Elephant
Bibliographic
Database

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Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org

References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent first.

Jantou, V., Turmaine, M., West, G.D., Horton, M.A., McComb, D.W., 2009. Focused ion beam milling and ultramicrotomy of mineralised ivory dentine for analytical transmission electron microscopy
114. Micron. 40, 495-501.
Abstract: The use of focused ion beam (FIB) milling for preparation of sections of mineralised ivory dentine for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is investigated. Ivory dentine is essentially composed of fibrillar type-I collagen and apatite crystals. The aim of this project is to gain a clearer understanding of the relationship between the organic and inorganic components of ivory dentine using analytical TEM, in order to utilise these analytical techniques in the context of common skeletal diseases such as osteoporosis and arthritis. TEM sections were prepared in both single and dual beam FIB instruments, using two standard lift-out techniques, in situ and ex situ. The FIB sections were systematically compared with sections prepared by ultramicrotomy, the traditional preparation route in biological systems, in terms of structural and chemical differences. A clear advantage of FIB milling over ultramicrotomy is that dehydration, embedding and section flotation can be eliminated, so that partial mineral loss due to dissolution is avoided. The characteristic banding of collagen fibrils was clearly seen in FIB milled sections without the need for any chemical staining, as is commonly employed in ultramicrotomy. The FIB milling technique was able to produce high-quality TEM sections of ivory dentine, which are suitable for further investigation using electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) and energy-filtering TEM (EFTEM) to probe the collagen/apatite interface

Meyers, D.A., Isaza, R., MacNeill, A. Evaluation of acute phase proteins for diagnosis of inflammation in Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus). Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  128. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: In many domestic species, routine hematology assays are useful diagnostic tools to diagnose inflammatory conditions. Unlike other species, these hematologic tests apparently are insensitive indicators of inflammation in elephants.1 We studied a novel group of blood proteins, called acute phase proteins, which increase during inflammatory conditions, for their usefulness in diagnosing elephants with inflammatory diseases. Although these proteins currently are useful in humans and domestic animals, each species has a different set of important proteins that must be individually investigated.2 We tested several acute phase proteins (C-reactive protein, alpha-1 glycoprotein, alpha-1 antitrypsin, serum amyloid A, haptoglobin, fibrinogen, ceruloplasmin, and albumin) as well as complete blood counts, chemistry panels, serum protein electrophoresis, and 3-D gel electrophoresis to determine their usefulness for diagnosing different types of inflammatory conditions in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Animals with inflammatory conditions were classified as those individuals with known illnesses such as mycobacteriosis, arthritis, nail bed abscesses, and malignant tumors. Control animals were thoseanimals that were suspected to not have any inflammation and be healthy at the time of testing as determined by physical examination and obtaining a thorough medical history.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Lyashchenko, K., R. Greenwald, J. Esfandiari, J. Olsen, R. Ball, G. Dumonceaux, F. Dunker, C. Buckley, M.
Richard, S. Murray, J.B. Payeur, P. Anderson, J.M. Pollock, S. Mikota, M. Miller, D. Sofranko, and W.R.
Waters. 2006. Tuberculosis in Elephants: Antibody responses to defined antigens of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, potential for early diagnosis, and monitoring of treatment. Clin. Vacc. Immunol. 13: 722-732.
2. Murata H., N. Shimada, M. Yoshioka. 2004. Current research on acute phase proteins in veterinary diagnosis:
an overview. Vet J. 168: 28-40.

Woolley, L.A., Millspaugh, J.J., Woods, R.J., van Rensburg, S.J., Mackey, R.L., Page, B., Slotow, R., 2008. Population and individual elephant response to a catastrophic fire in Pilanesberg National Park. PLoS. One. 3, e3233.
Abstract: In predator-free large herbivore populations, where density-dependent feedbacks occur at the limit where forage resources can no longer support the population, environmental catastrophes may play a significant role in population regulation. The potential role of fire as a stochastic mass-mortality event limiting these populations is poorly understood, so too the behavioural and physiological responses of the affected animals to this type of large disturbance event. During September 2005, a wildfire resulted in mortality of 29 (18% population mortality) and injury to 18, African elephants in Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa. We examined movement and herd association patterns of six GPS-collared breeding herds, and evaluated population physiological response through faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (stress) levels. We investigated population size, structure and projected growth rates using a simulation model. After an initial flight response post-fire, severely injured breeding herds reduced daily displacement with increased daily variability, reduced home range size, spent more time in non-tourist areas and associated less with other herds. Uninjured, or less severely injured, breeding herds also shifted into non-tourist areas post-fire, but in contrast, increased displacement rate (both mean and variability), did not adjust home range size and formed larger herds post-fire. Adult cow stress hormone levels increased significantly post-fire, whereas juvenile and adult bull stress levels did not change significantly. Most mortality occurred to the juvenile age class causing a change in post-fire population age structure. Projected population growth rate remained unchanged at 6.5% p.a., and at current fecundity levels, the population would reach its previous level three to four years post-fire. The natural mortality patterns seen in elephant populations during stochastic events, such as droughts, follows that of the classic mortality pattern seen in predator-free large ungulate populations, i.e. mainly involving juveniles. Fire therefore functions in a similar manner to other environmental catastrophes and may be a natural mechanism contributing to population limitation. Welfare concerns of arson fires, burning during "hot-fire" conditions and the conservation implications of fire suppression (i.e. removal of a potential contributing factor to natural population regulation) should be integrated into fire management strategies for conservation areas

Shakespeare, A., Strydom, S., 2006. A method for determining the extent of thermal burns in elephants. J S Afr Vet Assoc 77, 70-74.
Abstract: A practical method was developed to assess the extent of burns suffered by elephants caught in bush fires. In developing this method, the surface areas of the different body parts of juvenile, subadult and adult elephants were first determined using standard equations, and then expressed as a percentage of the total body surface area. When viewed from a distance, the burnt proportion of all body segments is estimated, converted to percentages of total body surface area, and then summed to determine the extent of burns suffered.Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa. tony.shakespeare@up.ac.za

Shakespeare, A., Steyl, J., Strydom, S., 2006. Investigating the depth of thermal burns in elephants
375. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 77, 134-140.
Abstract: Histological examination of burn injuries in elephants revealed that the depth was not as severe as expected from clinical observation. Although the actual burn depth was deep, the thickness of elephant skin, especially the dermis, resulted in the lesions being classified as less severe than expected. Examination of skin samples from selected areas showed that most lesions were either superficial (1st degree) or superficial partial-thickness (superficial 2nd degree) burns with the occasional deep partial thickness (deep 2nd degree) wound. These lesions however, resulted in severe complications that eventually led to the death of a number of the elephants

Neil, K.M., Caron, J.P., Orth, M.W., 2005. The role of glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate in treatment for and prevention of osteoarthritis in animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 226, 1079-1088.

Bradshaw, I.G.A., 2004. Not by Bread Alone: Symbolic Loss, Trauma, and Recovery in Elephant Communities. Society And Animals 12, 143-158.
Abstract: Like many humans in the wake of genocide and war, most wildlife today has sustained trauma. High rates of mortality, habitat destruction, and social breakdown precipitated by human actions are unprecedented in history. Elephants are one of many species dramatically affected by violence. Although elephant communities have processes, rituals, and social structures for responding to trauma - grieving, mourning, and socialization - the scale, nature, and magnitude of human violence have disrupted their ability to use these practices. Absent the cultural, carrier groups (murdered elephant matriarchs and elders) who traditionally lead and teach these healing practices, humans must assume the role. Trauma theory has brought attention to victims' severe, sustained psychological damage. Looking through the lens of trauma theory provides a better understanding of how systematic violence has affected individuals and groups and how the pervasive nature of traumatic events affects human-nonhuman animal relationships. The framing of recent trauma theory compels conservationists to create new relationships - neither anthropocentric nor powerbased - with nonhuman animals. The David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust, Kenya, shows how humans, taking on the role of interspecies witness, bring orphan elephants back to health and help re-build elephant communities shattered by genocide.

Agrawal, D.K., Singh, J.L., 2003. Electrocution in an asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) -- a case report. Indian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 23, 58.

Albrecht, K., Breitmeier, D., Fieguth, A., Troger, H.D., 2003. Fatalities after injuries by wild animals. Arch Kriminol 212, 96-103.
Abstract: The article summarises three fatalities after attacks by wild animals. The first case describes a 90-year-old woman who died as a result of pneumonia after a bear fell on her and caused multiple chest fractures. The second case deals with a 76-year-old woman who was hit in the middle face by the hoof of a camel and, thereafter, died of myocardial infarction. The third case describes a 27-year-old biologist who died from severe blunt trauma after an attack of a wild living elephant. The article gives a summary of typical injury patterns of selected wild animals and outlines potential reasons of death as a result of the injuries.

