disother

1. Masunga G.S., Andresen Ø., Taylor J.E. and Dhillion S.S. 2007. Elephant dung decomposition and coprophilous fungi in two habitats of semi-arid Botswana.Mycol Res 110 (Pt10): 1214-1226.
Abstract: In order to understand the impact of habitat changes on ecosystem processes caused by increased populations of elephants, elephant dung decomposition was studied in semi-arid Botswana. Dung decomposition rates were studied with and without the presence of arthropods, using pairs of exposed dung and dung enclosed in nylon-mesh bags, respectively. Dung decomposition rates were lower in the absence of arthropods. The rates in the late wet season were higher in the scrubland than in the woodland. In the early dry season, immediately after the wet season, the rates were higher in the woodland than in the scrubland. The difference in decomposition rates between habitats was attributed to microclimatic conditions created by vegetation cover. With regard to fungal succession, Cladosporium cladosporioides and Eurotium brefeldianum occurred only in the late stages of dung decomposition whereas Talaromyces helicus, Cercophora coprophila and Sporormiella minima occurred in all the stages. Although there was no significant difference in Shannon-Weiner fungal species diversity index between habitats, seasons, dung ages and laboratory incubation periods, there were significant differences in fungal community composition between these parameters. Species richness was higher in the late wet season than in the early dry season, indicating the importance of moist conditions for a large diversity of fungal species.Department of Ecology & Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Aas, Norway. gaseitsiwe.masunga@umb.no

2. Matsumoto K., Parola P., Rolain J.M., Jeffery K. and Raoult D. 2007. Detection of "Rickettsia sp. strain Uilenbergi" and "Rickettsia sp. strain Davousti" in Amblyomma tholloni ticks from elephants in Africa.BMC Microbiol 7: 74 [Epub ahead of print].
Abstract: ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: To date, 6 tick-borne rickettsiae pathogenic for humans are known to occur in Africa and 4 of them were first identified in ticks before being recognized as human pathogens. RESULTS: We examined 33 and 5 Amblyomma tholloni ticks from African elephants in the Central African Republic and Gabon, respectively, by PCR amplification and sequencing of a part of gltA and ompA genes of the genus Rickettsia. The partial sequences of gltA and ompA genes detected in tick in Gabon had 99.1% similarity with those of R. heilongjiangensis and 97.1% with those of Rickettsia sp. HL-93 strain, respectively. The partial gltA and ompA gene sequences detected in tick in the Central African Republic were 98.9% and 95.1% similar to those of Rickettsia sp. DnS14 strain and R. massiliae, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis showed Rickettsia sp. detected in Gabon clusters with R. japonica and R. heilongjiangensis in a phylogenetic tree based on the partial gltA and ompA genes. The genotype of the Rickettsia sp. detected in the Central African Republic is close to those of R. massiliae group in the phylogenetic tree based on partial gltA gene sequences, and distantly related to other rickettsiae in the tree based on partial ompA gene. CONCLUSIONS: The degrees of similarity of partial gltA and ompA genes with recognized species indicate the rickettsiae detected in this study may be new species although we could only study the partial sequences of 2 genes regarding the amount of DNA that was available. We propose the Rickettsia sp. detected in Gabon be provisionally named "Rickettsia sp. stain Davousti" and Rickettsia sp. detected in the Central African Republic be named "Rickettsia sp. strain Uilenbergi".

3. Masunga G.S., Andresen O., Taylor J.E. and Dhillion S.S. 2006. Elephant dung decomposition and coprophilous fungi in two habitats of semi-arid Botswana.Mycological Research 110: 1214-1226.
Abstract: In order to understand the impact of habitat changes on ecosystem processes caused by increased populations of elephants, elephant dung decomposition was studied in semi-arid Botswana. Dung decomposition rates were studied with and without the presence of arthropods, using pairs of exposed dung and dung enclosed in nylon-mesh bags, respectively. Dung decomposition rates were lower in the absence of arthropods. The rates in the late wet season were higher in the scrubland than in the woodland. In the early dry season, immediately after the wet season, the rates were higher in the woodland than in the scrubland. The difference in decomposition rates between habitats was attributed to microclimatic conditions created by vegetation cover. With regard to fungal succession, Cladosporium cladosporioides and Eurotium brefeldianum occurred only in the late stages of dung decomposition whereas Talaromyces helicus, Cercophora coprophila and Sporormiella minima occurred in all the stages. Although there was no significant difference in Shannon-Weiner fungal species diversity index between habitats, seasons, dung ages and laboratory incubation periods, there were significant differences in fungal community composition between these parameters. Species richness was higher in the late wet season than in the early dry season, indicating the importance of moist conditions for a large diversity of fungal species.

