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Diseases, bacterial
(The following additional keywords have been used
to categorize articles within this section and may assist your search.)
DO NOT USE "DISEASES" Use these terms only:
anthrax, bacteria, bacterial disease, clostridium, E.coli, hemorrhagic
septicemia, leptospirosis, mycobacteria, Pasteurella, salmonella,
staphylococcus, tetanus, tuberculosis,
Elephant
Bibliographic
Database
www.elephantcare.org
References
Updated October 2007
1.
Mikota S.K. 2008. Tuberculosis in elephants. In: Fowler ME and Miller RE
(eds), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Current Therapy 6th edition pp.
355-364. Saunders/Elsevier, St. Louis.
2.
Helke K.L., Mankowski J.L. and Manabe Y.C. 2007. Animal models of
cavitation in pulmonary tuberculosis.Tuberculosis (Edinb) 86: 337-348.
Abstract: Transmission of tuberculosis occurs with the highest frequency
from patients with extensive, cavitary, pulmonary disease and positive
sputum smear microscopy. In animal models of tuberculosis, the
development of caseous necrosis is an important prerequisite for the
formation of cavities although the immunological triggers for
liquefaction are unknown. We review the relative merits and the
information gleaned from the available animal models of pulmonary
cavitation. Understanding the host-pathogen interaction important to the
formation of cavities may lead to new strategies to prevent cavitation
and thereby, block transmission.
3.
Lacasse C., Terio K., Kinsel M.J. et al. 2007. Two cases of
atypical mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium szulgai
associated with mortality in captive African elephants (Loxodonta
africana).Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 38: 101-107.
Abstract: Mycobacterium szulgai was associated with mortality in two
captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed at Lincoln Park
Zoo. The first elephant presented with severe, acute lameness of the
left rear limb. Despite extensive treatments, the animal collapsed and
died 13 mo after initial presentation. Necropsy revealed osteomyelitis
with loss of the femoral head and acetabulum and pulmonary granulomas
with intralesional M. szulgai. The second elephant collapsed during
transport to another institution with no premonitory clinical signs.
This animal was euthanized because of prolonged recumbency.
Granulomatous pneumonia with intralesional M. szulgai was found at
necropsy. Two novel immunoassays performed on banked serum samples
detected antibody responses to mycobacterial antigens in both infected
elephants. It was not possible to determine when the infection was
established or how the elephants were infected. When reviewing the
epidemiology of this organism in humans, however, transmission between
elephants seemed unlikely because human-to-human transmission of this
organism has never been reported and a third elephant in the herd was
not affected. In addition to Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterial organisms need to be considered
potentially pathogenic in elephants.
4.
Oni O., Sujit K., Kasemsuwan S., Sakpuaram T. and Pfeiffer D.U. 2007.
Seroprevalence of leptospirosis in domesticated Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus) in north and west Thailand in 2004.Vet Rec 160: 368-371.
Abstract: Serum samples from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in the
Kanchanaburi, Chiang Mai and Lampang provinces of Thailand were tested
using the microscopic agglutination test against 22 serovars of
Leptospira interrogans. A titre of more than 1:100 was used as evidence
of infection. In northern Thailand, the seroprevalence was 58 per cent
and the prevalent serovars were Leptospira interrogans serovar Sejroe,
Leptospira interrogans serovar Tarassovi, Leptospira interrogans serovar
Ranarum and Leptospira interrogans serovar Shermani. In western
Thailand, the seroprevalence was 57 per cent and the prevalent serovars
were L Tarassovi, L Sejroe, L Ranarum, Leptospira interrogans serovar
Bataviae and L Shermani. These results were similar to studies in
domestic livestock and stray dogs in the Bangkok district. Among the
elephants from Kanchanaburi there were significant associations between
seropositivity and between the camp and between the prevalent serovars
and the camp.
5.
Sreekumar E., Janki M.B.V., Arathy D.S. et al. 2007. Molecular
characterization and expression of Interferon-gamma of Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus).Vet Immunol Immunopathol 118: 75-83.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterial organisms has
emerged as one of the major diseases in captive elephants. In vitro
Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) assay is being used as an ancillary test
for early detection of TB in domestic and captive wild animals. In the
present study, basic sequence information and immunological
cross-reactivity of this major cytokine of Asian elephants were
explored. At predicted amino acid level, IFN-gamma of Asian elephant
showed maximum identity to that of horse (73%). Other IFN-gamma amino
acid sequences that showed high level identity were that of giant panda
(72%), dog (71%), nine-banded armadillo (69%), cattle (63%) and human
(62%). IFN-gamma promoter sequences of Asian elephant, human, cattle and
mouse showed high level conservation of the putative transcription
factor binding sites, TATA box and transcriptional start site. The
functionally important human IFN-gamma promoter elements, such as
AP-2IRE-BE, YY1-gammaIFN-BED, ATFCS and AP-1gammaINF binding sites, were
absolutely conserved in the corresponding elephant sequence. There was
only a single nucleotide variation in the other two important elements,
NFAT-gammaINF and IFN-gammaPE, indicating the highly conserved
regulation of IFN-gamma expression across different species.
Phylogenetic analysis based on IFN-gamma protein sequences revealed a
closer relation of Asian elephants and nine-banded armadillo. This shows
a closer evolution of these members of Afrotheria and Xenarthra,
respectively; and supports the previous reports based on mitochondrial
DNA studies. In Western blot analysis, IFN-gamma of Asian elephant
expressed in Escherichia coli was detected using an anti-bovine IFN-gamma
monoclonal antibody, indicating immunological cross-reactivity.
6.
Une Y. and Mori T. 2007. Tuberculosis as a zoonosis from a veterinary
perspective.Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis Aug 13; [Epub ahead of
print].
Abstract: Tuberculosis is an important disease among many zoonoses,
because both Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis, which
are the major causes of tuberculosis, are highly pathogenic, infect many
animal species and thus are likely to be the source of infection in
humans. In particular, monkeys are highly susceptible to these bacteria
and are important spreaders. Recently, two outbreaks of M. tuberculosis
occurred in four different kinds of monkeys and humans were also
infected with the disease in Japan. In zoos, tuberculosis was reported
not only in monkeys, but also in several different kinds of animals,
including elephants. Pets such as dogs and cats are believed to be
generally less susceptible to M. tuberculosis, but in this article we
introduce a case of infection from man to dog by close contact. Japan is
one of the few countries that have been able to control M. bovis
infection. In other countries, however, cases of bovine tuberculosis and
human M. bovis infection have been reported, and thus further attention
is still required in the future.
7.
Ball R., Dumonceaux G., Olsen J. and Burton M.S. 2006. Comparison of
trunk wash results matched to Multiantigen Print Immunoassay (MAPIA) in
a group of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).Proceedings
International Elephant Conservation and Research Symposium: 242-243.
8.
Ball R.L., Dumonceaux G., Olsen J.H., Burton M.S. and Lyashchenko K.
2006. Comparison of trunk wash results matched to multiantigen print
immunoassay (MAPIA) in a group of captive Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus). 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians,
pp. 303-304.
Abstract: Introduction: Between 1994 and June 2005, there were 34
confirmed cases of tuberculosis in elephants in the U.S. population.
Thirty-one Asian (Elephas maximus) and three African (Loxodonta
africana) elephants were affected. Mycobacterium tuberculosis was the
etiologic agent in 33 cases and M. bovis in one case. Cases of
tuberculosis caused by an unusual nontuberculous mycobacteria, M.
szulgai have recently occurred as well. Currently, TB in elephants
remains a diagnostic dilemma. The sensitivity of trunk wash culture, the
currently recommended test for diagnosis, is unknown. False negatives
have been documented (trunk wash negative elephants that were
subsequently found to be culture positive at necropsy). Other
non-culture techniques for TB diagnosis include ELISA, and PCR. A novel
technology, MultiAntigen Print ImmunoAssay (MAPIA) and lateral-flow
technology (Rapid Test) has been evaluated and used to diagnose
tuberculosis in captive elephants with encouraging results. One concern
with this serologic testing is the possibility of Mycobacterium other
than tuberculosis (MOTT) cross-reacting with the antigen used in the
Rapid Test or the MAPIA and leading to a false positive. With numerous
MOTT routinely cultured from trunk washes, this is a valid concern.
Methods and Materials: A retrospective analysis was done at Busch
Gardens Tampa Bay and Chembio, Inc. that matched trunk wash results to
serum samples. All serum was collected within 7 days of the trunk wash
and analyzed with the Rapid Test and MAPIA. Four Asian elephants with a
total of 18 samples met this criteria and had serum submitted for
testing. Results and Discussion: Table 1 lists the results and the
organisms cultured. While the sampling is limited in this pilot project,
it appears that MOTT does not evoke a response when assayed with the
Rapid Test or MAPIA. The recent cases of M. szulgai do demonstrate the
potential usefulness for this test when a disease develops from MOTT.
The usefulness of this new technology, taken in conjunction with other
clinical data including trunk washes when indicated, is a valuable tool
in the healthcare of captive elephants.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Lacasse, C., K.C. Gamble, K. Terio, L.L. Farina, D.A. Travis, and
M.Miller. 2005. Mycobacterium szulgai osteroarthritis and pneumonia in
an African elephant (Loxdonta africana). Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Ann.
Meet. Pp. 170-172.
2 Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J.
Triantis. 2000. Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
infection in captive elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31:291-302.
