vaccination was given, and by the time of the second
vacc." Sabi" was free of externally visible skin changes.
On 6. 6. 1988, "Sabi" fell ill again. Over night she was covered with 48
warts, with diameters from 2mm - 15 mm on trunk and head, and 10 more
on the chest.The attempt to "ice" the warts with liquid nitrogen was
not successful. Instead, coagulation of ca. 20 of the larger warts was
used. The monopolar coagulation electrode of the Erbotom F 2 (Erbe
Elektromedizin) coagulates reaching deeply into the healthy zone of the
surrounding tissue. As before, tissue for the manufacture of the auto
vaccine was taken, as well as 0.5 ml of blood from the ear vein for the
manufacture of a "own- blood" nosode. (Large animal, premedication: 20
mg Xylazin i.m., 20 minutes later : 0.5 ml Immobilon R (large animal
Immobilon R c - Vet Ltd.) and 150 IE Hyaluronidase i.m. The following
day, "Sabi" was given the "own- blood" nosode at a strength of C5 (20
drops daily).In addition, she was vacc. once again. Since "Sabi" was
free of warts at the time of the second vaccination - given 4 weeks
after the first - the "own- blood" treatment was discontinued. Shortly
there after, however, several new warts cropped up (diameter ca. 1 cm),
so that the "own- blood" treatments were continued. Since that time "Sabi"
has had no recurrences.Second case : The Indian elephant cow (E.
maximus) , named "Dirndl" , age ca. 22 years, had been kept in the box
next to "Sabi" since "Sabi's" arrival. They kept trunk contact. On
5-2-1988, "Dirndl" showed on the distal trunk a substantially increased
raised area ca. 2 x 2 cm oozing blood. It seemed to be an injury from a
metal rope used in off limiting. The wound was disinfected and treated
twice a day with chloromycetin spray with Gentian violetR (Parke
Davis). After one week the growth had increased substantially and on
the surface, it had a cauliflower-like ulcerated appearance.Upon light
touch or movement of the dorsal trunk, blood appeard spontaneously.
Four days later, the growth was exstirpated, while the animal was
standing. (Sedation: 2.2 ml Hellabrunn mixture / 150 Hyaluronidase i.
m.) . The attempt to close the skin of the trunk over the wound failed
because the tension in that area was too great. The surface of the
wound was cauterized and treated with ChloromycetinSpray with Gentian
violet R (Parke Davis). Tissue for pathological and histological
examination was sent out. One week after the operation, the area of
the wound was highly swollem and the wound was infected. Treatment:
Several times a day, an ablution with a 0.1 % Rivanol solutionnR (Asid
- 2 Aethoxy-6.9-diamin acridinlactat) and application of
Sulfonamid-Codliver oil salve (WDT = Sulfadimidin- Sodium- cod liver
oil). In addition, analogous to "Sabi" , once daily 20 drops of
"own-blood" nosode, potency C 5 given orally. Three weeks post. op.,
there could be clearly distinguished a limited relapse, an area of 6 x
9 cm rising ca. 2 cm above the healthy skin of the trunk. The surface
looked like the first growth. It was extirpated under general
anesthetic (Premed.:80 mg Xylazin i. m., 20 min. later: 1.8 ml
ImmobilionR and 150 IE Hyaluronidase). In addition, the whole wound was
coagulated by monopolar coagulation electrode as above. Daily for 4
weeks, the wound was brushed with a 1:5 wood tar -alcohol -
solution.There were no complications during recovery. After 5 weeks ,
all that could be seen was a ca. 1.5 cm long small scar on the skin of
the trunk.
Histomorphological Findings: Fixation with formalin, embedding in
paraffin; stain: Hemalaun-Eosin, connective tissue stain in the manner
of Masson. The histomorphological findings based on the tissue samples
of "Sabi" and "Dirndl" are the same, and agree with the findings of 3
other skin tumor tissue taken from elephants of different origin (tab.