4. Wynne J. and Greer L. 2006. Management of digital osteomyelitis in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 185-186.
Abstract: A 47-yr-old female Asian elephant was diagnosed with osteomyelitis of the left front digit 5, involving phalynges 1 and 2. Based on culture results of Pseudomonas and Bacteroides, enrofloxacin and metronidazole rectal suppository treatment was started. Serum levels were measured and different formulations were developed to attempt to deliver appropriate drug levels. The osteomyelitis progressed over the next 55 days. Enrofloxacin was discontinued based on culture and sensitivities (C&S) and regional limb perfusion (RLP) using amikacin started. From this point on, daily treatments with RLP have been performed. The 3-g amikacin dose was based on 5% of the elephant's systemic dose. Two weeks later, RLP with 6 g of ampicillin was started on alternate days based on C&S, and the following week, 400 mg fluconazole was added on a third day in response to C&S and tissue biopsies indicating invasive Candida. Despite aggressive medical therapy, radiographs and bone biopsy indicated the osteomyelitis continued. Surgery was performed 3 mo after systemic antibiotics were initiated. All infected bone and tissue was identified with methylene blue, and removed. Only the most proximal third of P1 remained post surgery. Post surgery, daily sterile bandage changes were performed and rotational RLP treatment was continued with amikacin (8 g), ampicillin (15 g), and fluconazole (800 mg). This daily treatment regime, with some drug adjustments, has been continued for 6 mo. One month after surgery P1 was radiolucent at the distal margin, and was progressing to a fragmented appearance, indicating the osteomyelitis may still be present. Amikacin serum levels were collected post RLP, before the tourniquet was removed. Systemic theraputic levels were reached, but not the recommended 10 times MIC. Amikacin was replaced with 12 g of ceftazidime in the RLP rotation. Two months post surgery a fragment of the remaining P1 was easily biopsied from the healing surgical tract with culture results indicating Enterococcus, but not Pseudomonas. Three months post surgery we reinstituted enrofloxacin suppositories at a higher dose. At 5 mo post surgery, cultures indicated that we had successfully eliminated Pseudomonas and anaerobic growth; however, the healing site continued to yield various gram-negative bacteria, including a Klebsiella resistant to ceftazidine. We replaced ceftazidine with 12 g of ceftriaxone and continued ampicillin and fluconazole in the 3-day RLP rotation. Since this last medical alteration the remaining P1 fragments have been radiographically unchanged for 3 mo and the surgical wound has been reduced to a tract that is <2 mm in diameter and 4 cm deep. The current success of this treatment is attributed to a very tractable patient that has allowed daily medical care for over 8 mo. We are continuing her daily treatments and I will give an update on the progression of the case.

5. Zuba J.R., Oosterhuis J.E. and Pessier A.P. 2006. The toenail "abscess" in elephants: treatment options including cryotherapy and pathologic similarities with equine proliferative pododermatitis (canker). 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 187-190.
Abstract: Foot problems potentially represent the single most important clinical disease of captive elephants. Predisposing factors include obesity, lack of exercise, nail or sole overgrowth, improper foot care, poor hygiene, inappropriate enclosure surfaces, poor conformation, malnutrition and secondary skeletal disorders such as degenerative joint disease. Furthermore, factors such as elephant management philosophy, disposition of elephants, facilities and competency of staff in caring for elephant feet will contribute significantly to the foot health of captive animals. It is important to note that these conditions are rarely reported in free-ranging elephants. The elephant toenail abscess is characterized grossly by proliferative outgrowth of "crab meat-like" tissue that may acutely rupture through the surface of the nail wall and/or adjacent cuticle or sole. True abscess formation with localized collections of suppurative material is not a consistent clinical feature. In most cases, the inciting cause of these lesions are typically not found and are likely due to one or more of the predisposing factors listed above. Once established, these frustrating lesions require extensive, intensive and prolonged medical attention. If not cared for properly, these wounds may progress to phalangeal osteomyelitis and the need for surgical intervention. Sole abscesses are equally frustrating and difficult to manage with proposed etiologies similar to toenail lesions. There are no reports in the literature describing the pathology of the classic proliferative abscess tissue of the elephant nail abscess. Although variously interpreted as fibrous or granulation tissue, the authors are unaware of previous histologic descriptions of this tissue. Biopsy samples of toenail abscess tissue from two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at the San Diego Wild Animal Park (SDWAP) consisted of stratified squamous epithelium arranged in columns resembling horn tubules. The predominant histologic finding was marked, near diffuse, hydropic degeneration of keratinocytes. There were multifocal areas of suppurative inflammation with admixed bacterial colonies. Inflammatory foci comprised only a small portion of the lesion and were interpreted as the external surfaces of the biopsy with likely secondary bacterial colonization. Because descriptions of the normal histology of the elephant toenail could not be located, a grossly normal toenail from a different Asian elephant was obtained to compare histologic features with those of the toenail abscesses. Sections demonstrated formation of the toenail in a manner similar to that of the hoof of the horse and cattle with tubular, intertubular and laminar horn. Primary and secondary epidermal laminae were identified. Proliferative lesions of horn-producing epithelium associated with ballooning degeneration and inadequate keratinization of keratinocytes, have been described in horses as equine "canker" and coronary band dystrophy. Equine canker is most commonly observed in the hind feet of draft horses and begins in the frog sometimes with extension to the sole and hoof wall. Grossly, lesions are characterized by soft white papillary to "cauliflower-like" tissue associated with a foul odor. Similar to what is noted in elephant foot problems, predisposing factors for the development of equine canker include poor hygiene or wet environmental conditions. There is a lack of gross and histologic description of the normal nail and sole tissue of the elephant and further investigations are warranted. A review of the anatomy and histology of the normal equine hoof may provide a basic understanding of the elephant nail until more specific and detailed elephant information is available. From our investigation, the authors offer that a more accurate description of the elephant toenail abscess would be proliferative pododermatitis, the term synonymous with equine canker. A more colloquial term such as "elephant canker" may be appropriate, as well. Canker in the horse is an uncommon but difficult to treat disease of the hoof. Historically, treatment options for elephant toenail abscesses include corrective trimming, superficial debridement and application of topical disinfectants or antibiotics. Others have constructed innovative sandals to treat and protect the affected sole or nail with success. The use of regional intravenous perfusion of the affected limb with antibiotics has also been successful. Since the elephant nail abscess now appears to be histologically and clinically comparable to equine canker, this novel characterization of an old disease may offer unique insight for treatment. In the least, it has provided our practice with a new list of treatment options and experienced equine clinicians for consultation who have been managing patients with a similar disease for many years. One of the Asian elephants at the SDWAP has had chronic toenail abscesses for over 2 yr. Radiographs of the affected digits, as reported by others to assess degree of involvement, have fortunately been negative for evidence of osteomyelitis. Several bacterial and fungal cultures of deep tissue biopsies and swabs of affected lesions have resulted in a mixture of organisms with no consistent single etiologic agent. Biopsies were found negative for presence of viral DNA (elephant papillomavirus and herpesvirus) by PCR. Typical elephant foot care at the SDWAP includes trimming and debriding with hoof knives, foot soaks and topical antibiotics. Although difficult, attempts are made in keeping the affected foot clean and dry. Following recommendations for the treatment of equine canker, we recently implemented the routine use of cryotherapy in all elephants with proliferative pododermatitis with improved success in the control and recession of exuberant nail lesions. The proliferative tissue of the nail is first cleaned then disinfected, debrided, trimmed with hoof knives and allowed to dry. Modified brass branding tools with contact surfaces of variable size (2-5 cm diameter) and shape (round or ovoid) are placed into liquid nitrogen (-196 C) for several minutes and then placed directly on the cankerous tissue for 30-60 sec. This process is then repeated 4-5 min later, following a complete thaw of tissue. Within 24 hr, the cryoburned tissue becomes macerated and necrotic and is readily removed with gentle scrubbing. Cryotherapy offers the advantage of destroying tissue to a deeper level than trimming alone and provides hemostasis, as well. Because of decreased sensation at the cryotherapy treatment site, a memorable painful event is avoided and the elephant patient is more routinely accepting of this technique. With the use of hoof knives, we typically remove 2-3 mm of proliferative tissue before the patient refuses further treatment, presumably due to discomfort. With cryotherapy, we are able to remove an additional 3-5 mm of tissue by cell freezing and necrosis. The result is quicker resolution of cankerous lesions without the need for aggressive, and potentially painful, interventions. In conclusion, it appears that elephant nail abscesses can best be described as proliferative pododermatitis, or canker, as is seen in other species. Further gross and microscopic descriptions of normal and pathologic nail or sole lesions are necessary. Routine cryotherapy has shown promise in the treatment of these chronic, frustrating and potentially devastating lesions of our captive elephants.