3 Lyashchenko, K., et al. 2000. A multiantigen print immunoassay for
the serological diagnosis of infectious diseases. J. Immunol. Methods
242:91-100
4 Lyashchenko, K., M. Miller, and W.R. Waters. 2005. Application of
multiple antigen print immunoassay and rapid lateral flow technology for
tuberculosis testing of elephants. Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Ann. Meet.
Pp. 64-65
9.
Bojesen A.M., Olsen K.E. and Bertelsen M.F. 2006. Fatal enterocolitis in
Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile.Vet
Microbiol Epub ahead of print.
Abstract: Two cases of fatal enteritis caused by Clostridium difficile
in captive Asian elephants are reported from an outbreak affecting five
females in the same zoo. Post mortem examination including
histopathology demonstrated fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis. C. difficile
was isolated by selective cultivation from two dead and a third severely
affected elephant. Four isolates were obtained and found positive for
toxin A and B by PCR. All isolates were positive in a toxigenic culture
assay and toxin was demonstrated in the intestinal content from one of
the fatal cases and in a surviving but severely affected elephant. PCR
ribotyping demonstrated that the C. difficile isolates shared an
identical profile, which was different from an epidemiologically
unrelated strain, indicating that the outbreak was caused by the same C.
difficile clone. It is speculated that the feeding of large quantities
of broccoli, a rich source of sulforaphane, which has been shown to
inhibit the growth of many intestinal microorganisms may have triggered
a subsequent overgrowth by C. difficile. This is the first report of C.
difficile as the main cause of fatal enterocolitis in elephants. The
findings emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially
dangerous for elephants and caution is recommended concerning antibiotic
treatment and feeding with diets containing antimicrobials, which may
trigger an expansion of a C. difficile population in the gut.
10.
Dumonceaux G. and Mikota S. 2006. Tuberculosis treatment protocols and
complications for elephants.Proceedings International Elephant
Conservation and Research Symposium: 84-85.
11.
Lyashchenko K.P., Greenwald R., Esfandiari J. et al. 2006.
Tuberculosis in elephants: antibody responses to defined antigens of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, potential for early diagnosis, and
monitoring of treatment.Clin Vaccine Immunol 13: 722-732.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants is a re-emerging zoonotic
disease caused primarily by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Current
diagnosis relies on trunk wash culture, the only officially recognized
test, which has serious limitations.Innovative and efficient diagnostic
methods are urgently needed. Rapid identification of infected animals is
a crucial prerequisite for more effective control of TB, as early
diagnosis allows timely initiation of chemotherapy. Serology has
diagnostic potential, although key antigens have not been identified and
optimal immunoassay formats are not established. To characterize the
humoral responses in elephant TB, we tested 143 serum samples collected
from 15 elephants over time. These included 48 samples from five
culture-confirmed TB cases, of which four were in Asian elephants
infected with M. tuberculosis and one was in an African elephant with
Mycobacterium bovis. Multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA) employing a
panel of 12 defined antigens was used to
identify serologic correlates of active disease. ESAT-6 was the
immunodominant antigen recognized in elephant TB. Serum immunoglobulin G
antibodies to ESAT-6 and other proteins were detected up to 3.5 years
prior to culture of M. tuberculosis from trunk washes. Antibody levels
to certain antigens gradually decreased in response to antitubercular
therapy, suggesting the possibility of treatment monitoring. In addition
to MAPIA, serum samples were evaluated with a recently developed rapid
test (RT) based on lateral flow technology (ElephantTB STAT-PAK).
Similarly to MAPIA, infected elephants were identified using the RT up
to 4 years prior to positive culture. These findings demonstrate the
potential for TB surveillance and treatment monitoring using the RT and
MAPIA,
respectively.
12.
Michel A.L., Bengis R.G., Keet D.F. et al. 2006.
Wildlife
tuberculosis in South African conservation areas:Implications and
challenges.Veterinary Microbiology 112: 91-100.
Abstract: Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, was first
diagnosed in African buffalo in South Africa's Kruger National Park in
1990. Over the past 15 years the disease has spread northwards leaving
only the most northern buffalo herds unaffected. Evidence suggests that
10 other small and large mammalian species, including large predators,
are spillover hosts. Wildlife tuberculosis has also been diagnosed in
several adjacent private game reserves and in the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi
Park, the third largest game reserve in South Africa. The tuberculosis
epidemic has a number of implications, for which the full effect of some
might only be seen in the longterm. Potential negative long-term effects
on the population dynamics of certain social animal species and the
direct threat for the survival of endangered species pose particular
problems for wildlife conservationists. On the other hand, the risk of
spillover infection to neighboring communal cattle raises concerns about
human health at the wildlife-livestock-human interface, not only along
the western boundary of Kruger National Park, but also with regards to
the joint development of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation
Area with Zimbabwe and Mozambique. From an economic point of view,
wildlife tuberculosis has resulted in national and international trade
restrictions for affected species. The lack of diagnostic tools for most
species and the absence of an effective vaccine make it currently
impossible to contain and control this disease within an infected
free-ranging ecosystem. Veterinary researchers and policy-makers have
recognized the need to intensify research on this disease and the need
to develop tools for control, initially targeting buffalo and lion.
13.
Mikota S.K., Miller M., Dumonceaux G. et al. 2006.
Elephant
tuberculosis diagnosis: implications for elephant management in Asian
range countries.
2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 142-143.
Abstract: Serologic tests including the ELISA, MAPIA (Multi-Antigen
Print Immunoassay), and a rapid test, VetTB StatPak® (Chembio Diagnostic
Systems, Inc., Medford, New York 11763 USA) have recently been developed
and show great promise for the diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) in
elephants. These serologic tests detect antibodies to antigens of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organisms and in some cases have
detected infection years in advance of active disease and mycobacterial
shedding. The diagnosis of active TB (by culture) or serologic
conversion presents management challenges for captive elephants in Asian
range countries. Of the 2 billion humans world-wide infected with TB,
fewer than 10% will develop active disease. This figure is unknown for
elephants. The identification and management of infected elephants has
ramifications for elephants and humans alike and issues such as public
health and tourism may be impacted. TB is endemic among humans in Asia
and where there is intermingling of elephants and humans, both species
may act as reservoirs for disease transmission. The various situations
in which elephants are kept in Asia (government-owned, privately-owned,
festivals, temples, zoos, etc.) make it difficult to develop a
management strategy that will address all circumstances. Other concerns
are the cost of treatment for an elephant (~ $50,000 USD) and
appropriate monitoring in resource-poor countries. The authors have
recently undertaken the screening of 120 elephants in Nepal to further
evaluate the above-mentioned (and other) diagnostic tests. To our
knowledge, this is the first organized, large-scale initiative to screen
Asian elephants within a range country. Preliminary discussions
regarding the management of both culture and serologically positive
government-owned and privately-owned elephants in Nepal have been
initiated and may serve as a starting point for other countries as more
elephants are screened within Asia. Basic options for active (culturepositive)
cases include (1) treatment, (2) segregation or (3) euthanasia. Options
for latent disease (culture-negative, serologically positive) cases
include (1) treatment, (2) segregation and monitoring for active disease
and (3) euthanasia. The particular ownership/husbandry system,
available resources and cultural constraints may dictate final
management choices in range countries.
14.
Mikota S.K., Dumonceaux G., Miller M. et al. 2006.
Tuberculosis
in elephants: An update on diagnosis and treatment; implications for
control in range countries.Proceedings International Elephant
Conservation and Research Symposium: 109-118.
15.
Moller T., Roken B.O., Lewerin S.S. and Lyashchenko K. 2006. The
elephant Rapid Test (RT) the future diagnostic test for TB (M.
tuberculosis) in elephants? Call for a validation study in
Europe.Proceedings International Elephant Conservation and Research
Symposium: 119-124.
16.
Peloquin C.A., Maslow J.N., Mikota S.K. et al. 2006. Dose
selection and pharmacokinetics of rifampin in elephants for the
treatment of tuberculosis.J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 29: 1-6.
17.
Riley L.W. 2006. Of mice, men, and elephants: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
cell envelope lipids and pathogenesis.J Clin Invest 116: 1475-1478.
Abstract: Comment on: J Clin Invest. 2006 Jun;116(6):1660-7. Mycolic
acids and structures attached to them constitute a major part of the
protective envelope of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and for this reason,
their role in tuberculosis pathogenesis has been extensively studied. In
this issue of the JCI, Rao et al. examine the effect of trans-cyclopropanation
of oxygenated mycolic acids attached to trehalose dimycolate (TDM) on
the murine immune response to infection (see the related article
beginning on page 1660). Surprisingly, they found that an M.
tuberculosis mutant lacking trans-cyclopropane rings was hypervirulent
in mice. The recent recognition of a hypervirulence phenotype in mice
associated with laboratory and clinical M. tuberculosis strains with
altered cell wall components has provided new insights into how M.
tuberculosis may establish persistent infection. However, to date,
characterization of these bioactive products in pathogenesis has been
largely reductionistic; the relationship of their effects observed in
mice to the persistent infection and tuberculosis caused by M.
tuberculosis observed in humans remains obscure.
18.
Rothschild B.M. and Martin L.D. 2006. Did ice-age bovids spread
tuberculosis?Naturwissenschaften 93: 565-569.
Abstract: Pathognomonic metacarpal undermining is a skeletal pathology
that has been associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis in bovids.