1). The tumors consist mainly of fibroplastic cells with more or less
abundant collagen fibers and blood vessels. The boundaries from the
adjacent corium and lower skin is largely indistinct. In all larger
neoplasties , the covering epidermis has been preserved at margins only
due to superficial ulceration. Here the P. acuta aseptica diffusa
borders are irregular and strongly profiled, the epithelium is
acanthoid and hyperkeratotic. The nuclei of tumor cells are
considerably anisomorphic, some have gigantic nuclei. Mitosis is
frequent. Due to the ulcerated epidermis , there is deep infiltration
with infectious cells. Virological findings: From the extirpated tissue
taken from the African Elephant "Sabi" ca. 3 g was homogenated, in
addition, the cells were "opened" by defrosting and ultrasound, and the
"cleared" tissue suspension was analyzed for free virus particles after
concentration and negative-contrasting with electron microscopy . At
the same time, small tissue samples of 2 mm from deeper epidermis
layers were fixed as usual for the ultrahistological exam , embedded in
epoxy resin, and ultra thin slices were scanned by the electron
microscope. No papilloma virus was found in the concentrated, cell free
tissue extract or the ultrathin slices of tissue samples .No virus
particle of any kind was found.
Discussion
To show papilloma by culturing cannot be done since no species of this
genus can be propagated in cell cultures with the exception of its
original host. The failed attempt to prove their presence with the
electronmicroscope does not exclude a papilloma virus etiology in
tumors. When virus particles are viewed in higher concentrations, the
electron microscopic proof is successful. Using ultrahistologyical
methods the particles in cell nuclei can only be found when the few
cells of specific skin cells are in the virus propagation stage. In
the case of virally induced papilloma however, a true virus propagation
is not necessary. In the last few years, it was found that equine
sarcoid can be caused by bovine papilloma virus. But it was only the
genome of the virus which could be isolated by means of gene technology
(ALTMANN, 1980; HAUSEN, 1980); the virus itself could not. The
oncogenetic potency of the virus in heterologic hosts , without true
virus production, has been established. A broader spectrum of hosts
for , at least , the papilloma virus in cattle seems to be the case.
And a bovine papilloma induced skin fibromatose in (a) horse has been
reported (LANCASTER, 1979). This virus can also appear in wild 'cud
chewers, perhaps even carnivores. It is in part also related to the
human papilloma virus. The possibility of transfer to humans (LANCASTER
1982) as well as other mammals such as elephants has not been proved
but is probable. In comparing the histological findings of the 5 skin
growths with those of the viral fibropapilloma in cattle and horse
(called equine sarcoid here), the relative immaturity of the tumorous
tissue is evident. It compares to the so- called sarcoid in horses. The
sarcoid-like structure and the indistinct separation from healthy
tissue speaks for a virus etiology and morphologically a relapse can
be expected. This occurred in both of the clinically described cases.
A differential diagnosis excludes a Herpes virus infection, as described
by PILASKI et al. (1987, 1988) in elephants on the basis of different
histological findings. Inclusions could not be found in any of the
cases. The warts on the elephants were clinically similar to the well
known sarcoids in horses (DIETZ and WIESNER, 1982). The two sick animals
were in "trunk contact" occupying adjacent boxes. Almost one year after
the arrival of "Sabi" who had warts, "Dirndl" fell sick. That points to
the infectious nature of warts. The relapse after the first operation on
"Dirndl" suggests that the extirpation of the growths was not complete.
This may be related to the fact that the animal was standing and only
sedated. In contrast , the extirpation of the "relapse" was carried out
on a fully immobilized animal and with the use of the Erbotom F 2 for
coagulation including the adjacent tissue. We know of various 'wart
therapies' in human medicine with differing success. The various
treatments employed in the one and one half years of "Sabi's" illness
can be labled neither successful, nor unsuccessful. The use of auto
vaccine which is analogous to a "stable specific " vaccine in the
treatment of papilloma in cattle, could perhaps have triggered the
recurrence of warts at the conclusion of the vaccination treatments.
That would favor the etiology of a virus 'picture.' The influence of the
'burn' or extirpation of a single or more growths which returned, in the
surrounding growths cannot be determined. It remains inconclusive if the
use of the "own- blood" nosode C 5 aided the successful therapy , since
the necessity to fight a recurrence had not yet occurred.
Kalemera, M.C.,
1989. Observations on feeding preference of elephants in the Acacia
tortilis woodland of Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania. African
Journal of Ecology 27, 325-333.
Abstract: The dry season feed preferences of elephants [Loxodonta
africana] were recorded in the Acacia tortilis (Forsk) Hyne woodlands of
Lake Manyara National Park in northern Tanzania from 1980 to 1981. At
least 35 plant species were eaten varying from trees to small herbs.