6. Sanchez C.R., Murray S.Z., Isaza R. and Papich M.G. 2005. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of enrofloxacin administered orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).Am J Vet Res 66: 1948-1953.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To determine the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after oral administration to captive elephants. ANIMALS: 6 clinically normal adult Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). PROCEDURE: Each elephant received a single dose of enrofloxacin (2.5 mg/kg, PO). Three elephants received their complete diet (pellets and grain) within 2 hours after enrofloxacin administration, whereas the other 3 elephants received only hay within 6 hours after enrofloxacin administration. Serum concentrations of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin were measured by use of high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: Harmonic mean half-life after oral administration was 18.4 hours for all elephants. Mean +/- SD peak serum concentration of enrofloxacin was 1.31 +/- 0.40 microg/mL at 5.0 +/- 4.2 hours after administration. Mean area under the curve was 20.72 +/- 4.25 (microg x h)/mL. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Oral administration of enrofloxacin to Asian elephants has a prolonged elimination half-life, compared with the elimination half-life for adult horses. In addition, potentially therapeutic concentrations in elephants were obtained when enrofloxacin was administered orally at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg. Analysis of these results suggests that enrofloxacin administered with feed in the manner described in this study could be a potentially useful antimicrobial for use in treatment of captive Asian elephants with infections attributable to organisms, such as Bordetella spp, Escherichia coli, Mycoplasma spp, Pasteurella spp, Haemophilus spp, Salmonella spp, and Staphylococcus spp.

7. Paugy M., Baillon F., Chevalier D. and Duponnois R. 2004. Elephants as dispersal agents of mycorrhizal spores in Burkina Faso.African Journal of Ecology 42: 225-227.
Abstract: It is well known that the seeds of many plant species are blank; found in the dung of elephants ( Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1797) (Waifhaka, 2001). As fruits constitute the main component of elephant diets in forest environments (White, 1994), most of the studies have focused on the role of elephants and their impacts on the structure of plant communities, in particular through their role as seed dispersal agents (Wrangham, Chapman & Chapman, 1994). Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have been shown to be ubiquitous in terrestrial ecosystems and beneficial for plant growth (Smith & Read, 1997). These symbiotic relationships increase plant nutrient uptake (Bu¨ rkert & Robson, 1994). In soils, AM fungi are found as spores, hyphae or infected root pieces (Duponnois et al., 2001) and all these fungal propagules are sources of inoculum (Sylvia & Jarstfer, 1992). As elephants consume both roots (as described for Combretum molle) but also herbaceous plant species (Tehoue, 2001), they can act as dispersal agents for the AM propagules. This study investigated the role of elephants in AM propagule in Burkina Faso, in 'Deux Bale´' National Park located near Boromo (175 km at the south-west of Ouagadougou).

8. Vodicka R. and Kral J. 2003. Purulent trunk dermatitis in a male Ceylon elephant (Elephas maximus).Verh.ber.Erkrg.Zootiere 41: 151-153.
Abstract: A report in given on the therapy of purulent trunk dermatitis in an aggressive male Ceylon elephant. Despite the non-standard steps we took (repeated anaesthesias during a short time, non-compliance with the recommendations as to the application of some drugs, etc.) and the difficult handling (an aggressive; incontrollable elephant, no restraint chute), it is possible even to treat a case like this.

9. Ronald B.S.M., Sukumar K., Meenachiselvan M.S. and Dorairajan N. 2000. Isolation of Actinomyces pyogenes [Arcanobacterium pyogenes] from fistula in an elephant.Zoos' Print Journal 15: 306.