Postcranial artiodactyl, perissodactyl, and carnivore skeletons were
examined in major university and museum collections of North America and
Europe for evidence of this and other pathology potentially attributable
to tuberculosis. Among nonproboscidean mammals from pre-Holocene North
America, bone lesions indicative of tuberculosis were restricted to
immigrant bovids from Eurasia. No bone lesions compatible
with diagnosis of tuberculosis were found in large samples of other
pre-Holocene (164 Oligocene, 397 Miocene, and 1,041 Plio-Pleistocene)
North American mammals, including
114 antilocaprids. Given the unchanged frequency of bovid tubercular
disease during the Pleistocene, it appears that most did not die from
the disease but actually reached an
accommodation with it (as did the mastodon) (Rothschild and Laub 2006).
Thus, they were sufficiently long-lived to assure greater spread of the
disease. The relationships of the
proboscidean examples need further study, but present evidence suggests
a Holarctic spread of tuberculosis during the Pleistocene, with bovids
acting as vectors. While the role of other animals in the transmission
of tuberculosis could be considered, the unique accommodation achieved
by bovids and mastodons makes them the likely "culprits" in its spread.
19.
Rothschild B.M. and Laub R. 2006. Hyperdisease in the late
Pleistocene:validation of an early 20th century
hypothesis.Naturwissenschaften 93: 557-564.
20.
Bertelsen M.F., Bojesen M. and Olsen K.E.P. 2005. Fatal enterocolitis in
two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium
difficile. 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory
Group, pp. 66-67.
Abstract: Altered behavior, anorexia and listlessness were observed in
four of five adult captive female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).
Two animals recovered, while two died after 2 days. The dead elephants
were subjected to post mortem examination including histopathology,
demonstrating fibrinonecrotic enteritis and colitis. Clostridium
difficile was isolated from both dead elephants and from the feces
of the two surviving affected animals, and identified by selective
cultivation and PCR identification. All isolates had the tcdA and
tcdB toxin genes and were positive in a toxigenic culture assay.
C. difficile toxin from the intestinal content of one of the
fatal cases was demonstrated using cell-culture based cytotoxin assays.
Clostridium perfringens type A and Clostridium septicum
were also isolated from both dead animals. Although C. perfringens
has been associated with ulcerative enteritis in an elephant,1
in this case these isolates likely are incidental, as C.
perfringens enterotoxin was not demonstrated, and as C.
septicum is well known for producing rapid post mortem overgrowth.
Amplified fragment length polymorphism typing, showed that the C.
difficile isolates recovered from the outbreak, all had the same
fingerprint profile, indicating that all four elephants were affected by
the same bacterial clone. These findings appear to be the first to
demonstrate that C. difficile may cause enterocolitis in
elephants. The results emphasize the need to regard this organism as
potentially dangerous for elephants. Although there was no prior
exposure to antibiotic agents in this case, caution is recommended when
treating elephants with antibiotics, as this may trigger C.
difficile induced enterocolitis in other species, most notably
humans and horses.2
LITERATURE CITED
1 Bacciarini, L.N., O. Pagan, J. Frey, and A. Grone. 2001. Clostridium
perfringens beta2-toxin in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
with ulcerative enteritis. Vet. Rec. 149: 618-20.
2 Songer, J.G. 1996. Clostridial enteric diseases of domestic animals.
Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 9: 216-234.
21.
Cousins D.V. and Florisson N. 2005. A review of tests available for use
in the diagnosis of tuberculosis in non-bovine
species.Rev.sci.tech.Off.int.Epiz. 24: 1039-1059.
Abstract: Bovine tuberculosis is an important disease that has impacts
on regional and international trade. The disease can affect both social
and economic stability and have a deleterious affect on species
diversity. The intradermal tuberculin test has been in use for almost a
century and, despite the technological advances of the last two decades,
is still the only prescribed test for the
diagnosis of tuberculosis in cattle. Many other species of animal,
including humans, can be infected with Mycobacterium bovis. This paper
reviews the various tests that have been used by researchers for
detecting infection with M. bovis in a variety of animal species, and
attempts to prioritise or comment on the importance of having
appropriately validated diagnostics for the different species. The
difficulties of test validation using small numbers of animals,
especially when tuberculosis occurs in only a few instances or the
species of animal affected is rare and/or valuable, are discussed.
22.
Lacasse C., Gamble K.C., Terio K. et al. 2005. Mycobacterium
szulgai osteoarthritis and pneumonia in an African elephant (Loxodonta
Africana). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory
Group, pp. 170-172.
Abstract: Tuberculosis, particularly Mycobacterium bovis and
M. tuberculosis, is an important health issue in zoological
collections. Zoos are a particular public health concern because of the
close contact between tuberculosis-susceptible animals and humans,
specifically animal handlers and visitors.16 Evidence of
M. tuberculosis transmission between humans and elephants, confirmed
by DNA fingerprinting, has been reported.13 Between 1994 and
2001, M. tuberculosis was isolated from trunk washes of captive
elephants from 11 herds in the United States.17 To date,
most reported cases of tuberculosis have occurred in captive Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus).14 In 1997, the National
Tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species partnered with
the USDA to formulate the "Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in
Elephants." 15 This document outlines criteria for the
testing, surveillance, and treatment of tuberculosis in elephants. The
guidelines recommend annual monitoring of elephants by mycobacterial
culture of three direct trunk washes collected over 1 wk. Isolation of
Mycobacterium avium and non-tuberculous mycobacteria from
elephant trunk wash samples is common, but these organisms have not been
associated with clinical disease.14,18 This case report
details clinical disease with fatal complications of an atypical
mycobacterial infection in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).
In September 2003, an African elephant presented with acute, severe
lameness of the left rear limb with subsequent swelling of the stifle.
Diagnostic procedures included aspiration cytology of the swelling,
radiographs, and thermographic imaging. The exact location of the
injury could not be detected, but a lesion to the stifle or coxofemoral
articulation was suspected. After 13 mo of treatment, including pulse
therapy with a variety of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),
weekly to biweekly injections of polysulfated glycosaminoglycan, and
intensive foot care efforts to treat secondary pedal lesions of both
rearlimbs, the animal died acutely. Gross necropsy revealed
granulomatous osteomyelitis with necrosis/loss of the femoral head and
acetabulum and pulmonary granulomas. Both of these lesions contained
acid-fast bacteria on cytology. While awaiting confirmatory culture
results, quarantine procedures were established for the elephant
facility and a program was established to screen all zoo personnel in
close contact with the elephant or who participated in the necropsy.
All personnel were tested by the Chicago Department of Public Health
without documented conversion. Mycobacterium szulgai was
ultimately cultured from both coxofemoral and pulmonary lesions.
Mycobacterium szulgai is an uncommon nontuberculous mycobacterium
that is usually isolated from pathologic lesions in humans.21
This bacterial species was first identified in 1972.11 The
lungs are the main locality for pathologic manifestation in humans and
several cases have been in patients with acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome. 9,20,21 Infection due to M. szulgai most
frequently produces thin-walled cavities in lungs resembling
tuberculosis.4 Other documented sites of infection include
the skin, bone, and tendon sheath (causing a carpal tunnel syndrome).2,9,10,12,19,20
Intra-operative contamination from ice water has led to M.
szulgai keratitis after laser-assisted ophthalmic surgeries.6
A case of disseminated disease in a previously healthy young human has
been reported.5 No evidence of human-to-human transmission
of this organism has been documented and human cases are believed to
originate from environmental sources.12 The natural habitat
of the organism is unknown, but previous reports suggest an association
of the bacteria with water of swimming pools and fish tanks.1,21
The organism has been cultured from a snail and tropical fish.1,3
No standard recommendation for the treatment of M. szulgai
infection currently exists. In general, triple antibiotic therapies
used in standard mycobacterial treatments are reported with a low rate
of relapses and sterilization of sputum cultures within a mean of 3 mo.3
Pulmonary lesions in this elephant were chronic; it was not possible to
determine when initial infection occurred. Infection could have occurred
in captivity or in the wild prior to captivity. Three trunk washes over
the past year had been negative for mycobacterial culture. Osteomyelitis
in the hip may have developed secondary to hematogenous spread from the
lungs with the acute lameness resulting from a pathologic fracture
associated with this infection. Alternatively, though considered less
likely, a traumatic fracture of the hip could have occurred, with
bacterial inoculation and secondary osteomyelitis as a result of
increased blood flow to the site. The source of infection for this
elephant remains unknown. Prevalence of this organism in the natural
habitat or captive environment of the elephants has not been previously
documented.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Abalain-Colloc, M.L., D. Guillerm, M. Salaun, S. Gouriou, V. Vincent,
and B. Picard. 2003. Mycobacterium szulgai isolated from a
patient, a tropical fish, and aquarium water. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol.
Infect. Dis. 22: 768-769.
2.Cross, G.M., M. Guill, and J.K. Aton. 1985. Cutaneous
Mycobacterium szulgai infection. Arch. Dermatol. 121: 247-249.
3. Davidson, P.T. 1976. Mycobacterium szulgai: a new pathogen
causing infection of the lung. Chest 69: 799- 801.
4. Dylewski, J.S., H.M. Zackon, A.H. Latour, and G.R. Berry. 1987.
Mycobacterium szulgai: an unusual pathogen. Rev. Infect. Dis. 9:
578-580.
5. Gur, H., S. Porat, H. Haas, Y. Naparstek, and M. Eliakim. 1984.
Disseminated mycobacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium szulgai.
Arch. Intern. Med. 144: 1861-1863.
6.Holmes, G.P., G. Bond, R.C. Fader, and S.F. Fulcher. 2002. A cluster
of cases of Mycobacterium szulgai keratitis that occurred after
laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34:
1039-1046.
7.Horusitzky, A., X. Puechal, D. Dumont, T. Begue, M. Robineau, and M.