Bechert, U., Christensen, J.M., Finnegan, M. Pharmacokinetics of orally administered ibuprofen in elephants. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  84-85. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Musculoskeletal disorders (e.g., trauma, arthritis) occur commonly in captive elephants, affecting 73% of the animals studied in 69 zoos in North America.¹  To treat these and other conditions, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents (e.g., ibuprofen and phenylbutazone) are used strictly on an empirical basis in elephants.  There is some indication that species differences in drug metabolism exist between African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants, although this has not been substantiated.²  Determination of safe and therapeutic dosing regimens for ibuprofen and phenylbutazone will improve medical management of captive elephants by providing efficacious dosage regimens, improved control of pain, and prevention of potential toxic side effects resulting from improper drug administration. The purpose of this study was: 1) to determine the pharmacokinetic parameters of ibuprofen administered per os in elephants, and 2) to establish therapeutic dosage regimens for African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus ) male and female elephants.  Twenty healthy elephants (five males and five females of each species) housed in zoos throughout North America were used in this study.  Pilot studies were conducted at the Oregon Zoo with Asian elephants using empirically derived dosing regimens and preceded each set of clinical trials to ensure that proper ranges for dosage and dosing frequency determinations would be utilized.  Therapeutic dosage requirements were determined using 4, 5 and 6 mg/kg dosages in each animal, and blood samples were collected at –5, 15, 30, 45, 60 minutes, 1½, 2, 4, 10, 12, 24 and 48 hours post-oral administration from superficial ear veins.  Optimal dosing frequency was then determined by conducting 12 and 24 hour dosing interval trials, with blood samples collected hourly for 4 hours after each of three administrations, then every 6 hours plus 1 hour prior to the next administration.  Washout periods between all trials were 3 weeks in duration and allowed for complete elimination of residual drug metabolites. Following administration of 4 mg/kg ibuprofen and a rapid absorption phase, mean ibuprofen serum concentrations peaked in African and Asian elephants at 4 hrs at 16.75 ± 6.79 μg/mL (mean ± SD).  Five mg/kg dosages of ibuprofen resulted in peak serum concentrations of 17.20 ± 7.78 μg/mL, and with 6 mg/kg dosages, serum concentrations increased to 22.42 ± 12.30 μg/mL.  Ibuprofen was eliminated with first-order kinetics characteristic of a single-compartment model with a half-life of 4 to 4.5 hrs.  The volume of distribution (V_d/F) was estimated to be 200.8 ± 101.17 mL/kg for African and 164.4 ± 34.60 mL/kg for Asian elephants.  The doses used in this study with elephants resulted in serum concentrations at or above therapeutic concentrations for humans (15-30 mg/L) for up to 12 hrs.  Serum ibuprofen concentrations decreased to below 5 μg/mL 24 hr post-administration in all elephants.  There were no statistically significant pharmacokinetic parameter differences between males and females of either species, and differences between African and Asian elephants existed but were not significant (p < 0.12).  The mean AUC and t_1/2 life values for Asian elephants were higher as compared to African elephants, and the mean clearance and elimination rate constant were lower in Asian elephants as compared to African elephants.  Ibuprofen administered at 6 mg/kg/12 hrs for Asian elephants and at 7 mg/kg/12 hrs for African elephants resulted in therapeutic serum concentrations of this anti-inflammatory agent.  Acknowledgments:The elephant keeper staff at the Kansas City Zoo, Riddle's Elephant Sanctuary, the Bowmanville Zoo, Pittsburgh Zoo, Have Trunk Will Travel, and Oregon Zoo did a great job collecting the blood samples for this study.  The Morris Animal Foundation funded this research. References: 1.Mikota, S.K., E.L. Sargent, and G.S. Ranglack.  1994.  Medical Management of the Elephant.  Indira Publishing House, West Bloomfield, Michigan, pp. 137-150. 2.Mortenson, J., and S. Sierra.  1998.  Determining dosages for anti-inflammatory agents in elephants.  Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet, pp. 477-479.

Mikota, S.K., Hammatt, H., Finnegan, M. Occurrence and prevention of capture wounds in Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus). Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  291-293. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The capturing of elephants in Indonesia began in 1986 as an attempted solution to human-elephant conflict.  The intent was to train "problem" elephants for use in agriculture, logging and tourism.  The initial captures were conducted under the guidance of Thai mahouts and Thai koonkie elephants (trained elephants used for capture).  A number of the Indonesians that were originally trained in capture techniques still work for the government forestry department (KSDA).  The younger pawangs (elephant handlers) that participate in captures have learned from their peers.  There is no formal training program. The actual mortality rate associated with elephant captures in Sumatra is unknown as official reports are lacking.  The age structure of the existing ~ 400 captive elephants is young (most under 25) which suggests that smaller, younger elephants are preferentially captured and / or that adult elephants do not survive the capture and training processes.  Our personal experiences (Mikota and Hammatt) in Sumatra show that mortality in newly captured elephants is high.In 2001, with endorsement from the World Wide Fund for Nature-Indonesia (WWF), the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Fauna and Flora International (FFI), and the International Elephant Foundation (IEF), we requested a two-year Moratorium on elephant captures during which time capture techniques would be improved and alternative conflict mediation techniques evaluated.
A Moratorium against placing additional elephants into the Elephant Training Centers has been issued by the central government, however capture for translocation is still sanctioned.  Unfortunately, the provincial governments have increasingly acted in their own interests since the government of Indonesia began a de-centralization process a few years ago. Riau Province is thought to have the largest remaining populations of wild Sumatran elephants.Fifty-seven, human-elephant conflicts occurred in Riau between 1997-2000.  Although Riau is a hotbed of conflict, problems are occurring throughout Sumatra and we are aware of conflicts and captures in Bengkulu and North Sumatra. In October 2002, we were invited by KSDA (the provincial forestry department) to accompany their team into the field as they attempted to capture a large bull that had been raiding a palm oil plantation.  This opportunity was invaluable as we were able to observe first hand the techniques being used and where improvements were needed.  As a result of this and other experiences with newly captured elephants we observed: ·Equipment (Palmer) is old, poorly maintained, and used improperly. · Essential supplies are lacking or homemade substitutes are used.
·The dose of xylazine is very high compared to wild elephant capture doses used in India and Malaysia.  The same dose is often used regardless of the size of the elephant. ·The needles are too short to reach muscle; open-ended needles are used which can become plugged with tissue, thus preventing injection. ·Neither the correct charge nor the correct load is selected.  We observed that many darts bounced making it difficult to ascertain the amount of drug injected or its depth of penetration.  Selection of an inappropriate charge results in unnecessary trauma. ·The preparation and use of darts, needles, and syringes lacks basic hygiene. ·Dart wounds are not treated and antibiotics are not administered.  · There is no understanding of stress or capture myopathy. ·The capture team was not aware that sternal recumbency severely compromises respiration in elephants and that they can quickly die in this position. ·It is believed that elephant restraints must inflict pain to prevent wild elephants from escaping once captured.  ·There is no veterinarian on the capture team. The current capture techniques result in leg wounds from unprotected chains, neck wounds from "kahs" (neck yokes made of wood and wire), and abscesses from inappropriately administered darts.  Leg and neck wounds often become maggot infested.  Infections from dart wounds are, however, the primary cause of capture-related mortality.  These abscesses can drain for several months, even with treatment, and often progress to a necrotizing fasciitis, acute sepsis, and death. The Riau Province KSDA Team has been receptive to suggested changes to minimize wounds. Provision of heavier chains has alleviated the fear that elephants will escape.  Covering the chains with fire hose or heavy plastic minimizes injuries to legs and use of the kah has been discontinued.  A basic dart wound treatment protocol has been established. In June 2003, a comprehensive Elephant Immobilization and Translocation Workshop for Sumatra is planned to retrain all of Sumatra's field teams and to upgrade equipment. Sumatra's wild elephant population probably numbers fewer than 3000 and is under continued threat.  With so few elephants left, the preservation of as many viable herds as possible takes on increased urgency.  The Moratorium achieved in 2001 has set the groundwork for KSDA to choose translocation of wild elephants rather than capture and placement into already over-crowded and under-resourced Elephant Training Centers.  We cannot guarantee that Sumatra will capture elephants only for translocation, and it is inevitable that many more elephants will end up in captivity.  Regardless, all of the elephants that must suffer the interruption of their lives at the hand of man deserve, at the very least, humane treatment.  Translocations are neither simple nor a complete panacea.  Identifying suitable translocation areas and insuring that elephants remain there are significant challenges.  WWF-Indonesia is continuing its efforts to secure the lowland forest of Tesso Nilo in Riau Province as a "safe haven" for at least some of Sumatra's wild elephants (see WWF AREAS Program – Riau, Sumatra: http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/attachments/riau_profile.pdf).  The identification of interim release sites, together with improved capture techniques, offers the hope that fewer elephants will be removed from the wild.   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Our work in Sumatra has been supported by the Guggenheim Foundation, a CEF grant from the American Zoo and Aquarium Association, the International Elephant Foundation, Oregon Zoo, Columbus Zoo, Disney, Peace River Refuge, the Elephant Managers Association, the Riddles Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Tulsa Zoo, Toronto Zoo, Niabi Zoo, San Antonio Zoo, Denver Zoo (AAZK Chapter), Milwaukee Zoo (AAZK Chapter), the Audubon Nature Institute (Youth Volunteers), Buttonwood Park Zoo, Melbourne Zoo, and private donors.  Special thanks to Harry Peachey, John Lehnhardt, Holly Reed, Kay Backues, Mike Keele, Steve Osofsky, and Heidi and Scott Riddle.