10. Kodikara D.S., deSilva N., Makuloluwa C.A.B. and Gunatilake M. 1999. Bacterial and fungal pathogens isolated from corneal ulcerations in domesticated elephants (Elephas maximus maximus) in Sri Lanka.Veterinary Ophthalmology 2: 191-192.
Abstract: Of 140 elephants of different ages and both sexes, 36 animals (25.7%) had evidence of keratitis, corneal ulcers, corneal opacities and some had foreign bodies in their eyes. Nine elephants (6.4%) had lesions in both eyes (6.41%). Cultures for both bacteria and fungi were obtained from 26 corneal ulcers, including the nine elephants with bilateral lesions. The other 10 animals could not be restrained for sample collection. Swabs from the normal corneas of an additional 20 elephants without signs of any ophthalmic diseases were also collected. 23 of the 35 (65.71%) samples from affected corneas yielded bacterial pathogens, and 14 (40%) also had fungal isolates. None of them yielded a fungal isolate alone. The predominant bacteria isolated were Staphylococcus aureus, beta haemolytic streptococci and coliforms. Fusarium, Cladosporium, Curvularia and Aspergillus species were the primary fugal isolates. No bacteria or filamentous fungi were isolated from the eyes with the normal corneas. Microbial identification including that of fungal isolates is suggested in the management of infective corneal diseases in elephants.

11. Mikota S.K. 1999. Diseases of the Elephant: A Review.Verh.ber.Erkrg.Zootiere 39: 1-15.

12. Kirchhoff H., Schmidt R., Lehmann H., Clark H. and Hill A.C. 1996. Mycoplasma elephantis sp. nov., a new species from elephants. Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 46: 437-441.
Abstract: Organisms with the typical characteristics of mycoplasmas were isolated from the genital tracts of female elephants. The results of growth inhibition tests, metabolic inhibition tests, indirect immunoflourescence tests, and immunobinding assays showed that the isolated mycoplasmas were identical and distinct from previously described Mycoplasma, Entoplasma, Mesoplasma, and Acholeplasma species. These organisms represent a new species, for which the name Mycoplasma elephantis is proposed. M. elephantis ferments glucose, fructose, maltose, mannos, and sucrose, produces films and spots, does not hydrolyze arginine, esculin, and urea, does not reduce methylene blue, tetrazolium chloride, and potassium tellurite, does not possess phosphatase activity, and reduces resazurin. It lyses avian, ovine, and guinea pig erythrocytes. It does not absorb erythrocytes. Cholesterol or serum is required for growth. The optimum growth temperature is 37 degrees C. The G+C content of the DNA is 24.0 mol%. The type strain of M. elephantis is E42 (= ATCC 51980.

13. Guillot J., Chermette R. and Gueho E. 1994. Prevalence of the genus Malassezia in the Mammalia.Journal de Mycologie Medicale 4: 72-79.
Abstract: The carriage of Malassezia on the skin of 271 domestic and 85 wild mammals was investigated. Ear samples and skin samples were collected, and Sabouraud's glucose agar with 0.05% chloramphenicol and 0.05% cycloheximide and the same medium with 1% olive oil were used for cultures. The plates were incubated for 1 wk at 32 and 37°C, respectively. Of the 356 animals examined, representative of 40 different species, 122 (34%) had Malassezia on the skin, especially in the external ear canal (27%). Lipophilic yeasts were particularly prevalent in some animal species (29% of cattle, 36% of cats, 57% of pigs, 66% of dogs and 75% of pachyderms). For these species, the presence of yeasts correlated with the amount of lipids on the skin. No Malassezia yeasts were recovered from rodents, lagomorphs and insectivores. Most strains isolated from domestic and wild carnivores (33 dogs, 18 cats, 2 bears, 2 foxes and 2 ferrets) were the non-lipid dependent species M. pachydermatis. The lipid dependent strain M. furfur was recovered from 23 pigs, 7 elephants, 3 chimpanzees, 2 rhinoceros, 2 sheep, 1 cow, 1 cheetah and 1 okapi. Except for 18 dogs, 12 cats, 2 foxes, 2 ferrets and 1 okapi suffering from otitis externa, no dermatological lesions were observed at the time of sampling. The possible aetiological role of Malassezia yeasts in animal cutaneous diseases is discussed.

14. Kuttin E.S. and Muller J. 1994. The fungal flora of zoo animals' ears.Mycoses 37: 59-60.
Abstract: The mycotic flora of the ears of zoo animals was investigated in a large zoological garden in Duisburg, Germany. Malassezia pachydermatis was isolated from the following animals: giant ant-eater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), brown bear (Ursus arctos), common wombat (Vombatus ursinus), Eurasian badger (Meles meles), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus bengalensis), Mangaliza pig (Potamochoerus sus scrofa domestica) and white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). Aspergillus fumigatus, A. niger, Candida guilliermondii, Geotrichum candidum, Trichosporon cutaneum [T. beigelii], Rhizopus microsporus, R. oryzae and Penicillium sp. were also isolated.

15. Okewole P.A., Oyetunde I.L., Irokanulo E.A. et al. 1993. Anthrax and cowdriosis in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).Veterinary Record 133: 168.
Abstract: In February 1992, a 15-year-old African elephant died; it was the second elephant that had died within 2 weeks at a wildlife park. Clinical signs in both elephants included frequent micturition, restlessness and weakness of the hindquarters with frequent falls. PM examination revealed ecchymosis of the epicardium, atrioventricular surfaces of the heart and serosal surfaces of the intestines and bladder with sloughing of intestinal mucosae. The liver was enlarged, ecchymotic and congested. A serosanguinous exudate with fibrin was present in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. The meninges were congested. Bacillus anthracis was cultured from tissue samples and from tissue samples from guineapigs inoculated with broth cultures of the tissue samples from the elephant. Cowdria ruminantium was identified in stained impression smears from the elephant brain. This appears to be the first report of the simultaneous occurrence of anthrax and cowdriosis in an African elephant.