Boissier. 2000. Carpal tunnel syndrome caused by Mycobacterium
szulgai. J. Rheumatol 27: 1299-1302.
8.Hurr, H., and T. Sorg. 1998. Mycobacterium szulgai
osteomyelitis. J. Infect. 37: 191-192.
9.Luque, A.E., D. Kaminski, R. Reichman, and D. Hardy. 1998.
Mycobacterium szulgai osteomyelitis in an AIDS patient. Scand. J.
Infect. Dis. 30: 88-91.
10.Maloney, J.M., C.R. Gregg, D.S. Stephens, F.A. Manian, and D. Rimland.
1987. Infections caused by Mycobacterium szulgai in humans.
Rev. Infect. Dis. 9: 1120-1126.
11.Marks, J., P.A. Jenkins, and M. Tsukamura. 1972. Mycobacterium
szulgai: a new pathogen. Tubercle 53: 210.
12.Merlet, C., S. Aberrane, F. Chilot, and J. Laroche. 2000. Carpal
tunnel syndrome complicating hand flexor tenosynovitis due to
Mycobacterium szulgai. Joint Bone Spine 67: 247-248.
13.Michalak, K., C. Austin, S. Diesel, J.M. Bacon, P. Zimmerman, and J.
N. Maslow. 1998. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection as a
zoonotic disease: transmission between humans and elephants. Emerg.
Infect. Dis. 4: 283-287.
14.Mikota, S.K., R.S. Larsen, and R.J. Montali. 2000. Tuberculosis in
elephants in North America. Zoo Biol. 19: 393-403.
15.National Tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species.
2000. Guidelines for the control of tuberculosis in elephants. USDA
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services.
16.Oh, P., R. Granich, J. Scott, B. Sun, M. Joseph, C. Stringfield, S.
Thisdell, J. Staley, D. Workman-Malcolm, L. Borenstein, E. Lehnkering,
P. Ryan, J. Soukup, A. Nitta, and J. Flood. 2002. Human exposure
following Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal
species in a metropolitan zoo. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8: 1290-1293.
17.Payeur, J.B., J.L. Jarnagin, J.G. Marquardt, and D.L. Whipple.
2002. Mycobacterial isolations in captive elephants in the United
States. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 969: 256-258.
18.Shojaei, H., J.G. Magee, R. Freeman, M. Yates, N.U. Horadagoda, and
M. Goodfellow. 2000. Mycobacterium elephantis sp. nov., a
rapidly growing non-chromogenic Mycobacterium isolated from an
elephant. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 50: 1817-1820.
19.Stratton, C.W., D.B. Phelps, and L.B. Reller. 1978. Tuberculoid
tenosynovitis and carpal tunnel syndrome caused by Mycobacterium
szulgai. Am. J. Med. 65: 349-351.
20.Tappe, D., P. Langmann, M. Zilly, H. Klinker, B. Schmausser, and M.
Frosch. 2004. Osteomyelitis and skin ulcers caused by Mycobacterium
szulgai in an AIDS patient. Scand. J. Infect.
Dis. 36: 883-885.
21.Tortoli, E., G. Besozzi, C. Lacchini, V. Penati, M.T. Simonetti, and
S. Emler.
1998.
Pulmonary infection due to Mycobacterium szulgai, case report and
review of the literature. Eur. Respir. J. 11: 975-977.
23.
Larsen R.S., Kay M., Triantis J. and Salman M.D. 2005. Update on
serological detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in
Asian elephants. 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory
Group, pp. 62-63.
Abstract: Tuberculosis has become an important disease in captive
elephants, particularly Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).
Diagnosing tuberculosis in elephants has been problematic as many tests
have inadequate sensitivity or specificity.2-4 A multiple-antigen
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was previously investigated
for detecting infection in Asian elephants and African elephants (Loxodonta
africana); this test had excellent sensitivity and specificity, but
needed further evaluation.1 Modifications to the multiple-antigen ELISA
panel have since been made. Valuable antigens were retained, other
antigens were removed, and new ones were added. This modified ELISA was
re-evaluated, using serum from 68 Asian elephants. Sixteen had M.
tuberculosis -positive trunk cultures, while 52 were either culture
negative at necropsy or had a history of negative trunk cultures and no
contact with infected elephants. Seven elephants were evaluated over
time. The test was 100% (95% CI; 95-100%) specific and 94% (95% CI;
79-100%) sensitive using two of the six antigens (M. bovis strain
AN5 culture filtrate and M. tuberculosis early secretory
antigenic target 6). "Effectively-treated" elephants had decreasing
seroreactivity, but those that were culture-positive post-treatment were
more consistently seroreactive. Although "effectivelytreated" elephants
had declining seroreactivity, they still usually had higher values than
animals that had never been infected. Serology continues to show great
promise in detecting tuberculosis in elephants, often detecting
infection months-to-years sooner than trunk wash culture. Advances in
techniques may soon make serology even more practical. While serology
should not replace trunk-wash culture, it is a useful adjunct for early
detection of infection in elephants and for monitoring treatment.
ACKNOLWEDGMENTS
We thank the many veterinarians, owners, caretakers, and managers of
elephant-owning institutions that participated in this investigation, as
well as Drs. Michele Miller and Susan Mikota for helping to coordinate
sample collection. We also thank Kimberly Deines and other laboratory
personnel who processed ELISA samples. The study was
partially funded by a grant from USDA, CSREES to Colorado State
University Program of Economically Important Infectious Animal Diseases.
LITERATURE CITED
1.Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J.
Triantis. 2000. Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
in captive elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31: 291-302.
2. Mikota, S.K., L. Peddie, J. Peddie, R. Isaza, F. Dunker, G. West, W.
Lindsay, R.S. Larsen, M.D. Salman, D. Chatterjee, J. Payeur, D. Whipple,
C. Thoen, D.S. Davis, R.J. Montali and J. Maslow. 2001. Epidemiology
and diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in six groups of
elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 32: 1-16.
3. Mikota, S.K., R.S. Larsen, and R.J. Montali. 2000. Tuberculosis in
elephants in North America. Zoo Biol. 19: 393-403.
4. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2003. Guidelines for the control of
tuberculosis in elephants. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service;
Animal Care. Washington, D.C. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf.
24.
Lewerin S.S., Olsson S.L., Eld K. et al. 2005.
Outbreak of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection among captive Asian elephants in a
Swedish zoo.Vet Rec. 156: 171-175.
Abstract: Between 2001 and 2003, there was an outbreak of tuberculosis
in a Swedish zoo which involved elephants, giraffes, rhinoceroses and
buffaloes. Cultures of
trunk lavages were used to detect infected elephants, tuberculin testing
was used in the giraffes and buffaloes, and tracheal lavage and
tuberculin testing
were used in the rhinoceroses. The bacteria isolated were investigated
by spoligotyping and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Five
elephants and
one giraffe were found to have been infected by four different strains
of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. National Veterinary Institute, SE-751 89
Uppsala, Sweden.
25.
Lyashchenko K., Miller M. and Waters W.R. 2005. Application of MAPIA
(Multiple antigen print immunoassay) and rapid lateral flow technology
for tuberculosis testing of elephants. 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA
Nutrition Advisory Group, pp. 64-65.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a serious re-emerging disease in
wildlife and zoo animals. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been
isolated from 30 captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus within
14 herds in the United States (1994-2004) and Mycobacterium bovis
has been isolated from one African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
(Mikota, pers. comm.).3 There are several challenges with elephant
TB diagnosis. Culture of trunk wash has relatively poor sensitivity and
is subject to contamination. Skin test is not validated in elephants
and there is little reliability in these results.4 Serologic tests are
appealing because samples can be stored for future analysis, archived
samples can be analyzed, various assay platforms can be directly
compared, and these assays are amenable to serial analysis (e.g., to
monitor therapy). There is currently a multiple antigen ELISA test
available for experimental use in elephants.1
To improve tuberculosis control, new diagnostic tools should be rapid,
accurate, and host species-independent. Two novel serologic methods,
MultiAntigen Print ImmunoAssay (MAPIA) and lateral-flow technology
(Rapid Test), have been adapted for use in white-tailed deer, European
badger, cattle, and Asian and African elephants for the detection of
TB-specific antibody. Serologic markers of diagnostic importance have
been identified for each host tested so far. With MAPIA, a machine
prints specific antigens horizontally on a nitrocellulose membrane which
can be cut into strips and used in Western blot.2 Strips are incubated
with test serum samples, then an anti-Ig conjugate and color developer.
Using this assay, an antibody response to multiple mycobacterial
antigens has been observed in sera from M. tb-infected elephants.
No antibody response was detected to any antigens in non-infected
elephant sera. Additionally, the kinetics of antibody responses by
elephants undergoing antibiotic therapy indicates that the MAPIA could
be used for monitoring treatment and to determine recrudescence of
infection.
Using selected antigens, a lateral-flow test was developed for rapid
antibody detection that can be used in multiple species. The Rapid Test
can use serum, plasma, or whole blood and provides results within 15
min. These tests are similar to in-clinic tests for FIV/FeLV detection
(snap test, IDDEX). If a band is present in the test strip, it indicates
a positive reaction (antibody present).
A panel of sera from healthy and TB infected elephants showed good
correlation between the MAPIA and the rapid test (Table 1).