Elephants mainly browsed in the woodland but also grazed at the lake
shore. Feeding on woody species appeared to be in proportion to
abundance. The relatively higher amount of grazing during the dry season
was related negatively to periods of high rainfall. When rainfall was
low, lake levels dropped increasing the availability of lake-shore
grassland whereas during years of high rainfall the grassland was
flooded and elephants resorted to browsing as a major form of foraging.
Wissdorf, H.,
Poulsen-Naatrup, C., 1989. Presentation of the Vena caudalis centralis,
a further important anatomical structure for venipuncture in Asian
elephant situated dorsally in the tail. Anatomia Histologia Embryologia.
13, 279-280.
Hromadka, J.
Observations made on an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) during
gestation. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 9. 93-105. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Karesh, W.B.,
Smith, F., Frazier-Taylor, H., 1987. A remote method for obtaining skin
biopsy samples. Conservation Biology 1, 261-262.
Rubel, A.
Physiological and pathological conditions associated with reproduction
of female Asian elephants at the Zurich zoo.
Proc.1st.Intl.Conf.Zool.Avian Med. 379. 1987.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Fowler, M.E.,
1986. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Jensen, J.
Paralumbar kidney biopsy in a juvenile African elephant.
Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 17. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Same case as Ref # 305.
Kahl, V.A.L.
The study of the reproductive cycle of the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana) through correlation of behavior and cytology with serum
and urinary hormonal patterns. 1986. Nebraska, Omaha, USA, University
of Nebraska.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation
Meijler, F.L.,
van der Tweel, L.H., 1986. Electrocardigrams of 10 elephants and a
killer whale in Harderwijk. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 130, 2344-2348.
Allen, J.L.,
Welsch, B., Jacobson, E.R., Turner, T.A., Tabeling, H., 1984. Medical
and surgical management of a fractured tusk in an African elephant.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 185,
1447-1449.
Schmidt, M.J.,
1981. Technic and applications of venipuncture in the elephant. In:
Mellen, J., Littlewood, A. (Eds.), Recent developments in research and
husbandry at the Washington Park Zoo. Washington Park Zoo, Portland,
Oregon, pp. 63.
Folk, G.E.,
Folk, M.A., 1979. Physiology of large mammals by implanted radio
capsules. In: Amlaner, Jr.C.J., Macdonald, D.W. (Eds.), A handbook on
biotelemetry and radio tracking. Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 33-43.
Hall-Martin,
A.J., Ruther, H., 1979. Application of stereo photogrammetric techniques
for measuring African elephants. Koedoe 22, 187-198.
Abstract: Measurements of shoulder height and back length of African
elephants were obtained by means of stereo photogrammetric techniques.
A pair of Zeiss UMK 10/1318 cameras, mounted on a steel frame on the
back of a vehicle, were used to photograph elephants in the Addo
Elephant National Park, Republic of South Africa. Several modifications
of nomal photogrammetry procedure applicable to the field situation (eg.
control points) and the computation of results (eg. relative
orientation) are briefly mentioned. Six elephants were immobilized
after being photographed and the measurements obtained from them agreed
within a range of 1 cm-10 cm with the photogrammetric measurements.
Mill, J.,
Kuntze, A., 1978. ECG studies in healthy elephants and in one diseased
elephant (Elephas maximus). Erkrankungen der Zootiere 14,
315-326.
Nevill, G.F.,
Crompton, W.G., Hennessy, M.A., Watson, P.F., 1976. Instrumentation for
artificial insemination in the African elephant Loxodonta africana.
International Zoo Yearbook 16, 166-171.
Jainudeen,
M.R., Scheurmann, E., 1975. Diseases of the working elephant (Elephas
maximus) in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) with special reference to diagnostic and
therapeutic possibilities within the
country. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 82, 355-359.
Watson, P.F.,
D'Souza, F., 1975. Detection of oestrus in the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). Theriogenology 4, 203-209.