16. Cedillo L., Gil C., Mayagoitia G. et al. 1992. Experimental arthritis induced by Mycoplasma pneumoniae in rabbits.Journal of Rheumatology 19: 344-347.
Abstract: Experimental arthritis in rabbits was induced by M. pneumoniae. We compared it with the arthritis produced by well known animal arthritogenic agents (M. pulmonis and M. arthritidis). Mycoplasmas were detected in the knee joint by different techniques. M. pneumoniae and M. pulmonis produced a chronic arthritis. Live M. pneumoniae and M. pulmonis were recovered from the joint during all experiments. No live M. arthritidis was detected. Live mycoplasmas play an important role in acute arthritis. A similar pattern was shown by M. pneumoniae and M. pulmonis. This animal model could be helpful in the study of arthritis induced by a human pathogen mycoplasma.

17. Islam S., Lahkar B.C., Barman N.N. and Das M. 1992. Isolation of Trichosporiella species from a fungal lesion of an Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) and its successful treatment.Journal of the Assam Veterinary Council 2: 68-69.
Abstract: Skin lesions (approx. 5 cm in size) were found on the left and right thoracic and abdominal regions along the linea alba of a working bull elephant. Some lesions showed scab-like thickening. A fungal isolate identified as Trichosporiella was cultured from skin scrapings of the lesions. The lesions resolved after 5 months of topical application of iodine and an ointment of salicylic, benzoic and chrysophanic acids.

18. Teunissen M.J., de Kort G.V., Op den Camp H.J. and Huis in 't Veld J.H. 1992. Production of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes during growth of the anaerobic fungus Piromyces sp. on different substrates.J Gen Microbiol 138 (Pt 8): 1657-1664.
Abstract: Piromyces sp. strain E2, an anaerobic fungus isolated from an Indian elephant (hindgut fermenter) was tested for its ability to ferment a range of substrates. The fungus was able to use bagasse, cellobiose, cellulose, fructose, glucose, lactose, mannose, starch, wheat bran, wheat straw, xylan and xylose. Formate and acetate were the main fermentation products after growth on these substrates. The amount of carbon found in the fermentation products of cultures, in which substrate digestion was complete averaged 88.5 mM, or 59% of the carbon offered as substrate. No growth was observed on other substrates tested. Lactose, starch, cellobiose and filter paper cellulose were good inducers of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes. Cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes were produced constitutively by Piromyces strain E2, although enzyme activities were generally lower after growth on glucose and other soluble sugars. Complex substrates (bagasse, wheat bran, and wheat straw) were good inducers for xylanolytic enzymes but not for cellulolytic enzymes. The extracellular protein banding pattern after SDS-PAGE was therefore only slightly affected by the growth substrate. Identical beta-glucosidase and endoglucanase activity patterns were found after growth on different substrates. This indicated that differences in enzyme activities were not the result of secretion of different sets of isoenzymes although it remains possible that the relative amount of each isoenzyme produced is influenced by the growth substrate.

19. Barile M.F., Yoshida H. and Roth H. 1991. Rheumatoid arthritis: New findings on the failure to isolate or detect mycoplasmas by multiple cultivation or serologic procedures and a review of the literature.Reviews of Infectious Diseases 13: 571-582.
Abstract: Using different and elaborate broth, agar, and cell culture procedures, we failed to isolate mycoplasmas, ureaplasmas, spiroplasmas, or chlamydiae from the synovial fluid of 10 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and from six patients with non-rheumatoid arthritis (NRA). In addition, sera from 35 patients with NRA also were examined. Although some of the sera had moderately high titers of metabolism-inhibiting antibody to some of the 10 human Mycoplasma species, especially to the common respiratory pathogen Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and to some of the eight Ureaplasma urealyticum serovars, especially serovars V and VII, there were no significant differences between titers of these antibodies in the two groups of patients. Among RA patients serum antibody titers to M. pneumoniae were 1:32 in five and 1:16 in eight; two patients had higher synovial fluid titers (1:16) than serum titers (1:4). The geometric mean titer (GMT) of antibody to serovar V in synovial fluid was higher in RA patients than in NRA patients, but the difference did not reach significance (P=.056). Reports on the possible role of infectious agents in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis are reviewed.

20. Gorina L.G., Goncharova S.A. and Igumnov A.V. 1991. Laboratory diagnosis of human mycoplasmoses.Vestnik Adademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR 1991: 44-47.

21. Teunissen M.J., Op den Camp H.J., Orpin C.G., Huis in 't Veld J.H. and Vogels G.D. 1991. Comparison of growth characteristics of anaerobic fungi isolated from ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores during cultivation in a defined medium.J Gen Microbiol 137 (Pt 6): 1401-1408.
Abstract: Anaerobic fungi were isolated from rumen fluid of a domestic sheep (Ovis aries; a ruminant) and from faeces of five non-ruminants: African elephant (Loxodonta africana), black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) and mara (Dolichotis patagonum). The anaerobic fungus isolated from the sheep was a Neocallimastix species and the isolates from non-ruminants were all species similar to Piromyces spp. A defined medium is described which supported growth of all the isolates, and was used to examine growth characteristics of the different strains. For each fungus the lipid phosphate content was determined after growth on cellobiose and the resulting values were used to estimate fungal biomass after growth on solid substrates. The ability of isolates from ruminants and non-ruminants to digest both wheat straw and cellulose was comparable. More than 90% and 60%, respectively, of filter paper cellulose and wheat straw were digested by most strains within 60-78 h. Growth of two fungi, isolated from rumen fluid of a sheep (Neocallimastix strain N1) and from faeces of an Indian rhinoceros (Piromyces strain R1), on cellobiose was studied in detail. Fungal growth yields on cellobiose were 64.1 g (mol substrate)-1 for N1 and 34.2 g mol-1 for R1. The major fermentation products of both strains were formate, lactate, acetate, ethanol and hydrogen.