In summary, it appears that TB-infected elephants produce a robust
antibody response that can be detected in serologic assays. Of special
significance is the kinetics of the response, which may permit earlier
detection of infection than current diagnostic methods. While initial
results are promising, additional studies are required to validate these
two assays. A relatively small set of serum samples from documented
infected and non-infected elephants was used, and more samples are
needed to further validate the tests. MAPIA has been used to optimize
antigen selection in order to make the most sensitive and specific Rapid
Test. This strategy may also allow for identification of
"treatment-sensitive" antigens that could be used in the MAPIA format to
monitor TB therapy. While elephants will be used as an initial "proof
of concept" species for test development, additional samples from other
species will also be evaluated to determine applicability to other
species (i.e., a host species-independent test), thus benefiting other
groups such as primates, rhinos, cervids, etc.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the zoos and individuals that have provided samples
and assistance with this research, including Ray Ball, Carol Buckley,
Jenifer Chatfield, Genny Dumonceaux, Javan Esfandiary, Rena Greenwald,
Scott Larsen, Susan Mikota, Torsten Moller, Dick Montali, Mike Richards,
Heidi Riddle, Mo Salman, Scott Terrell, and many others. This research
was supported by Chembio Diagnostics, Inc.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J.
Triantis. 2000. Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
infection in captive elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31:291-302.
2 Lyashchenko, K., et al. 2000. A multiantigen print immunoassay for
the serological diagnosis of infectious diseases. J. Immunol. Methods
242:91-100.
3 Mikota, S.K., and J. Maslow. 2002. Epidemiology and treatment of
tuberculosis in elephants: 2002. Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Annu.
Meet. Pp. 384-387.
4 Mikota, S.K., L. Peddie, J. Peddie, et al. 2001. Epidemiology and
diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in captive Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 32:1-16.
Table 1. Comparison of serodiagnostic results for tuberculosis
in elephants.
Health status # Elephants # Rapid test positive # MAPIA
positive
Healthy 63
1
0
TB infected 17
17
16
26.
Maslow J.N., Mikota S.K., Zhu M. et al. 2005.
Population
pharmacokinetics of isoniazid in the treatment of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis among Asian and African elephants (Elephas maximus and
Loxodonta
africana).J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 28: 1-7.
Abstract: We recently described the clinical presentation and treatment
of 18 elephants from six herds infected with TB. Treatment protocols and
methods varied between herds to include both oral and rectal dosing
using multiple drug doses and formulations. In this paper we present
information regarding the pharmacokinetics (PK) of isoniazid (INH) in
elephants and provide suggestions regarding initial treatment regimens.
Forty-one elephants received INH daily by either oral or rectal
administration with different formulations. Population PK analysis was
performed using Non-linear Mixed Effect Modeling (NONMEM). Results of
oral administration indicated that compared with premixed INH solution,
the drug exposure was highest with a suspension prepared freshly with
INH powder. When INH was concomitantly given as an admixture over food,
Tmax was delayed and variability in drug absorption was significantly
increased. Compared with oral administration, similar drug exposures
were found when INH was dosed rectally. The data generated suggest that
a starting dose of 7.5 mg/kg of INH is appropriate for initial TB
treatment in elephants when premixed solution is administered directly
into the oropharynx or rectal vault and 4 mg/kg are when INH is
administered following immediate suspension from powdered form. Section
of Infectious Diseases, VA Medical Center, Division of Infectious
Diseases, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA. jol.maslow@med.va.gov
27.
Maslow J.N., Mikota S.K., Zhu M., Riddle H. and Peloquin C.A. 2005.
Pharmacokinetics of ethambutol (EMB) in elephants.J Vet Pharmacol Ther
28: 321-323.
28.
Moller T., Roken B., Petersson L., Vitaud C. and Lyashchenko K. 2005.
Preliminary results of a new serological test for detection of
TB-infection (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in elephants (Elephas
maximus and Loxodonta africanum) - Swedish Case studies.
Verh.ber.Erkrg.Zootiere, pp. 173-181.
29.
Pandey R. and Khuller G.K. 2005. Antitubercular inhaled therapy:
opportunities, progress and challenges.Journal of Antimicrobial Therapy
55: 430-435.
30.
Sanchez C.R., Murray S.Z., Isaza R. and Papich M.G. 2005.
Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of enrofloxacin administered orally to
captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).Am J Vet Res 66: 1948-1953.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To determine the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin
after oral administration to captive elephants. ANIMALS: 6 clinically
normal adult Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). PROCEDURE: Each elephant
received a single dose of enrofloxacin (2.5 mg/kg, PO). Three elephants
received their complete diet (pellets and grain) within 2 hours after
enrofloxacin administration, whereas the other 3 elephants received only
hay within 6 hours after enrofloxacin administration. Serum
concentrations of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin were measured by use of
high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: Harmonic mean half-life
after oral administration was 18.4 hours for all elephants. Mean +/- SD
peak serum concentration of enrofloxacin was 1.31 +/- 0.40 microg/mL at
5.0 +/- 4.2 hours after administration. Mean area under the curve was
20.72 +/- 4.25 (microg x h)/mL. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Oral
administration of enrofloxacin to Asian elephants has a prolonged
elimination half-life, compared with the elimination half-life for adult
horses. In addition, potentially therapeutic concentrations in elephants
were obtained when enrofloxacin was administered orally at a dosage of
2.5 mg/kg. Analysis of these results suggests that enrofloxacin
administered with feed in the manner described in this study could be a
potentially useful antimicrobial for use in treatment of captive Asian
elephants with infections attributable to organisms, such as Bordetella
spp, Escherichia coli, Mycoplasma spp, Pasteurella spp, Haemophilus spp,
Salmonella spp, and Staphylococcus spp.
31.
Waters W.R., Palmer M.V., Bannantine J.P. et al. 2005.
Antibody
responses in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) infected with
Mycobacterium bovis.Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology
12: 727-735.
Abstract: Despite having a very low incidence of disease, reindeer (Rangifer
tarandus) are subject to tuberculosis (TB) testing requirements for
interstate shipment and herd accreditation in the United States.
Improved TB tests are desperately needed, as many reindeer are falsely
classified as reactors by current testing procedures. Sera collected
sequentially from 11 (experimentally) Mycobacterium bovis-infected
reindeer and 4 noninfected reindeer were evaluated by enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunoblotting, and multiantigen print
immunoassay (MAPIA) for antibody specific to M. bovis antigens.
Specific antibody was detected as early as 4 weeks after challenge with
M. bovis. By MAPIA, sera were tested with 12 native and
recombinant antigens, which were used to coat nitrocellulose. All M.
bovis-infected reindeer developed responses to MPB83 and a fusion
protein, Acr1/MPB83, and 9/11 had responses to MPB70. Other antigens
less commonly recognized included MPB59, ESAT-6, and CFP10.
Administration of purified protein derivatives for skin testing boosted
serum antibody responses, as detected by each of the assays. Of the
noninfected reindeer, 2/4 had responses that were detectable immediately
following skin testing, which correlated with pathological findings
(i.e., presence of granulomatous lesions yet the absence of acid-fast
bacteria). The levels of specific antibody produced by infected reindeer
appeared to be associated with disease progression but not with
cell-mediated immunity. These findings indicate that M. bovis
infection of reindeer elicits an antibody response to multiple antigens
that can be boosted by skin testing. Serological tests using carefully
selected specific antigens have potential for early detection of
infections in reindeer.
32. Zhu
M., Maslow J.N., Mikota S.K. et al. 2005. Population
pharmacokinetics of pyrazinamide in elephants.Journal of Veterinary
Pharmacology and Therapeutics 28: 403-409.
Abstract: This study was undertaken to characterize the population
pharmacokinetics (PK),therapeutic dose, and preferred route of
administration for pyrazinamide (PZA)in elephants. Twenty-three African
(Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants infected with
or in contact with others culture positive for Mycobacterium
tuberculosis were dosed under treatment conditions. PZA was dosed daily
at 20-30 mg/kg via oral (fasting or nonfasting state) or rectal (enema
or suppository) administration. Blood samples were collected 0-24 h
postdose. Population PK was estimated using nonlinear mixed effect
modeling. Drug absorption was rapid with T(max) at or before 2 h
regardless of the method of drug administration. C(max) at a mean dose
of 25.6 (+/-4.6) mg/kg was 19.6 (+/-9.5 microg/mL) for PZA given orally
under fasting conditions. Under
nonfasting conditions at a mean dose of 26.1 +/- 4.2 mg/kg, C(max) was
25% (4.87 +/- 4.89 microg/mL) and area under concentration curve (AUC)
was 30% of the values observed under fasting conditions. Mean rectal
dose of 32.6 +/- 15.2 mg/kg yielded C(max) of 12.3 +/- 6.3 microg/mL,
but comparable AUC to PZA administered orally while fasting. Both oral
and rectal administration of PZA appeared to be acceptable and oral
dosing is preferred because of the higher C(max) and lower inter-subject
variability. A starting dose of 30 mg/kg is recommended with drug
monitoring between 1 and 2 h postdose. Higher doses may be required if
the achieved C(max) values are below the recommended 20-50 microg/mL
range.
33.
Hirsch D.C. and Biberstein E.L. 2004. Mycobacterium. In: Hirsch DC,
MacLachlan NJ and Walker RL (eds), Veterinary Microbiology pp. 223-234.
Blackwell, Ames, Iowa.
34.
Janssen D.L., Oosterhuis J.E., Fuller J. and Williams K. 2004. Field
technique: A method for obtaining trunk wash mycobacterial cultures in
anesthetized free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana).
2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE, pp. 582-583.