Steenkamp, G., 2003. Oral biology and disorders of tusked mammals. Veterinary Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 6, 689-725.
Abstract: Tusked mammals can be terrestrial or aquatic. Many of these magnificent animals are kept in captivity all over the world. Functions of tusks vary as much as the species in which they occur. Dental anomalies and disorders of tusks and the rest of the dentition in these mammals were discussed, with an emphasis on the elephant. The tusk anatomy, with its large, conically-shaped pulp, makes it an ideal tooth for partial pulpectomy treatment in trauma cases where the pulp is exposed. Surgical techniques for tusks have been developed and were discussed. Oral tumors occur, but are rare.Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0010, South Africa. steenkamp@op.up.ac.za

Weissengruber, G.E., Egerbacher, M., Forstenpointner, G., Wisser, J.ed., Hofer, H.e., Frolich, K. Mechanisms of loss and repair in traumatically injured tusks of African elephants. Erkrankungen-der-Zootiere:-Verhandlungsbericht-des-41.-Internationalen-Symposiums-uber-die-Erkrankungen-der-Zoo-und-Wildtiere.  425. 2003. 5-28-2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Specific diseases of Asian elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 31-34.
Abstract: The earliest writing describing the diseases of elephants in ancient literature said to be the works on "Gajasastra" (Elephantology) written in Sanskrit by authors like Gautama, Narada, Mrigacharma, Rajaputra and Vyasa. "Hasthyayurveda" a legendary book in Sanskrit written by a safe Palakapya deals with some diseases, treatment, desirable and undesirable points of selection, management practices and some mythological aspects on the origin of elephants. The earliest book in English dealing with diseases of elephants seems to be that of W. Gilchrist "A practical treatise on the treatment of diseases of elephants" published in 1848. Later Slym (1873), Sanderson (1878), Steel (1885), Evans (1910), Herpburn (1913), Milroy (1922), Ptaff (1940), Ferrier (1947), Utoke Gale (1974), Chandrasekharan (1979) and Panicker (1985) have documented their findings on the incidence, etiology and control of diseases of Asian elephants.

Emanuelson, K.A., Agnew, D.W. Wasting syndrome in a bull African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  142-145. 2002.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Murali, K., 2002. An introduction to Hastyayurveda. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 54,63-63.

Nayar, K.N.M., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 2002. Management of surgical affections in captive elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 55-59.

Rafeek, A.K., 2002. Human Elephant Conflict. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 47-48.

Ratanakorn, P. Elephant Health Problems and Management in Cambodia, Lao and Thailand. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  111-114. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Sanyathitiseree, P., Thongthip, N., Thayananuphat, A., Aumarm, W. Fiberglass Casting in an Asian Elephant. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  136-139. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: A 19-year-old female Asian elephant was submitted to Kasetsart University Veterinary Teaching Hospital with a history of being hit by a car. Physical examination revealed that the elephant had lameness and showed a serious pain in her right leg. Oblique fracture of the distal part of the right tibio-fibular was diagnosed radiographically. The fiberglass casting was used to fix the fracture on the third day after  accident, the fracture healed after 60 days of casting, but the angulation deformity of the bone remained on her foot.

Aird, B., 2000. Clinical and hematological manifestations of anemia. In: Feldman, B., Zinkl, J.G., Jain, N.C. (Eds.), Schalm's Veterinary Hematology. Lippinicott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore,  Maryland, USA, pp. 140-142.

Aird, B., 2000. Acute blood loss anemia. In: Feldman, B., Zinkl, J.G., Jain, N.C. (Eds.), Schalm's Veterinary Hematology. Lippinicott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore,  Maryland, USA, pp. 151-153.

Emanuelson, K.A., Kinzley, C.E. Salmonellosis and subsequent abortion in two African elephants. Proc. AAZV and IAAAM Joint Conf.  269-274. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Gage, L.J., Blasko, D. Husbandry and Medical Considerations for Geriatric Elephants. Elephants: Cultural, Behavioral, and Ecological Perspectives; Program and Abstracts of the Workshop.  9-10. 2000. Davis, CA. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Tveden, H., Weiss, D.J., 2000. Classification and laboratory evaluation of anemia. In: Feldman, B., Zinkl, J.G., Jain, N.C. (Eds.), Schalm's Veterinary Hematology. Lippinicott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore,  Maryland, USA, pp. 143-15.

Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E., 1999. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.

Kock, N.D., 1999. Flaccid trunk paralysis in free-ranging elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 541-544.

Kuntze, A., 1999. Oral and nasal diseases of elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA,USA, pp. 544-546.

Mikota, S.K., 1999. Diseases of the Elephant: A Review. Verh. ber. Erkrg. Zootiere 39, 1-15.

Walsh, M.T., Thompson, J. Use of thermography as a diagnostic and prognostic tool in selected cetacean conditions. Proceedings of American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  358. 1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The measurement of change in core body temperature, and its relation to infection or inflammation, is one of the oldest and most widely recognized diagnostic tools in medicine. The use of a thermometer is considered a basic part of the initial physical exam in most species and is often followed by other more sophisticated techniques to try to isolate the source of illness. With the development of affordable heat sensitive cameras the clinician can now detect general or specific areas of abnormal tissue temperatures. Detectable changes in temperature may be related to superficial tissue involvement or a reflection of heat production at a deeper level. These manifestations may include isolated or general areas involving such conditions as abscess, trauma, cellulitis, dermatitis, tendonitis, myositis, and pyothorax.
A thermographic camera was used in clinical cases in cetaceans to refine previous findings that indicated it's potential applications in diagnosis and prognosis. Individuals which showed clinical signs compatible with trauma, dental disease, and dermal conditions were examined with an EVS DTIS - 500 camera (Emerge Interactive, 10315 102nd Terrace, Sebastian, Fl 32958 USA) and therapy monitored with periodic thermal scans. Dental disease including trauma to oral tissues, periodontal abscess, and mandibular infections could be readily located, temperature measurements taken, and the size of area of involvement noted. Post therapy follow-up illustrated the ability to gauge the effect of therapy as evidenced by temperature decrease and a decrease in the size of the area involved. The clinician can also better determine the length of drug use based on the response. In one individual case it showed the infection from an abscessed tooth spreading down the lingual side of the mandible.External trauma to the skin can be monitored for extent, complications and speed of resolution. Rake marks received from other dolphins have shown an inflammatory response present much longer than expected. A loss of normal temperature can also be used as a clue to the presence of material that may require debridement. Dermatitis is currently being investigated for possible application of this technology. A Tursiops truncatus female with an extensive visual roughening of the skin showed substantial heat in the affected areas of the skin with thermography but no signs of inflammation on bloodwork. The skin inflammation was readily monitored by thermography until total resolution.

Wrench, A., Kock, N.D., Gordon, S.J.G., Turner, A.D., Fries, D.S., 1999. Investigation of selected plants as possible causes of flaccid trunk paralysis in free-ranging elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe Veterinary Journal 30, 93-97.
Abstract: Extracts from four plants collected from the southern shore of Lake Kariba were injected into Balb/c laboratory mice in an attempt to establish the cause of flaccid paralysis of the trunk in elephants. Behavioural and neurological changes were noted in some instances after injection. Histopathological changes similar to those found in affected elephants, including renal tubular karyomegaly and myocardial degeneration and necrosis, were found in mice exposed to Boerhavia diffusa. Patchy gliosis and cerebral oedema were present in mice treated with Blumea geriepina and Geigeria schnizii. The study indicates the need for further investigation into the role of plant intoxication as a possible cause of trunk paralysis in elephants.

Elephant Floppy Trunk Syndrome. Proceedings of the Seminar on Elephant Floppy Trunk Syndrome.  1-14. 1998.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Anonymous, 1998. Flaccid trunk diseases in African elephants in Zimbabwe.  European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians Newsletter 12-13.

Sharma S.P., 1997. Surgical treatment of gunshot wounds under xylazine and ketamine anaesthesia in an elephant: clinical case report. Indian Veterinary Journal 74, 973-974.

Murray, S., Bush, M., Tell, L.A., 1996. Medical management of postpartum problems in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) cow and calf. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 27, 255-258.
Abstract: An 18-yr old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) gave birth to a 120-kg female calf following 22 mo of gestation.  Immediately after parturition, the cow became agitated and aggressive towards the calf.  Before the keepers were able to safely intervene and remove the calf, the cow stepped on the calf's head and right front leg.  Within 30 min, the cow calmed down, allowing the calf's safe reintroduction under close keeper supervision and control.  The cow had a retained placenta, poor mammary development, and low milk production.  The calf's injuries, in combination with the cow's low milk production, impeded the calf's ability to nurse and gain weight.  Within 10 days, the calf lost 10% of its weight.  Serum protein electrophoresis indicated failure of passive transfer of maternal immunoglobulin.  On day 10, the calf received a transfusion of concentrated immunoglobulin extracted and concentrated from the cow's previously banked plasma.  On day 13, the calf developed a urinary tract infection, as diagnosed by white blood cells and bacteria in the urine.  Following immunoglobulin administration and antibiotic therapy, clinical signs slowly resolved and the calf gained weight.  The cow passed the fetal membranes during parturition, but the placenta was retained.  Despite prophylactic systemic antibiotics and vaginal flushing, the cow became depressed and developed a leukocytosis and anemia.  A mucopurulent vaginal discharge and ventral edema were noted on day 3, and milk production was minimal.  Because decreased milk production has been reported as a common sequel to retained placenta, efforts were focused on removing the placenta.  Intermittent oxytocin therapy on days 2-14 did not result in expulsion of the placenta and produced only transient abdominal contractions and minimal increases in milk letdown.  On day 15, 10 mg estradiol cypionate was administered i.m. followed by 200 IU oxytocin i.v.  An additional 10 IU oxytocin was administered i.v. on day 16.  The friable placenta was palpable within the vaginal vault on day 17.  The remaining placenta was removed by gentle traction applied by a modified weighted pressure cuff.  Once the placenta was removed, the cow's clinical problems slowly resolved and the calf continued to gain weight.

Zheng, X., Zheng, X.C., 1996. Diagnosis and preventative-therapeutic study of periarthritis in the shoulder of an Asian elephant. Chinese Journal of Zoology 31, 45-49.

Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., Cheeran, J.V., Nair, K.N.M., Prabhakaran, T., 1995. Review of the Incidence, Etiology and Control of Common Diseases of Asian Elephants with Special Reference to Kerala. In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 439-449.
Abstract: Incidence, etiology, symptoms and control of specific and non-specific diseases of captive and wild elephants have been reviewed. Asian elephants have been observed to be susceptible to various parasitic diseases such as helminthiasis, trypanosomiasis and ectoparasitic infestations, bacterial diseases such as tetanus, tuberculosis, haemorrhagic septicemia, salmonellosis and anthrax, viral diseases such as foot and mouth disease, pox and rabies and non-specific diseases like impaction of colon, foot rot and corneal opacity. A detailed study extending over two decades on captive and wild elephants in Kerala, revealed high incidence of helminthiasis (285), ectoparasitic infestation (235), impaction of colon (169) and foot rot (125). Diseases such as trypanosomiasis (21), tetanus (8), tuberculosis (5) pox (2) and anthrax (1) were also encountered. The line of treatment against the diseases mentioned, have been discussed in detail.

Kock, N.D., Goedegebuure, S.A., Lane, E.P., Lucke, V., Tyrrell, D., Kock, M.D., 1994. Flaccid trunk paralysis in free-ranging elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Zimbabwe. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 30, 432-435.
Abstract: An epizootic of flaccid trunk paralysis began in free-ranging Zimbabwean elephants (Loxodonta africana) on the southern shore of Lake Kariba in 1989.  It involved a selective neuropathy of peripheral nerves supplying the trunk, with axon and myelin degeneration, muscle atrophy, compensatory hypertrophy, and fine endomyseal fibrosis, without inflammatory changes.

Rothschild, B.M., Xiao, M.W., Shoshani, J., Xiaoming, W., 1994. Spondyloarthropathy in proboscideans. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 25, 360-366.

Wallace, C., Byron, T.H., Foerner, J.J., Weston, H., Kilpatrick, J., Jastremski, M.S. Clinical case report: the medical management and treatment of a 36 year old premiparturient Asian elephant cow with a dystocia and following a Caesarian section.  1994.
Ref Type: Unpublished Work
Abstract: The medical history and management of a 36 year old premiparturient Asian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) with a dystocia requiring a caesarian section are discussed.  The examination and complete medical evaluation to determine the health of the cow and viability and position of the calf are described.  The medical management of the post-operative complications and the changes in complete blood counts, differential, serum biochemistry values and urinalysis prior to the elephant's death are described.  Complications included peritonitis with systemic sepsis, renal failure, and hepatic failure.  Pertinent necropsy findings on the cow included severe diffuse subacute peritonitis, uterine transmural necrosis, diffuse renal tubular nephrosis, and hepatic centrolobular degeneration.

Bennet, D., 1993. Immune-based erosive inflammatory joint disease of the dog: canine rheumatoid arthritis.  2. Pathological investigations. Journal of Small Animal Practice 28, 909-928.
Abstract: The pathological features of 30 cases of canine rheumatoid arthritis are described.  The principle pathologic feature is a chronic symmetrical polysynovitis.  The pathological features of the joints varied in severity.  The synovial membrane generally showed villous hypertrophy with aggregates of lymphocytes and plasma cells.  Destruction of articular cartilage and bone occurred in association with a replacement granulation tissue which often produced a pannus over the articular surface. Immunofluorescence studies demonstrated complexes of IgG or IgM with C3 in synovial lining cells, macrophages, blood vessel walls and free in the extracellular tissues.  IgG and IgM producing plasma cells were also common.  Fibrinogen deposites were extensive.  The immunofluorescence findings were non-specific but support the concept of an immune complex mediated inflammation within the joints.  Investigations for bacterial, mycoplasmal and viral infections of the joints were negative.

Ermel, R.W., Kenny, T.P., Chen, P.P., Robbins, D.L., 1993. Molecular analysis of rheumatoid factors derived from rheumatoid synovium suggests an antigen-driven response in inflamed joints. Arthritis and Rheumatism 36, 380-388.
Abstract: Objective.  Understanding the molecular genetic basis for rheumatoid factor (RF) production is necessary to a better understanding of the etiology and pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).  We sought to define the genetic basis for RF in RA.  Methods.  The heavy and light chain variable region genes encoding 4 human monoclonal RF were cloned and sequenced using the polymerase chain reaction and the dideoxynucleotide chain-termination method.  Results.  The heavy and light chains of the C6 RF and the light chain of the G9 RF were encoded by 3 new RF-related Ig V-region genes.  The heavy and light chains of D5 and G4 RF's were identical: most of their mutations caused amino acid substitutions.  Conclusions.  The RF-related Ig V-region gene repertoire is large and still expanding.  The data from D5 and G4 strongly suggest that these 2 RF's arise in an antigen-driven response in rheumatoid synovium.  The presumed germline V genes for C6 may represent disease-specific RF-related V genes.

Harth, M., 1993. Gold in rheumatoid arthritis: standard, substitute or sham? Journal of Rheumatology 20, 771-773.

Houck, R., 1993. Veterinary care of performing elephants. In: Fowler, M.E. (Ed.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 453-454.

Rubin, L.A., Hawker, G.A., 1993. Stress and the immune system: preliminary observations in rheumatoid arthritis using an in vivo marker of immune activity. Arthritis and Rheumatism 3, 204-207.

van Schaardenburg, D., Hazes, J.M.W., de Boar, A., Zwinderman, A.H., Meijers, K.A.E., Breedveld, F.C., 1993. Outcome of rheumatoid arthritis in relation to age and rheumatoid factor at diagnosis. Journal of Rheumatology 20, 45-52.
Abstract: Our retrospective followup study reports the outcome of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in relation to age (under 60 vs 60 years and over) and rheumatoid factor status at diagnosis.  A sample of 130 adult patients with RA was assessed at a mean of 5.6 years after diagnosis.  At final evaluation disease activity and radiographic damage in seropositive patients were similar in both age groups, but functional capacity was markedly lower in the older onset group, indicating lower functional reserves in this group.  In seronegative patients the outcome was favorable in both age groups, especially in the older patients. Seropositive patients in both age groups had more disease activity, a lower functional capacity and more radiographic damage than seronegative patients; these differences were greater in the older onset patients.  The mortality in patients with RA compared to the general population (standardized mortality ratio, SMR) was higher in seropositive patients (SMR 2.78, 98% CI 1.70-4.13) but not in seronegative patients (SMR 0.45, 95% CI 0.08-1.13).  The relative risk of dying was 6 times higher in seropositive patients than in seronegative patients (95% CI 1.7-20.9).

Vaughan, J.H., 1993. Pathogenetic concepts and origins of rheumatoid factor in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 36, 1-6.

Cedillo, L., Gil, C., Mayagoitia, G., Giono, S., Cuellar, Y., Yanez, A., 1992. Experimental arthritis induced by Mycoplasma pneumoniae in rabbits. Journal of Rheumatology 19, 344-347.
Abstract: Experimental arthritis in rabbits was induced by M. pneumoniae.  We compared it with the arthritis produced by well known animal arthritogenic agents (M. pulmonis and M. arthritidis).  Mycoplasmas were detected in the knee joint by different techniques.  M. pneumoniae and M. pulmonis produced a chronic arthritis.  Live M. pneumoniae and M. pulmonis were recovered from the joint during all experiments. No live M. arthritidis was detected.  Live mycoplasmas play an important role in acute arthritis.  A similar pattern was shown by M. pneumoniae and M. pulmonis.  This animal model could be helpful in the study of arthritis induced by a human pathogen mycoplasma.

Harris, E.D., Jr., 1992. Excitement in synovium: the rapid evolution of understanding of rheumatoid arthritis and expectations for therapy. Journal of Rheumatology 19, 3-5.
Abstract: Multiple events give rise to rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and many different elements create an overall pathological effect.  It is highly unlikely that a single cause for RA will be identified.  A greater appreciation of the multiple events that lead to the development of RA is opening up a number of promising points of intervention with may serve as potential alternatives to the broader-based and often toxic drugs used in RA therapy today.

Kushner, I., Dawson, N.V., 1992. Changing perspecitves in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Rheumatology 19, 1831-1833.

Panayi, G.S., Lanchrury, J.S., Kingsley, G.H., 1992. The importance of the T cell in initiating and maintaining the chronic synovitis of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 35, 729-735.

Pruzanski, W., Vadas, P., 1992. Should tetracyclines be used in arthritis? Journal of Rheumatology 19, 1495-1497.

Ramos-Remus, C., Sibley, J., Russell, A.S., 1992. Steroids in rheumatoid arthritis: the honeymoon revisited. Journal of Rheumatology 19, 667-670.

Wither, J., 1992. Molecular aspects of the rheumatic diseases. Journal of Rheumatology 19, 649-650.

Anderson, S.T., Schiller, C.A., 1991. Rheumatoid-like arthritis in a lion tailed macaque. Journal of Rheumatology 18, 1247-1250.
Abstract: Abstract.  Very few satisfactory models of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) exist in nonhuman species.  It is particularly striking that nonhuman primates have only rarely been described to have disease processes resembling classic RA seen in humans.  We describe the case of a lion tailed macaque (Macaca silenus), housed at the National Zoological Park in Washington DC, that had a polyarticular inflammatory arthropathy resembling RA. Gross and histopathological examination of necropsy tissues and radiographic findings strongly suggest a rheumatoid-like disease never before described in this species.