22. Vulfovich Yu.V. 1991. Mycoplasm arthritogenicity and human mycoplasma-induced arthritis.Vestnik Adademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR 1991: 6-9.

23. Li J., Heath I.B. and Bauchop T. 1990. Piromyces mae and Piromyces dumbonica, two new species of uniflagellate anaerobic chytridiomycete fungi from the hindgut of the horse and elephant.Can.J.Bot. 68: 1021-1033.

24. Gorina L.G., Vulfovich Yu.V., Zifyan A.V. et al. 1989. Human mycoplasmic arthritis and its pathogenetic mechanisms.Vestnik Adademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR 1989: 84-87.

25. Muller M. and Rytz U. 1989. Dermatomycosis in two African elephants. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 31. Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere, Dortmund 1989, pp. 207-209. Akademie Verlag, Berlin, German Democratic Republic.
Abstract: Cases of dermatomycosis are reported in 2 adult African elephants in the Zoological Garden in Basle. Trichothecium, Scopulariopsis and Aspergillus spp. were isolated from skin biopsies.

26. Vulfovich Yu.V., Gorina L.G., Mitchenko A.F. et al. 1989. Mycoplasma and rheumatoid arthritis in children.Vestnik Adademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR 1989: 82-84.

27. Clark H.W., Coker-Vann M.R., Bailey J.S. and Brown T.M. 1988. Detection of mycoplasmal antigens in immune complexes from rheumatoid arthritis synovial fluids.Annals of Allergy 60: 394-398.
Abstract: This study was directed towards the detection of suspected antigenic microbial fragments in the immune complex (IC) fraction from chronic inflammatory disorders of the delayed type allergy. Mycoplasmas as the microbial prototype and joint fluid from the rheumatoid host were investigated. Protein-A affinity chromatography was used to isolate the immunoglobulin complex (IgG-IC) in six synovial fluids obtained from rheumatoid arthritis patients. The IgG-IC was digested with pepsin to further purify and obtain F(ab)2 complexes with greater specificity. The F(ab)2 complexes were dissociated and electrophoresed by SDS-PAGE and analyzed by immunoblotting using affinity purified rabbit antisera to six reference strains of human mycoplasmas. The presence of trace amount of mycoplasma antigens in the immune complex fractions was indicated by specific banding with antisera to M. pneumoniae, M. arthritidis, M. hominis, M. fermantans, and M. salivarium in one or more of the six synovial fluid fractions. The ELISA and immunoblot assays of seroconversion in rabbits immunized with the synovial fluid fractions also indicated the presence of mycoplasmal antigens.

28. Taylor-Robinson D., Furr P.M., Tully J.G., Barile M.F. and Moller B.R. 1987. Animal models of Mycoplasma genitalium urogenital infections.Israel Journal of Medical Sciences 23: 561-564.
Abstract: Male and female animals were inoculated urogenitally with Mycoplasma genitalium, recovered originally from men with nongonococcal urethritis. Mice, hamsters and male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were resistant. Male cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) were not as sensitive as male chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): 9 of 11 developed an obvious genital tract infection, some shedding organisms for more than 18 weeks. M. genitalium was recovered from the blood of two of them when large numbers of organisms were in the urethra. Most of the chimpanzees colonized with the organisms had increased numbers of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in the genital tract and developed a fourfold or greater antibody response. Female squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and female tamarins (Saguinus mystar) exhibited low-level genital tract infections following intravaginal inoculation, whereas marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) and chimpanzees developed prolonged infections after similar inoculation: thus, female chimpanzees shed organisms for 12 to 15 weeks. Marmosets and grivet monkeys (Ceropithecus aethiops) developed salpingitis with antibody responses after intraoviduct inoculation, and baboons (Papio anubis) developed parametritis after intracervical inoculation. The results offer substantial evidence for the pathogenicity of M. genitalium for the urogenital tract of subhuman primates, and suggest that the microorganism may have a role in human genital tract infections.

29. Barile, M. F., Kapatais-Zoumbos, K., Grabowski, M. W., Snoy, P., Sneller, M., Plotz, P., Gill, V., and Chandler, D. K. F. Mycoplasma hominis septic arthritis: Naturally occurring in humans and experimentally induced in chimpanzees. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology , 95. 1985.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: A recurrent septic arthritis developed in the wrist and prosthetic knee of a patient and continues to persist after ten months. Aspirations were negative for bacteria and viruses but consistently grew out pure cultures of M. hominis. The first positive culture was obtained 35 days after admission and four additional aspirations contained 10⁴ to 10⁷ CCU/ml of M. hominis. Oxytetracycline was initiated on Day 41 and by Day 65 the aspiration was negative. Treatment was continued for 6 months and terminated because of severe adverse gastrointestinal disturbances. After treatment was discontinued the patient suffered a relapse, and M. hominis was isolated again. Experimental arthritis was induced by inoculating synovial fluids containing 10^4 CCU/ml of M. hominis into the knee of a chimpanzee. Two additional chimpanzees inoculated with a pure culture of M. hominis containing 10^6 and 10^7 CCU/ml also developed arthritis. Sera and synovial fluids from the patient and chimpanzee contained MI specific antibody to M. hominis. The septic arthritis induced in the chimpanzee was remarkably similar to disease in the patient.