Abstract: The Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants
2003 (Guidelines) of the National tuberculosis Working Group
for Zoo and Wildlife Species were written to protect the health and
safety of captive elephants together with their handlers and the viewing
public.1 The Guidelines specifically address the display and
transport of captive elephants but do not address the unique situation
of free-living elephants being imported and subsequently displayed to
the public.
Although the Guidelines describe a technique for collecting and
handling a trunk wash in a trained, standing, non-anesthetized elephant,
it does not describe a similar technique for anesthetized elephants in
lateral recumbency. In an attempt to detect active mycobacterial
infection in a group of 3 male and 8 female free-ranging African
elephants scheduled for import into the United States, a technique was
developed for collecting trunk washes in recumbent, anesthetized
elephants for mycobacterial culture.
A South African game-capture crew, experienced in translocating
elephants, anesthetized elephants in groups via remote drug delivery and
from a helicopter. The ground crew accomplished multiple simultaneous
procedures including anesthesia maintenance and monitoring, physical and
reproductive examinations, collection of general diagnostic and
investigative samples, and trunk washes for mycobacterial cultures. This
was accomplished while the capture crew was preparing animals for
loading into specially designed trailers for transport to a holding boma.
Little time was available for any one of procedure with multiple
animals being attended to at one time.
Once an elephant was stable in lateral recumbency, a 3-m foal stomach
tube, prepackaged and sterilized, was inserted into the dependent side
of the trunk tip. It was then gently fed up the trunk approximately 2.5
m. A 50-ml sample suction trap was attached to the end of the foal
tube.The suction trap was then attached to a battery powered, portable
aspirator pump designed for emergency medical care. The aspiration pump
was activated to collect secretions from the most proximal portion of
the trunk. If little or no secretions were collected by this means, the
system was disconnected between the sample trap and the foal tube. Then,
100 ml of sterile saline was placed into raised end of the foal tube
allowing it to drain toward the tip through gravity. The suction trap
and aspiration pump were reattached to collect a sample in the sample
trap. Then, the sample trap was replaced with a new trap, and the foal
tube was inserted into the oral pharynx for collection of a separate
oropharyngeal sample. This same procedure was repeated
with each elephant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
So African veterinarians, Mike Bester, Larry Killmar, Janet Payeur,
ARC/OVI, Thomas Hildebrant, Eric Zeehandelar, Kevin Reily, Denise
SoFranko.
LITERATURE CITED
1. National tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species.
2003. Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants 2003.
USDA-APHIS: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf
35.
Stringfield C.E., Oh P., Granich R. et al. 2004. Epidemiologic
investigation of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of
multiple animal species in a metropolitan zoo. 2004 PROCEEDINGS
AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE, pp. 46-48.
Abstract: From 1997 to 2000, six cases of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(TB) infection were diagnosed in three species of animals at, or
recently originating from, the Los Angeles Zoo. Restriction fragment
length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis showed that five of six animal
isolates shared an identical IS6110 pattern, with the sixth differing
only by one additional band. A multiinstitutional epidemiologic
investigation was conducted to identify and interrupt possible
transmission among the animal cases, and to screen personnel for active
TB infection and TB skin-test conversion.
Animal Cases
In April and October of 1994, Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
#1 and Asian elephant #2 arrived at the Los Angeles Zoo from a private
elephant facility where they had lived together. They were housed
together at the zoo until November of 1996 when elephant #2 was returned
to the facility for several months before transfer to another zoo. In
the spring of 1997, Elephant #1 (30 yr old) died of salmonellosis, with
M. tuberculosis found in granulomatous lymph node lesions from
the thoracic and abdominal cavities, and Elephant #2 (30 yr old) was
found to have a positive trunk wash culture for M. tuberculosis.
In July of 1998, one of a closed herd of three Rocky Mountain goats (Oreamnos
americanus) consisting of a sire and two offspring, died of
pulmonary M. tuberculosis at 6 yr of age. The goat's asymptomatic
herdmates were screened and had negative chest radiographs and tracheal
wash cultures, but one of the two goats was positive on tuberculin
skin-test. In October of 1998, a clinically normal Black rhinocerus (Diceros
bicornis) was diagnosed with Mycobacerium tuberculosis after
a positive skin test and nasal wash culture. In the winter of 1998, the
two remaining goats were evaluated again with negative chest radiographs
and tracheal wash cultures. However, 1 yr later, both were humanely
euthanatized at 8 and 12 yr of age due to clinical evidence of
tuberculosis on chest radiographs (both animals), and active clinical
signs in one (neither were able to be orally treated). In January of
2001, a rhino was humanely euthanatized after a protracted illness that
was nonresponsive to aggressive treatment. The rhino was found to have
severe multifocal hemosiderosis and atypical mycobacterial infection in
her lungs, with no M. tuberculosis cultured. This animal had been
treated with oral Isoniazid and Rifampin for 1 yr, cultured routinely,
and was never culture positive again.
Epidemiologic Investigation
Investigators examined medical and location histories of the
affected animals, animal handling practices, health-care procedures, and
performed an infection control assessment of the animal compounds and
health-care facilities (including measuring air flow in the compounds by
smoke testing). We conducted a review of zoo employee medical records
for evidence of TB symptoms, tuberculin skin-test results, and chest
radiograph information. A list of current and former employees was
cross-matched with reported TB cases in the California state registry
from 1985 to 2000. As part of the annual occupational health screening
in June of 2000, zoo employees underwent questioning regarding TB
symptoms, received tuberculin skin tests, and completed a questionnaire
on medical history, job type, and history of contact with the infected
animals.
Epidemiologic Findings
No common cross-species contact outside the animal compounds and no
contact with an infectious human were found. The distance at which the
public was kept from the animals and the distance of the compounds from
each other (the elephant compound was 27 meters from the rhino compound
and the goat compound was 90 m from both) suggests that direct
transmission was unlikely. No active TB cases in humans were found, and
no matches were found in the database of reporte d cases. The RFLP
analysis of this strain of M. tuberculosis matched that of three
elephants with which #1 and #2 were housed at a private elephant
facility from September of 1993-February of 1994.1 We hypothesize that
elephants #1 and #2 were infected at the private facility and were
shipped with latent M. tuberculosis infection in 1994, subsequently
infecting the black rhino and Mountain goats at the Los Angeles Zoo.
Of interest, animal caretaking and animal contact were not associated
with a positive tuberculin skin-test, while groundskeepers were found to
have an increased risk of tuberculin skin-test conversion compared with
other job categories. Employees attending the elephant necropsy and
employees who trained elephants were more likely to have tuberculin
skin-test conversion than those who did not.
Conclusion
This is the first documented human and veterinary epidemiologic
investigation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis affecting multiple
species in a zoo. 2 No evidence of transmission from humans
to animals or active infections in humans were found. Genotyping
evidence strongly suggests transmission from one species to another,
although no evidence of transmission was discovered. Human tuberculin
skin-test conversions associated with the elephants were most likely due
to lack of respiratory protection for these employees when the risk of
TB infection was not known. The finding that groundskeepers and not
animal handlers were associated with a higher risk of tuberculin
skin-test conversion was surprising, and we hypothesized that this may
have to do with groundskeepers as a group being more likely to have
been born outside of the United States.
Control measures to eliminate the spread of disease to people and
animals were undertaken immediately and throughout this outbreak, and no
further cases of M. tuberculosis have been diagnosed at the zoo
in the past 3 yr despite ongoing surveillance. Four elephants and three
rhinos that had direct contact with the infected animals remain TB
negative by trunk and nasal wash culture methods as outlined by the USDA
for elephant TB surveillance. Methods of indirect transmission in
mammalian zoo species and causes of variability in infection and
morbidity within and among species warrant further investigation.
Ongoing vigilance, occupational health programs and infection control
measures in potentially exposed animals are recommended to prevent
ongoing transmission of M. tuberculosis in zoo settings.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Animal Care and Animal Health staff of the Los
Angeles Zoo who cared so well for these animals, and the veterinarians
(including consulting pathologists), technicians, and medical records
staff who collected, analyzed, and organized the clinical data. We could
not have performed this evaluation without Sue Thisdell, Safety Officer
at the Los Angeles Zoo; Jothan Staley and Donna Workman-Malcom of the
City of Los Angeles Occupational Health Services Division; Lee
Borenstein, Elenor Lehnkering, Patrick Ryan, Jeanne Soukup, and Annette
Nita of the Los Angeles County Department of Health Services; and Diana
Whipple for her RFLP expertise.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S.K., L. Peddie, J. Peddie, R. Isaza, F. Dunker, G. West,
W. Lindsay, R.S.Larsen, M. D. Salman, D. Chatterjee, J. Payeur, D.
Whipple, C. Thoen, D. Davis, C. Sedgwick, R.J. Montali, M. Ziccardi, J.
Maslow. 2001. Epidemiology and diagnosis of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in captive asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J.
Zoo Wildl. Med. 32: 1-16.
2. Oh, P., R. Granich, J. Scott, B. Sun, M. Joseph, C. Stringfield, S.
Thisdell, J. Staley, D. Workman-Malcolm, L. Borenstein, E. Lehnkering,
P. Ryan, J. Soukup, A.Nitta, J. Flood. 2002. Human exposure following
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a
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36.
Guidelines for the control of tuberculosis in elephants. 2003.
Ref Type: Electronic Citation
37.
Chakraborty A. 2003. Diseases of elephants (Elephas maximus) in
India-A Review.Indian Wildlife Year Book 2: 74-82.
38.
Mahanta P.N. 2003. Health monitoring and common diseases in free ranging
elephants. In: Das D (ed), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian
Elephants pp. 130-136. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.