Barile, M.F., Yoshida, H., Roth, H., 1991. Rheumatoid arthritis: New findings on the failure to isolate or detect mycoplasmas by multiple cultivation or serologic procedures and a review of the literature. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 13, 571-582.
Abstract: Using different and elaborate broth, agar, and cell culture procedures, we failed to isolate mycoplasmas, ureaplasmas, spiroplasmas, or chlamydiae from the synovial fluid of 10 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and from six patients with non-rheumatoid arthritis (NRA).  In addition, sera from 35 patients with NRA also were examined.  Although some of the sera had moderately high titers of metabolism-inhibiting antibody to some of the 10 human Mycoplasma species, especially to the common respiratory pathogen Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and to some of the eight Ureaplasma urealyticum serovars, especially serovars V and VII, there were no significant differences between titers of these antibodies in the two groups of patients.  Among RA patients serum antibody titers to M. pneumoniae were 1:32 in five and 1:16 in eight; two patients had higher synovial fluid titers (1:16) than serum titers (1:4).  The geometric mean titer (GMT) of antibody to serovar V in synovial fluid was higher in RA patients than in NRA patients, but the difference did not reach significance (P=.056).  Reports on the possible role of infectious agents in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis are reviewed.

Clark, H.W., 1991. The potential role of mycoplasmas as autoantigens and immune complexes in chronic vascular pathogenesis. American Journal of Primatology 24, 235-243.

Gorina, L.G., Goncharova, S.A., Igumnov, A.V., 1991. Laboratory diagnosis of human mycoplasmoses. Vestnik Adademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR 1991, 44-47.

Healey, L.A., Wilske, K.R., 1991. Evaluating combination drug therapy in rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Rheumatology 18, 641-642.

Hoque, M.M., Das, A.K., Wahab, M.a., Rahman, M.L., 1991. Note on the management of traumatic injuries in an elephant. Bangladesh Veterinarian 8, 82-83.

Jarjour, W.N., Jeffries, B.D., Davis, J.S., Welch, W.J., Mimura, T., Winfield, J.B., 1991. Autoantibodies to human stress proteins. Arthritis and Rheumatism 34, 1133-1138.
Abstract: Unselected sera from patients with various rheumatic, inflammatory bowel, and autoimmune skin diseases (n=268) were examined against human cell lysate by immunoblotting procedures, to determine the prevalence of autoantibodies to stress proteins (heat-shock proteins) hsp60 (homolog of Escherichia coli groEL and Mycobacterial 65K antigens), hsp73, and hsp90.  Using standard, sensitive and specific assay conditions, IgG and IgM autoantibodies to these stress proteins were not demonstrable, or were detected infrequently, in sera from control subjects (n=36) and from patients with rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome, ankylosing spondylitis, Reiter's syndrome, systemic lupis erythematosus, and systemic sclerosis.  Autoantibodies to hsp60 were relatively more common (>= 20% of sera) in patients with mixed connective tissue disease, polymyositis/dermatomyositis, psoriatic arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, epidermolysis bullosa acquista, and bullous pemphigoid.  Anti-hsp73 autoantibodies were detected in 20% or more of the sera from patients were Lyme disease and ulcerative colitis.  Taken together, these data extend the spectrum of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases in which humoral anti-stress protein reactivity develops.  However, the paucity of humoral autoreactivity to stress proteins in patients with systemic lupis erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis argues against a direct role of anti-stress protein autoantibodies in the pathogenesis of these disorders.

Mandlekar, B.D., Soni, J.L., Nema, S.K. Disintegrating trypanosomes in elephant; diagnosis and chemotherapy. International Seminar on Veterinary Medicine in Wild and Captive Animals, Nov. 8-10, Bangalore, India.  30. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Sudden change in behaviour of six elephants was observed violent in nature did not permit their use for tourist. They were losing their condition. Anorexia, pyrexia, and anemia vis-a-vis the infected elephants were lethargic,eyes shrunken with lacrimation and they became unresponsive to command. Disintegrating trypanosomes in elephants of Kanha National Park were diagnosed by blood sample. NSD findings were reported by other diagnostic laboratories. Chemotherapy with corridane (Hindustan antibiotic) was done. An elephant of average build was injected with 12.5 gms of corridane dissoved in 75 ml of dist. water subcutaneously. A single injection was effective for 3 months.  In recurrent the above dose need to be repeated. Berenil (Hoechst) @ 800 mg/ 100 kg body weight by deep IM route, revealed synergistic effects. Livferol 250 ml B.D. 15 days effectively managed anaemia and deranged liver function. Sugar cane was supplemented to check hypoglycaemia. Six elephants simultaneously affected were cured. Half dose of corridane has chemoprophelectic effect. Rehydration was done with 3 kg of Gur, common salt 510 gms, fresh water 60 liters for 4-5 days.

Nanjappa, K.A., 1991. Anaesthesia and treatment of a wounded wild Makana elephant (Elephas maximus). Indian Veterinary Journal 68, 360.

Vulfovich, Yu.V., 1991. Mycoplasm arthritogenicity and human mycoplasma-induced arthritis. Vestnik Adademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR 1991, 6-9.

Wolfe, R., Cathey, M.A., Roberts, F.K., 1991. The latex test revisited. Arthritis and Rheumatism 34, 951-959.
Abstract: Rheumatoid factor (RF) testing by latex fixation in 8,287 outpatients yielded a sensitivity of 81.6% and 78.0% at titers of 1:20 and 1:80, respectively, and a specificity against noninflammatory rheumatic disorders (NIRD) of 96.6%  and 97.7% and against NIRD plus inflammatory disorders of 95.2% and 96.8%, respectively.  The predictive value of a positive test result at the clinic prevalence rate for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) (16.4%) was approximately 80%, and was 70% at 10% prevalence and 10% at 1% prevalence.  No associations of RA with age or sex were found in non-RA patients.  RF titers increased minimally with age in RA patients and were higher in men than in women.  This study suggests that latex testing is far more specific than has been believed and that the titer is not spuriously increased with age.

Breedveld, F.C., Dukmans, B.A.C., Mattie, H., 1990. Minocycline treatment for rheumatoid arthritis: An open dose finding study. Journal of Rheumatology 17, 43-46.

George, P.O., Rajan, A., Varkey, C.A., Balagopalan, T.P., Rajankutty, K., 1990. Osteo-arthritis in an elephant (Elephas maximus indicus). Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences 21, 157-159.

Koshy Varghese, Mammen Abraham, Valsala, K.V., Rajan, A., 1990. Osteoarthritis in an Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus). Cheiron 19, 185-186.

Paulus, H.E., 1990. The use of combinations of disease-modifying antirheumatic agents in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 33, 113-120.

Schwartz, B.D., 1990. Infectious agents, immunity, and rheumatic diseases. Arthritis and Rheumatism 33, 457-465.

Caffee, H.H., 1989. Reconstruction of the distal trunk of an African elephant. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 83, 1049-1051.
Abstract: A 5-year-old African elephant was treated for an amputation injury of the distal trunk.  It was determined that replantation was impractical and, therefore, an operation was designed and performed with the intention of recreating the prehensile tip.

Gorina, L.G., Vulfovich, Yu.V., Zifyan, A.V., Bakovskaya, I.V., Pronin, A.V., Zheverzheeva, I.V., 1989. Human mycoplasmic arthritis and its pathogenetic mechanisms. Vestnik Adademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR 1989, 84-87.

Kuntze, A., 1989. Dermatopathies in elephants and their treatment. Kleintierpraxis 34, 405-415.

Muller, M., Rytz, U. Dermatomycosis in two African elephants. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 31. Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere, Dortmund 1989.  207-209. 1989. Berlin, German Democratic Republic, Akademie Verlag.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Cases of dermatomycosis are reported in 2 adult African elephants in the Zoological Garden in Basle. Trichothecium, Scopulariopsis and Aspergillus spp. were isolated from skin biopsies.

Vulfovich, Yu.V., Gorina, L.G., Mitchenko, A.F., Goncharova, S.A., Gamova, N.A., Neustroeva, V.V., 1989. Mycoplasma and rheumatoid arthritis in children. Vestnik Adademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR 1989, 82-84.

Arnett, F.C., Edworthy, S.M., Bloch, D.A., McShane, D.J., Fries, J.F., Cooper, N.S., Healey, L.A., Kaplan, S.R., Liang, M.H., Luthra, H.S., Medsger, T.A., Jr., Mitchell, D.M., Neustadt, D.H., Pinals, R.S., Schalller, J.G., Sharp, J.T., Wilder, R.L., Hunder, G.O., 1988. The American Rheumatism Association 1987 revised criteria for the classification of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 31, 315-324.
Abstract: The revised criteria for the classification of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) were formulated from a computerized analysis of 262 contemporary, consecutively studied patients with RA and 262 control subjects with rheumatic diseases other than RA (non-RA). The new criteria are as follows: 1) morning stiffness in and around joints lasting at least 1 hour before maximal improvement; 2) soft tissue swelling (arthritis) of 3 or more joint areas observed by a physician; 3) swelling (arthritis) of the proximal interphalangeal, metacarpophalangeal, or wrist joints; 4) symmetric swelling (arthritis); 5) rheumatoid nodules; 6) the presence of rheumatoid factor; and 7) radiographic erosions and/or periarticular osteopenia in hand and/or wrist joints.  Criteria 1 and 4 must have been present for at least 6 weeks.  Rheumatoid arthritis is defined by the presence of 4 or more criteria, and no further qualifications (classic, definite or probable) or list of exclusions is required.  In addition, a "classification tree" schema is presented which performs equally well as the traditional (4 of 7) format.  The new criteria demonstrated 91-94% sensitivity and 89% specificity for RA when compared with non-RA rheumatic disease control subjects.