30. Clark H.W., Bailey J.S. and Brown T.M. 1985. Medium-dependent Properties of Mycoplasmas.Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 3: 283-294.
Abstract: Without a cell wall, the morphology, growth rate, and composition of mycoplasmas are culture media-dependent with variable properties best described as environmentally related. The adaptation of mycoplasmas to either a tissue cell or cell-free culture media, with dependency upon specific animal or plant products for survival, has led to investigations of their human host-related properties. The influence of culture media on the antibiotic sensitivities of mycoplasmas was measured by use of three different broths in two different assay systems. The variable results indicate that the inhibition of mycoplasma protein synthesis or growth may also by host-tissue dependent. The addition of noninhibitory penicillins to different culture media was found to affect the composition and antigenicity of some mycoplasmas. Using the complement fixation test, we found some human sera that were more reactive than rabbit antisera to mycoplasmas cultured in human synovial broth or in myelin-enriched broth. Mycoplasmas cultured in human lung broth and pig lung broth had media-dependent antigenicity. The antigenicity and the growth of mycoplasmas were found to depend on the proteolytic enzymes used to provide the essential peptides in tissue broths. The media-affected mycoplasmas indicate the presence of species-, strain-, and tissue-specific antigen sites that may determine immunopathogenicity in the genetically susceptible host.

31. Cole B.C., Washburn L.R. and Taylor-Robinson D. 1985. Mycoplasma-induced arthritis. In: Razin S and Barile MF (eds), The Mycoplasmas. Volume IV. Mycoplasma pathogenicity pp. 107-160. Academic Press, New York.

32. Snoy, P. J., Kapatais-Zoumbos, K., Grabowski, M. W., Chandler, D. K., and Barile, M. F. Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) as a model for a human Mycoplasma arthritis. Laboratory Animal Science 35, 533. 1985.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: Various Mycoplasma species have been shown to cause arthritis in animals and have been isolated from patients with septic arthritis and Reiter's syndrome. In this study, Mycoplasma hominis was isolated from synovial fluid of a patient with septic arthritis and then inoculated into the knee joints of several chimpanzees. The resulting arthritis in the chimpanzees was similar clinically to the arthritis in the patient. The course of disease in the chimpanzee was monitored by sequential biopsies of the joint capsule, clinical signs, and analysis of synovial fluid for volume, leukocyte count, M. hominis titer and antibody response. Different titers of Mycoplasma were inoculated in chimpanzees and a dose response was established. Sequential biopsies revealed and acute progressive but transient synovitis with a corresponding elevation in the amount of synovial fluids, synovial leukocyte counts, colonization by M. hominis and an increased antibody response. These data demonstrate that the chimpanzee provides an excellent model for the study of Mycoplasma induced arthritis in man.

33. Velez H. and Diaz F. 1985. Onychomycosis due to saprophytic fungi (human).Mycopathologia 91: 87-92.

34. Chatterjee A. 1984. Association of a Stephanofilaria indistinguishable form S. assamensis with lesions on the feet of Indian elephant (Elephas maximus).Indian Journal of Animal Health 23: 29-35.

35. Brown T.M., Bailey J.S., Iden K.I. and Clark H.W. 1982. Antimycoplasma approach to the mechanism and the control of rheumatoid disease. In: Sorenson JRJ (ed), Inflammatory diseases and copper pp. 391-407. Humana Press.

36. Clark H.W., Laughlin D.C. and Brown T.M. 1981. Rheumatoid arthritis in elephants -- a review to date.Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians: 95-99.

37. Brown T.M., Clark H.W. and Bailey J.S. 1980. Rheumatoid arthritis in the gorilla: A study of mycoplasma-host interaction in pathogenesis and treatment. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Comparative Pathology of Zoo Animals pp. 259-265. Smithsonian Institution, Washington,D.C.
Abstract: Rheumatoid arthritis in a gorilla was first observed at the National Zoo in 1969. As the result of our preliminary report, several other gorillas were recognized to have similar symptoms. These true animal models have been observed for seven to nine years with highly successful therapeutic results based upon a pathogenetic concept developed over a 30-year period in a study of the disease in humans. The seriousness of arthritis in the gorilla is reflected by the reports we have received in the past few years of a total of 26 additional captive gorillas variously affected. The systemic aspects of rheumatoid arthritis, such as failure to gain weight and grow normally, hot and swollen joints, migratory arthritis, severe localized muscular atrophy, generalized weakness and depression, presented classical evidence of the rheumatoid disease pattern. Remission occurred in one pregnant gorilla, and a flare reaction followed delivery, which is characteristic of the disease pattern in the human counterpart. Laboratory studies were in support of rheumatoid disease. Immunoglobulin alterations were noted with reversed A/G ratios and elevations of IgC and IgM. Positive bentonite flocculation rheumatoid factor tests were observed, and a positive lupus erythematosus (LE) test was noted in one animal. Abnormal hematologic findings were frequent, with increased sedimentation rates and lymphocytosis. Evidence of mycoplasma association was indicated by complement-fixing antibody response, positive cultures, and demonstration of the mycoplasma antigen in the tissue. Of greatest significance were the induced rise and subsequent fall of mycoplasma antibodies resulting from the challenge to the host with antimycoplasma medication and the production of the Jarisch-Herxheimer flare response. All these mycoplasma relationships have been found in man with the additional demonstration of delayed-type skin reaction with mycoplasma antigen. It has been stressed that in infectious hypersensitivity, the microbial source is obscured, yet it must be defined and the proper therapy planned on an individualized basis. The medication must be given in relatively small, intermittent dosage to avoid the development of delayed hypersensitivity which negates the drug effect. Until more effective medications are developed, the treatment must also be administered over an extended period of time to achieve permanent control of the disease. The demonstration of the importance of the pathogenesis concept speaks for itself in the final analysis with the recovery of severely disabled gorillas. In conclusion, it would appear that a study of rheumatoid arthritis in the gorilla and man, approached from the point of view of comparative pathology and medicine, has opened a new direction for an understanding of the pathogenesis of this complex disease. From these studies, one can now visualize for the first time that rheumatoid arthritis in the gorilla and in man is a controllable and potentially curable disease. It seems that new thinking in regard to further demonstrations of etiologic associations must be given to all species where tissue hypersensitivity to microbial agents is basic. It is suggested that Koch's postulates were not designed to include this area of pathogenesis where the role of the host is as significant as that of the parasite--an omission which has delayed the development of new knowledge in this area for a half a century. Is not the time at hand to revise our concepts and move in a new direction?