39.
Michel A.L., Venter L., Espie I.W. and Coetzee M.L. 2003.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections in eight species at the
National Zoological Gardens of South Africa, 1991-2001.Journal of Zoo
and Wildlife Medicine 34: 364-370.
Abstract: Between 1991 and 2001 a total of 12 cases of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis infection in eight different species were recorded in
the National Zoological Gardens of South Africa in Pretoria (Tshwane).
The genetic relatedness between seven of the M. tuberculosis
isolates was determined by IS6110 restriction fragment length
polymorphism analysis. For the majority of the isolates that were
analyzed, a high degree of polymorphism suggested different sources of
infection. Evidence of M. tuberculosis transmission between
animals is reported in two chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed
together, from which samples were collected for analysis 29 mo apart.
40.
Mikota S.K., Hammatt H. and Finnegan M. 2003.
Occurrence
and prevention of capture wounds in Sumatran elephants (Elephas
maximus sumatranus). Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet, pp. 291-293.
Abstract: The capturing of elephants in Indonesia began in 1986 as an
attempted solution to human-elephant conflict. The intent was to train
"problem" elephants for use in agriculture, logging and tourism. The
initial captures were conducted under the guidance of Thai mahouts and
Thai koonkie elephants (trained elephants used for capture). A number
of the Indonesians that were originally trained in capture techniques
still work for the government forestry department (KSDA). The younger
pawangs (elephant handlers) that participate in captures have learned
from their peers. There is no formal training program. The actual
mortality rate associated with elephant captures in Sumatra is unknown
as official reports are lacking. The age structure of the existing ~
400 captive elephants is young (most under 25) which suggests that
smaller, younger elephants are preferentially captured and / or that
adult elephants do not survive the capture and training processes. Our
personal experiences (Mikota and Hammatt) in Sumatra show that mortality
in newly captured elephants is high.In 2001, with endorsement from the
World Wide Fund for Nature-Indonesia (WWF), the Wildlife Conservation
Society (WCS), Fauna and Flora International (FFI), and the
International Elephant Foundation (IEF), we requested a two-year
Moratorium on elephant captures during which time capture techniques
would be improved and alternative conflict mediation techniques
evaluated.
A Moratorium against placing additional elephants into the Elephant
Training Centers has been issued by the central government, however
capture for translocation is still sanctioned. Unfortunately, the
provincial governments have increasingly acted in their own interests
since the government of Indonesia began a de-centralization process a
few years ago. Riau Province is thought to have the largest remaining
populations of wild Sumatran elephants.Fifty-seven, human-elephant
conflicts occurred in Riau between 1997-2000. Although Riau is a hotbed
of conflict, problems are occurring throughout Sumatra and we are aware
of conflicts and captures in Bengkulu and North Sumatra. In October
2002, we were invited by KSDA (the provincial forestry department) to
accompany their team into the field as they attempted to capture a large
bull that had been raiding a palm oil plantation. This opportunity was
invaluable as we were able to observe first hand the techniques being
used and where improvements were needed. As a result of this and other
experiences with newly captured elephants we observed: ·Equipment
(Palmer) is old, poorly maintained, and used improperly. ·Essential
supplies are lacking or homemade substitutes are used.
·The dose of xylazine is very high compared to wild elephant capture
doses used in India and Malaysia. The same dose is often used
regardless of the size of the elephant. ·The needles are too short to
reach muscle; open-ended needles are used which can become plugged with
tissue, thus preventing injection. ·Neither the correct charge nor the
correct load is selected. We observed that many darts bounced making it
difficult to ascertain the amount of drug injected or its depth of
penetration. Selection of an inappropriate charge results in
unnecessary trauma. ·The preparation and use of darts, needles, and
syringes lacks basic hygiene. ·Dart wounds are not treated and
antibiotics are not administered. ·There is no understanding of stress
or capture myopathy. ·The capture team was not aware that sternal
recumbency severely compromises respiration in elephants and that they
can quickly die in this position. ·It is believed that elephant
restraints must inflict pain to prevent wild elephants from escaping
once captured. ·There is no veterinarian on the capture team. The
current capture techniques result in leg wounds from unprotected chains,
neck wounds from "kahs" (neck yokes made of wood and wire), and
abscesses from inappropriately administered darts. Leg and neck wounds
often become maggot infested. Infections from dart wounds are, however,
the primary cause of capture-related mortality. These abscesses can
drain for several months, even with treatment, and often progress to a
necrotizing fasciitis, acute sepsis, and death. The Riau Province KSDA
Team has been receptive to suggested changes to minimize wounds.
Provision of heavier chains has alleviated the fear that elephants will
escape. Covering the chains with fire hose or heavy plastic minimizes
injuries to legs and use of the kah has been discontinued. A basic dart
wound treatment protocol has been established. In June 2003, a
comprehensive Elephant Immobilization and Translocation Workshop for
Sumatra is planned to retrain all of Sumatra's field teams and to
upgrade equipment. Sumatra's wild elephant population probably numbers
fewer than 3000 and is under continued threat. With so few elephants
left, the preservation of as many viable herds as possible takes on
increased urgency. The Moratorium achieved in 2001 has set the
groundwork for KSDA to choose translocation of wild elephants rather
than capture and placement into already over-crowded and under-resourced
Elephant Training Centers. We cannot guarantee that Sumatra will
capture elephants only for translocation, and it is inevitable that many
more elephants will end up in captivity. Regardless, all of the
elephants that must suffer the interruption of their lives at the hand
of man deserve, at the very least, humane treatment. Translocations are
neither simple nor a complete panacea. Identifying suitable
translocation areas and insuring that elephants remain there are
significant challenges. WWF-Indonesia is continuing its efforts to
secure the lowland forest of Tesso Nilo in Riau Province as a "safe
haven" for at least some of Sumatra's wild elephants (see WWF AREAS
Program – Riau, Sumatra: http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/attachments/riau_profile.pdf).
The identification of interim release sites, together with improved
capture techniques, offers the hope that fewer elephants will be removed
from the wild. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Our work in Sumatra has been supported
by the Guggenheim Foundation, a CEF grant from the American Zoo and
Aquarium Association, the International Elephant Foundation, Oregon Zoo,
Columbus Zoo, Disney, Peace River Refuge, the Elephant Managers
Association, the Riddles Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Tulsa Zoo,
Toronto Zoo, Niabi Zoo, San Antonio Zoo, Denver Zoo (AAZK Chapter),
Milwaukee Zoo (AAZK Chapter), the Audubon Nature Institute (Youth
Volunteers), Buttonwood Park Zoo, Melbourne Zoo, and private donors.
Special thanks to Harry Peachey, John Lehnhardt, Holly Reed, Kay Backues,
Mike Keele, Steve Osofsky, and Heidi and Scott Riddle.
41.
Nath I., Bose V.S.C., Panda S.K., Das B.C. and Singh L.A.K. 2003. A case
of multiple abscesses in a baby elephant.Zoos' Print Journal 18: 1270.
42.
Pavlik I., Ayele W.Y., Parmova I. et al. 2003.
Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in animal and human populations in six Central European
countries during 1990-1999.Veterinarni Medicina 48: 83-89.
Abstract: Results of Mycobacterium tuberculosis detection in animals
from six Central European countries (Croatia, the Czech Republic,
Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia) spreading over 610402 km2 with a
population of 11.8 million heads of cattle were analysed. In the
monitoring period between 1990 and 1999, M. tuberculosis from animals
was isolated only in two countries (Poland and Slovak Republic) from 16
animals with tuberculous lesions. These comprise 9 cattle (Bos taurus),
4 domestic pigs (Sus scrofa f. domestica) and three wild animals, an
African elephant (Loxodonta africana), agouti (Dasyprocta aguti) and
terrestrial tapir (Tapirus terrestris) from a zoological garden Gdansk
in Poland. A steady decrease in the incidence of tuberculosis in humans
was recorded during the monitoring period in all countries. The human
population of the study countries was 68.03 million. In the period
monitored, infection caused by M. tuberculosis was identified in a total
of 241040 patients with a decreasing incidence of tuberculosis found in
all countries. The lowest relative bacteriologically confirmed disease
was found in the Czech Republic, Slovak Republic and Slovenia. Given the
low number of infected domestic and wild animals, the epidemiological
and epizootiological situation may be considered auspicious.
43.
Potters D., Seghers M., Muyldermans G. et al. 2003.
Recovery of
Mycobacterium elephantis from sputum of a patient in
belgium.Journal of Clinical Microbiology 41: 1344.
Abstract: Mycobacterium elephantis was isolated from a human
respiratory specimen in April 1999, demonstrating its presence in
Europe. The biochemical reaction results, antimicrobial susceptibility
pattern, and sequence data for this strain are all in agreement with
those of M. elephantis strains isolated previously from
other continents.
44.
Rahman T. 2003. Infectious and non-infectious disease of elephants. In:
Das D (ed), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants pp.
108-118. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.
45.
Rehman A. 2003. Disease control program of elephants. In: Das D (ed),
Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants pp. 152-156.
Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.
46.
Schmitt D.L. 2003. Proboscidea (Elephants). In: Fowler ME and Miller RE
(eds), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine pp. 541-550. Elsevier Science USA.
47.
Sleeman J.M., Clyde V.L., Finnegan M.V., Ramsay E.C. and Shires M.G.
2003. Mammary botryomycosis and mastectomy in an African elephant
(Loxodonta africana).Vet Rec 152: 54-55.
48.
Vodicka R. and Kral J. 2003.