Abstract: Swabs of mucus and cells from the reproductive tract of a 15
year old female African elephant in captivity were examined. Daily
samples were obtained over a 1-year period by means of a probe designed
to penetrate the urogenital sinus to a depth of 90 cm. Dried smears of
mucous material showed ferning patterns at intervals of approximately 16
days. Dried spots of supernatant from washing of the swabs also showed
intense ferning at 16 day intervals, but with greater regularity. Smears
were stained and examined for the presence of squamous cells over a
4-month period. Results indicate a regular occurrence of certification
at approximately 15-day intervals. These observations indicate that the
oestrous cycle of this elephant has a duration of approximately 16
days. This is the first detailed study of the oestrous cycle in the
African elephant, knowledge of which is essential for artificial
breeding.
Maberry, M.B.,
1972. Diagnosis of pregnancy in Asiatic elephant. Journal of Zoo and
Wildlife Medicine 3, 31-33.
Jainudeen,
M.R., Eisenberg, J.F., Tilakertne, N., 1971. Oestrous cycle of the
Asiatic elephant, Elephas maximus, in captivity. Journal of
Reproduction and Fertility 27, 321-328.
Abstract: During the course of a programme to breed the Asiatic
elephant, Elephas maximus, in captivity, the oestrous cycles of eleven
adult females were studied. Two methods were used for detecting oestrus:
(1) daily testing with a male elephant, and (2) urogenital smear
cytology. Overt signs of oestrus were not observed but "standing"
oestrus was observed in ten animals. The duration of oestrus ranged from
2 to 8 days with a mode of 4 days. Oestrous cycles in six animals
ranged from 18 to 27 days with a mean of 22 days. Urogenital smear
cytology failed to indicate accurately the onset of behavioural oestrus
but increases in the number of cornified cells may occur before, during
and slightly after behavioural oestrus. Considerable mating activity
occurred during oestrus. A description of mating behaviour is
presented. The findings are discussed in relation to breeding elephants
in captivity and to the phenomenon of temporal gland activity.
Geddes, L.A.,
Hoff, H.E., Cohen, B.S., 1967. The electrocardiogram of an elephant. The
Southwestern Veterinarian 20, 211-216.
Jayasinghe,
J.B., Fernando, S.D.A., Brito-Babapulle, L.A.P., 1964. The
electrocardiogram of a baby elephant. American Heart Journal 67 ,
388-390.
Jayasinghe,
J.B., Fernando, S.D.A., Brito-Babapulle, L.A.P., 1963. The
electrocardiographic patterns of Elephas maximus -- the elephant
of Ceylon. British Veterinary Journal 119, 559-564.
Jayasinghe,
J.B., Brito-Babapulle, L.A.P., 1961. A report on the electrocardiogram
of the Ceylon elephant. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 9 , 69-70.
Hashimoto,
Y., Yamauchi, S., Yasunobo, E., 1956. Dissection of an elephant.
Bulletin University Osaka Prefecture series B 6, 30-52.
Ayer, A.A.,
Mariappa, D., 1952. A radiographic study of ossification in the Indian
elephant fetus. Journal of the Anatomical Society of India 1,
3-10.
Hill, W.C.O.,
1938. The external and radiological anatomy of a foetal Asiatic
elephant. Ceylon Journal of Science 21, 31-43.
White, P.D.,
Jenks, J.L., Benedict, F.G., 1938. The electrocardiogram of the
elephant. American Heart Journal 16, 744-750.
Abstract: An analysis has been made of the electrocardiograms of nine
circus elephants with heart rates ranging from 24 to 53 per minute
(average of 35 to 40). Relatively low amplitude of the P-, QRS, and
T-waves was found in the three classical leads (with greatest excursions
in Lead I), despite accurate standardization which was made easy by the
remarkably low resistance invariably found (often only 200 to 300 ohms
in any given lead). The various time intervals (P-R of 0.28 to 0.41
sec, QRS of 0.12 to 0.18 sec, and Q to T time -- duration of systole --
of 0.59 to 0.79 sec) were beyond the measurements to be expected at slow
heart rates in the case of mammals of average size like man, and may be
explained by the immense size of the elephant's heart with its longer
paths of impulse conduction and its greater bulk of contracting muscle.
Forbes, A.,
Cobb, S., Cattell, M., 1921. An electrocardiogram and an electromyogram
in an elephant. American Journal of Physiology 55, 385-389.
Bonvicini,
A., 1897. Necropscopia di una elefantessa Cisti d'echinococco nel fegato
e nei polmoni. Bologna.
Abstract: Note: Citation may be incomplete. May be a book.
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