38. Clark H.W., Laughlin D.C., Bailey J.S. and Brown T.M. 1980. Mycoplasma species and arthritis in captive elephants.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 11: 3-15.
Abstract: Sixty-seven elephants (62 Elephas maximus and 5 Loxodonta africana) from three circus groups and five zoos were examined serologically and cultured for mycoplasma in a search for arthritogenic agents previously unrecognized in this animal species. In two groups of elephants, 28 of the 35 female genital tracts cultured were found to be colonized by one or more strains of mycoplasma. More than half of the elephants had complement fixing antibodies to one or more of the new mycoplasma isolates. Lameness and other rheumatoid disorders were found associated with rheumatoid factor activity and changes in mycoplasma antibody titers. In view of the arthritogenic activity of mycoplasma in other species, these new findings suggested the clinical significant of mycoplasma in elephants and the need for investigation, especially in relation to the high incidence of rheumatoid-type disorders observed in these captive elephants.

39. Clark H.W., Laughlin D.C., Bailey J.S. and Brown T.M. 1979. Isolation of mycoplasma from the genital tracts of elephants.Elephant 1(3): 9-10.

40. Cole B.C. and Cassell G.H. 1979. Mycoplasma infections as models of chronic joint inflammation.Arthritis and Rheumatism 22: 1375-1381.

41. Wilkes E. and Meek E.S. 1979. Rheumatoid arthritis: Review of searches for an infectious cause. Part I.Infection 7: 125-128.
Abstract: No distinctive pattern has yet emerged from the acumulated mass of results that would provide a generally acceptable hypothesis of the etiology of rheumatoid arthritis. A number of immunologic aberrations have been described, but there has been no identification of a key immunologic defect that might link together the various components of the immune response into an agreed pattern. The possiblity of a persistent antigenic stimulus arising from an infection cannot be confirmed or refuted. If a virus is involved, it would seem more likely to be a "slow" virus rather than a commonly recognized form, but there is no strong candidate of this type in view. Despite the fact that mycoplasmas are undoubtedly arthritogenic in other species, their role as an atiologic agent in rheumatoid arthritis has not been proven. The idea that bacterial cell wall peptidoglycan may provide a persistent stimulus has much to offer, but it is not possible at this stage to accept peptidoglycan as a recognized etiologic factor. This suggestion will, however, undoubtedly stimulate much further investigation.

42. Clark H.W., Bailey J.S., Laughlin D.C. and Brown T.M. 1978. Isolation of mycoplasma from the genital tracts of elephants.Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie,Parasitenkunde,Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene 1.Abt.Originale 241: 262.

43. Clark, H. W., Bailey, J. S., and Brown, T. McP. Mycoplasma hypersensitivity reactions. Proceedings of the Society for General Microbiology 111, 171. 1976.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: Many immunological disorders that apparently are cell-mediated have no known aetiologic antigens other than tissue-related autoantibodies. The human host is challenged continually by many microbial antigens including several types of mycoplasmas. The immunologic response to mycoplasma antigens is dependent upon several factors other than colonizability and cytopathogenicity. Mixed microbial infections can have an augmentive or suppressive effect on the human host cell-mediated immunity (CMI). Mycoplasma can stimulate the thymus-derived 'T' cells and the bone marrow 'B' cell systems as indicated by various CMI responses such as the migratory inhibitory factor, delayed-type skin reactions, lymphocyte transformations, and humoral antibody reactions in the human host. Investigations of the mycoplasma hypersensitivity reactions in chronic rheumatoid disorders have included several factors such as long-term monitoring of CMI responses and obscured foci of mycoplasma antigens that would distinguish them from the acute-convalescent responses. In addition to the effects of therapeutic agents (immunosuppressants), physiological changes (hormonal), and environmental factors (trauma) on CMI, the 'T' cell derived anti-IgG rheumatoid factor can neutralize the humoral mycoplasma antibodies. Recent studies indicate that the frequent and variable anergic responses observed in rheumatoid disorders are dependent upon both the test mitogen and the mycoplasma antigen as well as the host lymphocytes. Tissue inflammation resulting from antigen-antibody hypersensitivity reactions, apparently occurs when the CMI responsive host is challenged by mycoplasma reinfection or antigen released from a tissue focus. The incorporation of specific tissue antigens by mycoplasma is another factor influencing their reactions in systemic "autoimmune" disorders and may require the challenging antigenic precursors to be cultured in specific human tissue media. The identification of the sensitizing and challenging antigens also includes the appraisal of mycoplasma exoantigens and exoenzymes, such as DNase, released into the tissues as well as the physiologically optimum fractions.

44. Pedersen N.C., Pool R.C., Castles J.J. and Weisner K. 1976. Noninfectious canine arthritis: rheumatoid arthritis.Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 169: 295-303.
Abstract: Chronic unremitting, generally symmetric, erosive arthritis was studied in 8 dogs. The disease had clinical, serologic, radiographic, and pathologic changes similar to those of rheumatoid arthritis of man. The condition occurred mainly in smaller breeds of dogs, with time of onset from 8 months to 8 years of age. Characteristic radiographic changes were seen in the first several weeks to several months after the appearance of the initial lameness. Synovial fluid contained an increased number of neutrophils, and synovial fluid and synovial tissues were sterile for anaerobic and aerobic bacteria, mycoplasma, chlamydia, and viruses. Corticosteroids were therapeutically ineffective in all of the cases; however, corticosteroids, cyclophosphamide and azathioprine were effective when used in combination in several dogs.

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