Clark, H.W., Coker-Vann, M.R., Bailey, J.S., Brown, T.M., 1988. Detection of mycoplasmal antigens in immune complexes from rheumatoid arthritis synovial fluids. Annals of Allergy 60, 394-398.
Abstract: This study was directed towards the detection of suspected antigenic microbial fragments in the immune complex (IC) fraction from chronic inflammatory disorders of the delayed type allergy. Mycoplasmas as the microbial prototype and joint fluid from the rheumatoid host were investigated. Protein-A affinity chromatography was used to isolate the immunoglobulin complex (IgG-IC) in six synovial fluids obtained from rheumatoid arthritis patients. The IgG-IC was digested with pepsin to further purify and obtain F(ab)2 complexes with greater specificity. The F(ab)2 complexes were dissociated and electrophoresed by SDS-PAGE and analyzed by immunoblotting using affinity purified rabbit antisera to six reference strains of human mycoplasmas. The presence of trace amount of mycoplasma antigens in the immune complex fractions was indicated by specific banding with antisera to M. pneumoniae, M. arthritidis, M. hominis, M. fermantans, and M. salivarium in one or more of the six synovial fluid fractions. The ELISA and immunoblot assays of seroconversion in rabbits immunized with the synovial fluid fractions also indicated the presence of mycoplasmal antigens.

Heard, D.J., Kollias, G.V., Merritt, A.M., Jacobson, E.R., 1988. Idiopathic chronic diarrhea and malabsorption in a juvenile African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 19, 132-136.
Abstract: A 4-5 yr old, 250 kg female African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana) was examined because of chronic, intermittent diarrhea and poor weight gain.  Abnormal clinical findings were cachexia, diarrhea, and ventral edema. Significant laboratory included low serum alkaline phosphatase concentrations, sporadic hyperbilrubinemia, hypoproteinemia/hypoalbuiminemia, intermittent hypoglycemia, hypertriglyceridemia, sporadic leukocytosis, neutrophilia/neutropenia, and lymphocytosis. The elephant had d-xylose malabsorption, and lymphocyte aggregates were found in histological sections of rectal biopsies.  Recurrent dental disease might have accounted for some of the clinical findings including cachexia.  Although an extensive workup was done, the cause or causes of the diarrhea were not determined and the condition spontaneously resolved.

Bennet, D., 1987. Immune-based erosive inflammatory joint disease of the dog: canine rheumatoid arthritis. I. Clinical, radiological and laboratory investigations. Journal of Small Animal Practice 28, 779-797.
Abstract: The features of 30 cases of canine rheumatoid arthritis are described.  The disease is a chronic symmetrical polyarthritis characterized by erosive, destructive changes within the joint.  The latter can be identified on radiographs by loss of mineral, the presence of discrete erosions or an irregular joint margin.  Increased periarticular soft tissue is common and periosteal new bone is not unusual.  The most obvious clinical feature is generalized stiffness particularly after rest.  Joints are often thickened and painful on manipulation. a third of cases present with pyrexia, lethargy and inappetence in addition to lameness.  Synovial fluid evaluation shows an increased number of white cells, most of which are polymorphs; the mucin clot is poor.  The ESR is generally increased and rheumatoid factor (an antiglobulin auto-antibody) is present in 73 per cent of cases.  Treatment is often unrewarding, although many dogs can cope for considerable periods of time.

Morris, P.J., Held, J.P., Jensen, J.M. Clinical pathologic features of chronic renal failure in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Proc.1st.Intl.Conf.Zool.Avian Med.  468-472. 1987.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Taylor-Robinson, D., Furr, P.M., Tully, J.G., Barile, M.F., Moller, B.R., 1987. Animal models of Mycoplasma genitalium urogenital infections. Israel Journal of Medical Sciences 23, 561-564.
Abstract: Male and female animals were inoculated urogenitally with Mycoplasma genitalium, recovered originally from men with nongonococcal urethritis.  Mice, hamsters and male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were resistant.  Male cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) were not as sensitive as male chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): 9 of 11 developed an obvious genital tract infection, some shedding organisms for more than 18 weeks.  M. genitalium was recovered from the blood of two of them when large numbers of organisms were in the urethra. Most of the chimpanzees colonized with the organisms had increased numbers of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in the genital tract and developed a fourfold or greater antibody response. Female squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and female tamarins (Saguinus mystar) exhibited low-level genital tract infections following intravaginal inoculation, whereas marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) and chimpanzees developed prolonged infections after similar inoculation: thus, female chimpanzees shed organisms for 12 to 15 weeks.  Marmosets and grivet monkeys (Ceropithecus aethiops) developed salpingitis with antibody responses after intraoviduct inoculation, and baboons (Papio anubis) developed parametritis after intracervical inoculation.  The results offer substantial evidence for the pathogenicity of M. genitalium for the urogenital tract of subhuman primates, and suggest that the microorganism may have a role in human genital tract infections.

Jensen, J. Paralumbar kidney biopsy in a juvenile African elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  17. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Same case as Ref # 305.

Phillips, P.E., 1986. Infectious agents in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism 16, 1-10.

Barile, M.F., Kapatais-Zoumbos, K., Grabowski, M.W., Snoy, P., Sneller, M., Plotz, P., Gill, V., Chandler, D.K.F. Mycoplasma hominis septic arthritis: Naturally occurring in humans and experimentally induced in chimpanzees. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology , 95. 1985.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: A recurrent septic arthritis developed in the wrist and prosthetic knee of a patient and continues to persist after ten months.  Aspirations were negative for bacteria and viruses but consistently grew out pure cultures of M. hominis.  The first positive culture was obtained 35 days after admission and four additional aspirations contained 10⁴ to 10⁷ CCU/ml of M. hominis.  Oxytetracycline was initiated on Day 41 and by Day 65 the aspiration was negative.  Treatment was continued for 6 months and terminated because of severe adverse gastrointestinal disturbances.  After treatment was discontinued the patient suffered a relapse, and M. hominis was isolated again. Experimental arthritis was induced by inoculating synovial fluids containing 10^4 CCU/ml of M. hominis into the knee of a chimpanzee.  Two additional chimpanzees inoculated with a pure culture of M. hominis containing 10^6 and 10^7 CCU/ml also developed arthritis.  Sera and synovial fluids from the patient and chimpanzee contained MI specific antibody to M. hominis. The septic arthritis induced in the chimpanzee was remarkably similar to disease in the patient.

Cole, B.C., Washburn, L.R., Taylor-Robinson, D., 1985. Mycoplasma-induced arthritis. In: Razin, S., Barile, M.F. (Eds.), The Mycoplasmas. Volume IV. Mycoplasma pathogenicity. Academic Press, New York, pp. 107-160.

Snoy, P.J., Kapatais-Zoumbos, K., Grabowski, M.W., Chandler, D.K., Barile, M.F. Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) as a model for a human Mycoplasma arthritis. Laboratory Animal Science 35, 533. 1985.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: Various Mycoplasma species have been shown to cause arthritis in animals and have been isolated from patients with septic arthritis and Reiter's syndrome.  In this study, Mycoplasma hominis was isolated from synovial fluid of a patient with septic arthritis and then inoculated into the knee joints of several chimpanzees.  The resulting arthritis in the chimpanzees was similar clinically to the arthritis in the patient.  The course of disease in the chimpanzee was monitored by sequential biopsies of the joint capsule, clinical signs, and analysis of synovial fluid for volume, leukocyte count, M. hominis titer and antibody response.  Different titers of Mycoplasma were inoculated in chimpanzees and a dose response was established.  Sequential biopsies revealed and acute progressive but transient synovitis with a corresponding elevation in the amount of synovial fluids, synovial leukocyte counts, colonization by M. hominis and an increased antibody response.  These data demonstrate that the chimpanzee provides an excellent model for the study of Mycoplasma induced arthritis in man.

Schmidt, M.J., 1983. Antagonism of xylazine sedation by yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine in an adult Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 14, 94-97.
Abstract: Heavy xylazine sedation was successfully antagonized by intravenous injection of yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) in an adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) prior to euthanasia.  A total xylazine dose of 1,200 mg intramuscularly plus 600 mg intravenously (approximately 0.33 mg/kg body weight) was given resulting in heavy sedation.  After 50 minutes of deep recumbent sedation, 425 mg yohimbine and 1,000 mg of 4-AP were administered intravenously.  Xylazine sedation was antagonized and the elephant was up and walking around within 5 minutes of antagonist administration.  The elephant remained standing for other 3 hours; at which point euthanasia was performed. Comment: Report concerns animal with arthritis and chronic foot problems.

Circus elephant electrocuted. The Oakland Press June 9, A2. 1982.
Ref Type: Newspaper

Brown, T.M., Bailey, J.S., Iden, K.I., Clark, H.W., 1982. Antimycoplasma approach to the mechanism and the control of rheumatoid disease. In: Sorenson, J.R.J. (Ed.), Inflammatory diseases and copper. Humana Press, pp. 391-407.

Altmann, D., Krebs, W., 1981. Combined Vetalar-Combelen anesthesia of elephant for surgical removal of foreign body from eye. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 261-265.

Clark, H.W., Laughlin, D.C., Brown, T.M., 1981. Rheumatoid arthritis in elephants -- a review to date. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 95-99.