Purulent
trunk dermatitis in a male Ceylon elephant (Elephas maximus).Verh.ber.Erkrg.Zootiere
41: 151-153.
Abstract: A report in given on the therapy of purulent trunk dermatitis
in an aggressive male Ceylon elephant. Despite the non-standard steps we
took (repeated anaesthesias during a short time, non-compliance with the
recommendations as to the application of some drugs, etc.) and the
difficult handling (an aggressive; incontrollable elephant, no restraint
chute), it is possible even to treat a case like this.
49.
Ziccardi M., Wong H.N., Tell L.A. et al. 2003. Further
optimization and validation of the antigen 85 immunoassay for diagnosing
mycobacteriosis in wildlife. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet, pp. 219-220.
Abstract: Mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis, M.
tuberculosis and M. avium has been a well-documented health
problem for zoological collections as long ago as the late 19th
century. Prevalence estimation in these captive wildlife populations,
however, has been hampered by diagnostic test methods that are
oftentimes difficult or impossible to conduct and/or interpret (due to
the requirement for multiple immobilizations for measurement of
response), the occurrence of non-specific results with methods such as
the intradermal skin test, and/or the near-total lack of validation,
optimization and standardization of any of the available test methods in
the species of interest. Additionally, because intradermal skin testing
is the primary screening method for many of these species, the ability
to compare exposure in captive wildlife with exposure in free-ranging
populations has been limited due to the difficulty with follow-up in
free-ranging populations. Lastly, unlike testing methods that use
serological techniques, skin testing precludes retrospective studies of
banked samples to determine onset of reactivity.
Recently, human tuberculosis researchers working with tuberculosis in
humans have developed an immunoassay that detects a serum protein
complex (the antigen 85, or Ag85, complex) produced by mycobacteria in
the early stages of mycobacterial infections1. Previous work
has shown that this method is a promising diagnostic tool in the
evaluation of tuberculosis exposure in some primate (including orangutan
(Pongo pygmaeus ), a species known for non-specific tuberculin
responses)2 and captive hoofstock species3. In
order to determine the feasibility and applicability of a widespread use
of this method for captive and free-ranging wildlife species, we have
undertaken a number of pilot studies on different populations of
interest, with the goals of optimizing and validating the immunoassay
through analysis of serum from known infected and non-infected
individuals and through comparisons with other diagnostic methods. Thus
far, we have begun evaluating the applicability of the antigen 85
immunoassay in various avian, primate, rhinoceros and hoofstock species
for detecting tuberculosis and/or paratuberculosis (Johne's disease)
infections. Preliminary results, a summary of which will be presented,
indicate that this method may be a valuable adjunct to other testing
methods (including gamma interferon and multiple-antigen ELISA) to allow
a better evaluation of true mycobacterial status in these species.
LITERATURE CITED
1.Bentley-Hibbert, S. I., X. Quan, T. G. Newman, K. Huygen and H. P.
Godfrey. 1999. Pathophysiology of Antigen 85 in patients with active
tuberculosis. Infect Immun. 67(2):581-8.
2.Kilbourn, A. M., H. P. Godfrey, R. A. Cook, P. P. Calle, E. J. Bosi,
S. I. Bentley-Hibbert, K. Huygen, M. Andau, M. Ziccardi and W. B. Karesh.
2001. Serum Antigen 85 levels in adjunct testing for active
mycobacterial infections in orangutans. J. Wildl. Dis. 37(1): 65-71.
3.Mangold, B. J., R. A. Cook, M. R. Cranfield, K. Huygen, and H. P.
Godfrey. 1999. Detection of elevated levels of circulating antigen 85
by dot immunobinding assay in captive wild animals with tuberculosis.
J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 30(4): 477-483.
50.
Alexander K.A., Pleydell E., Williams M.C. et al. 2002.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis: An Emerging Disease of Free-Ranging
Wildlife.Emerging Infectious Diseases 8: 598-601.
Abstract: Expansion of ecotourism-based industries, changes in land-use
practices, and escalating competition for resources have increased
contact between free-ranging wildlife and humans. Although human
presence in wildlife areas may provide an important economic benefit
through ecotourism, exposure to human pathogens
may represent a health risk for wildlife. This report is the first to
document introduction of a primary human pathogen into free-ranging
wildlife. We describe outbreaks of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a
human pathogen, in free-ranging banded mongooses (Mungos mungo)
in Botswana and suricates (Suricata suricatta) in South Africa.
Wildlife managers and scientists must address the potential threat that
humans pose to the health of free-ranging wildlife.
51.
Auclair B., Mikota S., Peloquin C.A., Aguilar R. and Maslow J.N. 2002.
Population pharmacokinetics of antituberculous drugs and treatment of
Mycobacterium bovis infection in Bongo Antelope (Tragelaphus
eurycrus isaaci ).Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 33: 193-203.
52.
Benkirane A. and de Alwis M.C.L. 2002. Haemorrhagic septicaemia, its
significance, prevention and control in Asia.Vet.Med.-Czech 47: 234-240.
Abstract: Haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS) is an endemic disease in most
countries of Asia and sub Saharan Africa. Within the Asian Region,
countries can be classified into three categories, on the basis of
incidence and distribution of the disease; these are respectively
countries where the disease is endemic or sporadic, clinically suspected
but not confirmed, or free. Economic losses due to HS are not only
confined to losses to the animal industry, but also rice production on
account of its high prevalence among draught animals used in rice
fields. Only a few attempts have been made to estimate economic losses,
the methodologies used in different countries have varied, and many are
not based on active surveillance, and a consideration of all components
of direct and indirect losses. Most Asian countries rank HS as the most
important contagious disease or the most important bacterial disease in
cattle and buffaloes. Resource allocation for prevention and control of
HS nationally or internationally will evidently depend on a correct
estimate of its economic impact. The key factors in prevention and
control would be timely and correct reporting, accurate and rapid
diagnosis, strategic use of vaccines with the attainment of a high
coverage where necessary with a high quality vaccine. National level
activities geared towards attainment of these objectives may be with
advantage supported and strengthened by international organisations
involved in animal health. ?e present paper attempts to review aspects
related to the epidemiology, control and containment of HS in Asia and,
proposes some key issues on which a regional programme for HS control in
this continent should be centred.
53.
Chandrasekharan K. 2002. Specific diseases of Asian elephants.Journal of
Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7: 31-34.
Abstract: The earliest writing describing the diseases of elephants in
ancient literature said to be the works on "Gajasastra" (Elephantology)
written in Sanskrit by authors like Gautama, Narada, Mrigacharma,
Rajaputra and Vyasa. "Hasthyayurveda" a legendary book in Sanskrit
written by a safe Palakapya deals with some diseases, treatment,
desirable and undesirable points of selection, management practices and
some mythological aspects on the origin of elephants. The earliest book
in English dealing with diseases of elephants seems to be that of W.
Gilchrist "A practical treatise on the treatment of diseases of
elephants" published in 1848. Later Slym (1873), Sanderson (1878), Steel
(1885), Evans (1910), Herpburn (1913), Milroy (1922), Ptaff (1940),
Ferrier (1947), Utoke Gale (1974), Chandrasekharan (1979) and Panicker
(1985) have documented their findings on the incidence, etiology and
control of diseases of Asian elephants.
54.
Gavier-Widen D., Hard Af Segerstad C., Roken B. et al. 2002.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
infection in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Sweden.
European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians 4th Scientific
Meeting, Heidelberg, Germany.
55.
Mikota S.K. and Maslow J. 2002. Epidemiology and Treatment of
Tuberculosis in Elephants: 2002. In: Baer CK (ed), American Association
of Zoo Veterinarians Annual Conference, 2002, pp. 384-387.
56.
Nayar K.N.M., Chandrasekharan K. and Radhakrishnan K. 2002. Management
of surgical affections in captive elephants.Journal of Indian Veterinary
Association Kerala 7: 55-59.
57. Oh
P., Granich R., Scott J. et al. 2002. Human exposure following
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a
Metropolitan Zoo.Emerg Infect Dis 8: 1290-1293.
Abstract: From 1997 to 2000, Mycobacterium tuberculosis was diagnosed in
two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), three Rocky Mountain goats (Oreamnos
americanus), and one black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in the Los
Angeles Zoo. DNA fingerprint patterns suggested recent transmission. An
investigation found no active cases of tuberculosis in humans; however,
tuberculin skin-test conversions in humans were associated with training
elephants and attending an elephant necropsy.
58.
Payeur J.B., Jarnagin J.L., Marquardt J.G. and Whipple D.L. 2002.
Mycobacterial isolations in captive elephants in the United States.Ann N
Y Acad Sci 969: 256-258.
Abstract: Interest in tuberculosis in elephants has been increasing over
the past several years in the United States. Several techniques have
been used to diagnose mammalian tuberculosis. Currently, the test
considered most reliable for diagnosis of TB in elephants is based on
the culture of respiratory secretions obtained by trunk washes.
59.
Peloquin CA. 2002. Therapeutic drug monitoring in the treatment of
tuberculosis.Drugs 62: 2169-2183.
60.
Singh V.N. 2002. Symptomatic study of haemorrhagic septicaemia in
elephant in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.Indian Forester
128: 1089-1100.
Abstract: Symptoms of haemorrhagic septicaemia, a dreaded disease in
elephant is recorded in this study which reveals systematic spread of
Oedema from jowl to throat, neck, brisket, abdomen and perenical
regions. It also records the changes in character/colour of dung, urine,
eye, tongue, trunk, body temperature, feeding habit and body condition
alo |