 1980. Competent treatment of unusual patient earns good press for hospital -- and profession. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 177, 762-763.

Hobbled but alive. The Detroit News October 23, 4A. 1980.
Ref Type: Newspaper

Cumbersome cast. Macomb Daily . 1980.
Ref Type: Newspaper

Brown, T.M., Clark, H.W., Bailey, J.S., 1980. Rheumatoid arthritis in the gorilla: A study of mycoplasma-host interaction in pathogenesis and treatment. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Comparative Pathology of Zoo Animals. Smithsonian Institution, Washington,D.C., pp. 259-265.
Abstract: Rheumatoid arthritis in a gorilla was first observed at the National Zoo in 1969.  As the result of our preliminary report, several other gorillas were recognized to have similar symptoms.  These true animal models have been observed for seven to nine years with highly successful therapeutic results based upon a pathogenetic concept developed over a 30-year period in a study of the disease in humans.  The seriousness of arthritis in the gorilla is reflected by the reports we have received in the past few years of a total of 26 additional captive gorillas variously affected.  The systemic aspects of rheumatoid arthritis, such as failure to gain weight and grow normally, hot and swollen joints, migratory arthritis, severe localized muscular atrophy, generalized weakness and depression, presented classical evidence of the rheumatoid disease pattern.  Remission occurred in one pregnant gorilla, and a flare reaction followed delivery, which is characteristic of the disease pattern in the human counterpart.      Laboratory studies were in support of rheumatoid disease. Immunoglobulin alterations were noted with reversed A/G ratios and elevations of IgC and IgM.  Positive bentonite flocculation rheumatoid factor tests were observed, and a positive lupus erythematosus (LE) test was noted in one animal.  Abnormal hematologic findings were frequent, with increased sedimentation rates and lymphocytosis.      Evidence of mycoplasma association was indicated by complement-fixing antibody response, positive cultures, and demonstration of the mycoplasma antigen in the tissue.  Of greatest significance were the induced rise and subsequent fall of mycoplasma antibodies resulting from the challenge to the host with antimycoplasma medication and the production of the Jarisch-Herxheimer flare response.  All these mycoplasma relationships have been found in man with the additional demonstration of delayed-type skin reaction with mycoplasma antigen.      It has been stressed that in infectious hypersensitivity, the microbial source is obscured, yet it must be defined and the proper therapy planned on an individualized basis.  The medication must be given in relatively small, intermittent dosage to avoid the development of delayed hypersensitivity which negates the drug effect.  Until more effective medications are developed, the treatment must also be administered over an extended period of time to achieve permanent control of the disease.  The demonstration of the importance of the pathogenesis concept speaks for itself in the final analysis with the recovery of severely disabled gorillas.      In conclusion, it would appear that a study of rheumatoid arthritis in the gorilla and man, approached from the point of view of comparative pathology and medicine, has opened a new direction for an understanding of the pathogenesis of this complex disease.  From these studies, one can now visualize for the first time that rheumatoid arthritis in the gorilla and in man is a controllable and potentially curable disease.  It seems that new thinking in regard to further demonstrations of etiologic associations must be given to all species where tissue hypersensitivity to microbial agents is basic.  It is suggested that Koch's postulates were not designed to include this area of pathogenesis where the role of the host is as significant as that of the parasite--an omission which has delayed the development of new knowledge in this area for a half a century. Is not the time at hand to revise our concepts and move in a new direction?

Clark, H.W., Laughlin, D.C., Bailey, J.S., Brown, T.M., 1980. Mycoplasma species and arthritis in captive elephants. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 11, 3-15.
Abstract: Sixty-seven elephants (62 Elephas maximus and 5 Loxodonta africana) from three circus groups and five zoos were examined serologically and cultured for mycoplasma in a search for arthritogenic agents previously unrecognized in this animal species.  In two groups of elephants, 28 of the 35 female genital tracts cultured were found to be colonized by one or more strains of mycoplasma.  More than half of the elephants had complement fixing antibodies to one or more of the new mycoplasma isolates.  Lameness and other rheumatoid disorders were found associated with rheumatoid factor activity and changes in mycoplasma antibody titers.  In view of the arthritogenic activity of mycoplasma in other species, these new findings suggested the clinical significant of mycoplasma in elephants and the need for investigation, especially in relation to the high incidence of rheumatoid-type disorders observed in these captive elephants.

Clark, H.W., Laughlin, D.C., Bailey, J.S., Brown, T.M., 1979. Isolation of mycoplasma from the genital tracts of elephants. Elephant 1(3), 9-10.

Cole, B.C., Cassell, G.H., 1979. Mycoplasma infections as models of chronic joint inflammation. Arthritis and Rheumatism 22, 1375-1381.

Hall-Martin, A.J., De Boom, H.P.A., 1979. Dislocation of the elbow and its social consequences for an African elephant, Loxodonta africana. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 50, 19-22.
Abstract: A dislocated elbow of a male elephant calf (Loxodonta africana) in the Addo Elephant National Park resulted in it being harassed by other elephants and consequently leaving its maternal herd at the age of 6 years, rather than the more usual age of 9-10 years.  In the absence of large predators the elephant had survived for 9 years and had adapted its locomotion and intraspecific behavior to its injury.  The humeral joint of the affected forelimb was carried in partial extension with the cubital and carpal joints were permanently in partial flexion.  Substantial secondary oseoarthritic changes, extensive fusion and compensatory remodeling of the humerus, radius and ulna had taken place together with compensatory development in the musculature.  The planes of articulation of the limb bones had also be considerably rotated inward.

Kuntze, A., Hunsdorff, P., 1979. Further haematological and biochemical findings (Ca, inorganic P, Mg, Na, K, Fe, glucose, enzymes) with reference to iron deficiency anaemia in young elephants (Elephas maximus)]. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 13, 147-150.
Abstract: Summary:  Regular haematological checks were applied to young elephants with anaemia to study the therapeutic effects of oral and parenteral iron medication.  Additional serum electrolyte values are reported, with some of them discussed.  They are relating to calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, glucose, SGOT, SGPT, and alkaline phosphatase

Wilkes, E., Meek, E.S., 1979. Rheumatoid arthritis: Review of searches for an infectious cause. Part II. Infection 7, 192-197.

Wilkes, E., Meek, E.S., 1979. Rheumatoid arthritis: Review of searches for an infectious cause. Part I. Infection 7, 125-128.
Abstract: No distinctive pattern has yet emerged from the acumulated mass of results that would provide a generally acceptable hypothesis of the etiology of rheumatoid arthritis. A number of immunologic aberrations have been described, but there has been no identification of a key immunologic defect that might link together the various components of the immune response into an agreed pattern.  The possiblity of a persistent antigenic stimulus arising from an infection cannot be confirmed or refuted.  If a virus is involved, it would seem more likely to be a "slow" virus rather than a commonly recognized form, but there is no strong candidate of this type in view.  Despite the fact that mycoplasmas are undoubtedly arthritogenic in other species, their role as an atiologic agent in rheumatoid arthritis has not been proven.  The idea that bacterial cell wall peptidoglycan may provide a persistent stimulus has much to offer, but it is not possible at this stage to accept peptidoglycan as a recognized etiologic factor.  This suggestion will, however, undoubtedly stimulate much further investigation.

Brown, T.M., Clark, H.W., 1978. Rheumatoid inflammation -- Part I. Inflo (Arthritis Institute) 11, 1-2.

Caple, I.W., Jainudeen, M.R., Buick, T.D., Song, C.Y., 1978. Some clinicopathologic findings in elephants (Elephas maximus) infected with Fasciola jacksoni. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 14, 110-115.
Abstract: Severe submandidular and ventral abdominal edema was observed in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in which liver flukes ( Fasciola jacksoni) were recovered from the bile ducts at post-mortem examination.  Clinico-pathologic examination of blood samples and serum from this elephant and another 8 elephants showed that most had anemia and hypoproteinemia. Fecal samples from 6 of the elephants contained from 6 to 83 eggs per gram.  Treatment of elephants with nitroxynil (10 mg/kg) by subcutaneous injection produced severe local reactions at the injection site.  Feces collected 2 and 4 months after treatment were free of trematode eggs.  Hematologic values measured 4 months after treatment showed that the hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, erythrocyte count and plasma protein concentration had increased to within the normal range.

Clark, H.W., Bailey, J.S., Laughlin, D.C., Brown, T.M., 1978. Isolation of mycoplasma from the genital tracts of elephants. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie,Parasitenkunde,Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene 1. Abt. Originale 241, 262.

Kuntze, A., Hunsdorff, P., 1978. Haematological and biochemical findings (Ca, P, Mg , Fe, glucose, enzymes) in Asiatic female elephants. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 14, 309-313.
Abstract: Summary.  The hematological finding of ten clinically intact female elephants (Elephas maximus) are discussed, being compared with those of three newly imported young elephants (two years old) suffering from anemia caused by iron shortage.  Some serum electrolyte values (Ca, P, Mg, Fe, glucose, SGOT, SGPT, alkaline phosphatase) are stated.

Obi, T.U., 1978. Traumatic granuloma in an African elephant, Loxodonta africana, and its treatment with yatren-casein. East African Wildlife Journal 16, 69-71.

India's beloved elephant breaks leg, fights to live. The Detroit Free Press July 3, 9C. 1977.
Ref Type: Newspaper

Alexander, J.W., Begg, S., Dueland, R., Schultz, R.D., 1976. Rheumatoid arthritis in the dog: clinical diagnosis and management. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 12, 727-734.

Clark, H.W., Bailey, J.S., Brown, T.M. Mycoplasma hypersensitivity reactions. Proceedings of the Society for General Microbiology 111, 171. 1976.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: Many immunological disorders that apparently are cell-mediated have no known aetiologic antigens other than tissue-related autoantibodies.  The human host is challenged continually by many microbial antigens including several types of mycoplasmas.  The immunologic response to mycoplasma antigens is dependent upon several factors other than colonizability and cytopathogenicity.  Mixed microbial infections can have an augmentive or suppressive effect on the human host cell-mediated immunity (CMI).  Mycoplasma can stimulate the thymus-derived 'T' cells and the bone marrow 'B' cell systems as indicated by various CMI responses such as the migratory inhibitory factor, delayed-type skin reactions, lymphocyte transformations, and humoral antibody reactions in the human host.      Investigations of the mycoplasma hypersensitivity reactions in chronic rheumatoid disorders have included several factors such as long-term monitoring of CMI responses and obscured foci of mycoplasma antigens that would distinguish them from the acute-convalescent responses.  In addition to the effects of therapeutic agents (immunosuppressants), physiological changes (hormonal), and environmental factors (trauma) on CMI, the 'T' cell derived anti-IgG rheumatoid factor can neutralize the humoral mycoplasma antibodies.  Recent studies indicate that the frequent and variable anergic responses observed in rheumatoid disorders are dependent upon both the test mitogen and the mycoplasma antigen as well as the host lymphocytes. Tissue inflammation resulting from antigen-antibody hypersensitivity reactions, apparently occurs when the CMI responsive host is challenged by mycoplasma reinfection or antigen released from a tissue focus.  The incorporation of specific tissue antigens by mycoplasma is another factor influencing their reactions in systemic "autoimmune" disorders and may require the challenging antigenic precursors to be cultured in specific human tissue media.  The identification of the sensitizing and challenging antigens also includes the appraisal of mycoplasma exoantigens and exoenzymes, such as DNase, released into the tissues as well as the physiologically optimum fractions.

Newton, C.D., Lipowitz, A.J., Halliwell, R.E., Allen, H.L., Biery, D.N., Schumacher, H.R., 1976. Rheumatoid arthritis in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 168, 113-121.

Pedersen, N.C., Pool, R.C., Castles, J.J., Weisner, K., 1976. Noninfectious canine arthritis: rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 169, 295-303.
Abstract: Chronic unremitting, generally symmetric, erosive arthritis was studied in 8 dogs.  The disease had clinical, serologic, radiographic, and pathologic changes similar to those of rheumatoid arthritis of man.  The condition occurred mainly in smaller breeds of dogs, with time of onset from 8 months to 8 years of age.  Characteristic radiographic changes were seen in the first several weeks to several months after the appearance of the initial lameness.  Synovial fluid contained an increased number of neutrophils, and synovial fluid and synovial tissues were sterile for anaerobic and aerobic bacteria, mycoplasma, chlamydia, and viruses.  Corticosteroids were therapeutically ineffective in all of the cases; however, corticosteroids, cyclophosphamide and azathioprine were effective when used in combination in several dogs.

Takino, Y., Arai, S., 1976. Foreleg fracture in an Indian elephant at Yatsu-Yuen Zoo. Journal of the Japanese Association of Zoological Gardens and Aquariums 18, 1-4.

Windsor, R.S., Scott, W.A., 1976. Fascioliasis and salmonellosis in African elephants in captivity. British Veterinary Journal 132, 313-317.

Newton, C.D., Lipowitz, A.J., 1975. Canine rheumatoid arthritis: A brief review. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 11, 595-599.

Brown, T.M., Clark, H.W., Bailey, J.S., 1974. Natural occurance of rheumatoid arthritis in great apes -- a new animal model. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of the Philadelphia Centennial Symposium on Science and Research 43-79.

Gainer, B., 1973. A joint injury in an elephant. East African Wildlife Journal 11, 209.

Pinto, M.R.M., Jainudeen, M.R., Panabokke, R.G., 1973. Tuberculosis in a domesticated Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus. Veterinary Record 93, 662-664.
Abstract: A case of tuberculosis in a domesticated Asiatic elephant, Elephas maximus, was diagnosed on post-mortem examination.  The causal organism was identified as Mycobacterium tuberculosis var hominis on the basis of cultural, biochemical and virulence studies.  Microscopically, the lesions resembled tuberculous lesions as seen in man and other domestic animals, but an important difference was the apparent absence of Langerhan's type giant cells.  The problems associated with the clinical diagnosis of tuberculosis in the elephant are discussed.

Sokoloff, L., 1973. Animal model of human disease: rheumatoid arthritis.  Animal model: arthritis due to Mycoplasma in rats and swine. American Journal of Pathology 73, 261-264.

Sokoloff, J., 1972. The pathology of rhematoid arthritis and allied disoders. In: Hollander, J.L., McCarty, D.J. (Eds.), Arthritis and Allied Conditions. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia,PA, pp. 309-332.

Vaughan, J.H., 1972. The rheumatoid factors. In: Hollander, J.L., McCarty, D.J. (Eds.), Arthritis and Allied Conditions. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia,PA, pp. 153-171.

Weissmann, G., 1972. Lysosomal mechanisms of tissue injury in arthritis. Seminars in Medicine of the Beth Israel Hospital, Boston 286, 141-146.

Brown, T.M., Clark, H.W., Bailey, J.S., Gray, C.W., 1970. A mechanistic approach to treatment of rheumatoid type arthritis naturally occuring in a gorilla. Trans. Am. Clin. and Climat. Assoc. 82, 227-247.

Ruddy, S., Austen, K.F., 1970. The complement system in rheumatoid synovitis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 13, 713-723.
Abstract: Stoichiometric hemolytic assays were used to measure the activities of the first four reacting components of the complement sequence in synovial fluids from patients with seropositive or seronegative rheumatoid arthritis or degenerative joint disease.  The pattern of component reductions in the seropositive rheumatoid arthritis fluids was consistent with activation of the complement system by an intra-articular immunologic process.

Bartfield, H., 1969. Distribution of rheumatoid factor in non-rheumatoid states. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 168, 30-40.

Short, R.V., 1969. Notes on the teeth and ovaries of an African elephant of known age. Journal of Zoology (Lond) 158, 421-425.
Abstract: A captive female African elephant, known to be 27 years old, died as a result of trauma.  Her growth rate was similar to that of other captive African elephants, and slightly greater than that of wild animals.  The 5th molar was in full wear, and the 6th was just coming into wear.  There was extensive dental caries of the labial, lingual and occlusal surfaces of the 5th molars, presumably due to the unnatural diet.  The ovaries contained a large number of cystic follicles, and at least 50 regressing corpora lutea.  These abnormalities are probably related to the fact that the elephant had never been mated.

Mongan, E.S., Atwater, E.C., 1968. A comparison of patients with seropositive and seronegative rheumatoid arthritis. Medical Clinics of North American 52, 533-538.

Seneviratna, P., Wettimuny, S.G., Seneviratna, D., 1966. Fatal tuberculosis pneumonia in an elephant. Veterinary Medicine Small Animal Clinician 60, 129-132.
Abstract: A fatal case of tuberculosis pneumonia with anemia and helminthiasis in a Ceylon elephant is reported. Acid-fast organisms resembling Mycobacterium tuberculosis  and tubercular nodules were seen in large numbers in sections of the lung.

Mellors, R.C., Nowoslowski, A., Korngold, L., Sengson, B.L., 1961. Rheumatoid factor and the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Experimental Medicine 113, 475-483.

Mellors, R.C., Nowoslowski, A., Korngold, L., 1961. Rheumatoid arthritis and the cellular origin of rheumatoid factors. American Journal of Pathology 39, 533-546.

Ropes, M.W., 1959. Diagnostic criteria for rheumatoid arthritis: 1958 revision. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 18, 49-53.

Colyer, F., Miles, A.E.W., 1957. Injury to and rate of growth of an elephant tusk. Journal of Mammalogy 38(2), 243-247.

Attwell, R.I.G., 1954. A note on wounds in elephants. African Wild Life 8, 204-205.

Heyman, A., Sheldon, W.H., Evans, L.D., 1953. Pathogenesis of the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction. British Journal of Venereal Diseases 28 , 50.

Brown, T.M., Wichelhausen, R.H., Robinson, L.B., Merchout, W.R., 1949. The in vivo action of aureomycin on pleuropneumonia-like organisms associated with various rheumatic diseases. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 34, 1404-1410.

Ferrier, A.J., 1947. The care and management of elephants in Burma. Steel Brothers, London.

Sabin, A.B., Warren, J., 1940. The curative effect of certain gold compounds on experimental proliferative chronic arthritis in mice. Journal of Bacteriology 40, 823-856.

Humphreys, H.F., 1926. Particulars relating to the broken tusk of a wild Indian elephant. Brit. Dent. J. 47, 1400-1407.

Stannus, H.S., 1911. Diseases of elephants' tusks. The Lancet 1, 617.

Bland-Sutton, J., 1910. The diseases of elephants' tusks in relation to billiard balls. The Lancet 2, 1534-1537.

Mitchell, W.D., 1903. Some notes upon the dentition of the elephant and injuries thereto. Dent. Rev. ,London 17, 83-110.

Garrod, A.H., 1875. Report on the Indian elephant which died in the society's gardens on July 7th, 1875. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 1875, 542-543.

Mullen, A., 1682. An anatomical account of the elephant accidentally burnt in Dublin, on Fryday, June 17, in the year 1681. London.

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