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Diseases, viral
(The following additional keywords have been used
to categorize articles within this section and may assist your search.)
DO NOT USE "DISEASES" Use these terms only:
African horse sickness, bluetongue, EEHV, encephalomyocarditis virus
(EMC; EMCV), Foot and mouth disease, herpesvirus, influenza; papilloma
virus, pox, rabies, rinderpest; virus, viral disease, West Nile
Elephant
Bibliographic
Database
www.elephantcare.org
References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent
first.
Garner, M.M.,
Helmick, K., Ochsenreiter, J., Richman, L.K., Latimer, E., Wise, A.G.,
Maes, R.K., Kiupel, M., Nordhausen, R.W., Zong, J.C., Hayward, G.S.,
2009. Clinico-pathologic features of fatal disease attributed to new
variants of endotheliotropic herpesviruses in two Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus)
119. Vet. Pathol. 46, 97-104.
Abstract: The first herpesviruses described in association with serious
elephant disease were referred to as endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV)
because of their ability to infect capillary endothelial cells and cause
potentially fatal disease. Two related viruses, EEHV1 and EEHV2, have
been described based on genetic composition. This report describes the
similarities and differences in clinicopathologic features of 2 cases of
fatal endotheliotropic herpesvirus infections in Asian elephants caused
by a previously unrecognized virus within the betaherpesvirus subfamily.
EEHV3 is markedly divergent from the 2 previously studied fatal
probosciviruses, based on polymerase chain reaction sequence analysis of
2 segments of the viral genome. In addition to ascites, widespread
visceral edema, petechiae, and capillary damage previously reported,
important findings with EEHV3 infection were the presence of grossly
visible renal medullary hemorrhage, a tropism for larger veins and
arteries in various tissues, relatively high density of renal herpetic
inclusions, and involvement of the retinal vessels. These findings
indicate a less selective organ tropism, and this may confer a higher
degree of virulence for EEHV3
Miller, M.A.,
Olea-Popelka, F., 2009. Serum antibody titers following routine rabies
vaccination in African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 235, 978-981.
Abstract: Objective-To evaluate serum antibody titers in captive African
elephants (Loxodonta africana) following routine vaccination with a
commercially available, inactivated rabies vaccine. Design-Seroepidemiologic
study. Animals-14 captive African elephants from a single herd.
Procedures-Elephants were vaccinated as part of a routine preventive
health program. Initially, elephants were vaccinated annually (2 mL,
IM), and blood was collected every 4 or 6 months for measurement of
rabies virus-neutralizing antibody titer by means of the rapid
fluorescent focus inhibition test. Individual elephants were later
switched to an intermittent vaccination schedule to allow duration of
the antibody response to be determined. Results-All elephants had
detectable antibody responses following rabies vaccination, although
there was great variability among individual animals in regard to
antibody titers, and antibody titers could be detected as long as 24
months after vaccine administration. Young animals were found to develop
an antibody titer following administration of a single dose of the
rabies vaccine. Age and time since vaccination had significant effects
on measured antibody titers. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-Results
indicated that African elephants developed detectable antibody titers in
response to inoculation with a standard large animal dose of a
commercially available, inactivated rabies vaccine. The persistence of
detectable antibody titers in some animals suggested that vaccination
could be performed less frequently than once a year if antibody titers
were routinely monitored
Parker, D.M.,
Bernard, R.T.F., 2009.
Levels of aloe mortality with and without elephants in the Thicket Biome
of South Africa.
African Journal of Ecology 47, 246-251.
Abstract:
Studies concerning the influence of African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) on vegetation have produced contradictory results; some show
minimal or no effect while others report significant elephant-induced
effects. Elephants are generalist megaherbivores but will selectively
feed from preferred plant species. We investigated the mortality of aloe
plants (highly preferred food items for elephants) at five sites with
elephants (treatment) and five paired sites without elephants (control)
in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. A significantly higher
proportion of aloes were dead at treatment sites and significantly more
aloes that had lost their crown (headless) were found at treatment sites
compared with controls. We conclude that although the proportions of
dead aloes at treatment sites were significantly higher, it remains
unclear whether there is a need to be concerned with the potential
small-scale extinction of aloes from parts of the Eastern Cape Province.
The observed mortality may merely be an artefact of the loss of large
herbivores through disease (e.g. rinderpest) and hunting in the past.
Meyers, D.A.,
Isaza, R., MacNeill, A.
Evaluation of acute phase proteins for diagnosis of inflammation in
Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus).
Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and
Amphibian Veterinarians. 128. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
In many domestic species, routine hematology assays are useful
diagnostic tools to diagnose inflammatory conditions. Unlike other
species, these hematologic tests apparently are insensitive indicators
of inflammation in elephants.1 We studied a novel group of blood
proteins, called acute phase proteins, which increase during
inflammatory conditions, for their usefulness in diagnosing elephants
with inflammatory diseases. Although these proteins currently are useful
in humans and domestic animals, each species has a different set of
important proteins that must be individually investigated.2 We tested
several acute phase proteins (C-reactive protein, alpha-1 glycoprotein,
alpha-1 antitrypsin, serum amyloid A, haptoglobin, fibrinogen,
ceruloplasmin, and albumin) as well as complete blood counts, chemistry
panels, serum protein electrophoresis, and 3-D gel electrophoresis to
determine their usefulness for diagnosing different types of
inflammatory conditions in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).
Animals with inflammatory conditions were classified as those
individuals with known illnesses such as mycobacteriosis, arthritis,
nail bed abscesses, and malignant tumors. Control animals were
thoseanimals that were suspected to not have any inflammation and be
healthy at the time of testing as determined by physical examination and
obtaining a thorough medical history.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Lyashchenko, K., R. Greenwald, J. Esfandiari, J. Olsen, R. Ball,
G. Dumonceaux, F. Dunker, C. Buckley, M.
Richard, S. Murray, J.B. Payeur, P. Anderson, J.M. Pollock, S. Mikota,
M. Miller, D. Sofranko, and W.R.
Waters. 2006. Tuberculosis in Elephants: Antibody responses to defined
antigens of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, potential for early diagnosis, and monitoring of
treatment. Clin. Vacc. Immunol. 13: 722-732.
2. Murata H., N. Shimada, M. Yoshioka. 2004. Current research on acute
phase proteins in veterinary diagnosis:
an overview. Vet J. 168: 28-40.
Miller, J.,
McClean, M.
Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) after a single rectal dose.
Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and
Amphibian Veterinarians. 224-225. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
Captive African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) are susceptible to
many types of gram negative bacterial infections such as Escherichia
coli, Mycoplasma spp., Salmonella spp., Klebsiella
spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. Enrofloxacin (Baytril®,
Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee
Mission, KS 66201) is a potentially effective antibiotic for
treatment of these bacterial infections in elephants. Very limited data
exists on the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in elephants2 and most of
the dosage regimes for gastrointestinal absorption are based on horse
dosages since they share a similar gastrointestinal tract. Three
African elephants from Wildlife Safari in Winston, Oregon, two females
both 37-yr-old and one male 26-yr-old, were used to determine whether
therapeutic levels of enrofloxacin could be achieved thru rectal
administration of liquid injectable enrofloxacin (Baytril 100®, 100
mg/ml, Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee
Mission, KS 66201) at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg. A pretreatment baseline
blood sample was collected. Following administration, blood samples were
collected at 45 min, 1.5hr, 2.5hr, 5hr, 9hr, 23hr, 36hr to determine
plasma enrofloxacin levels. Plasma enrofloxacin levels were measured at
North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine using
high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Plasma
ciprofloxacin levels were measured concurrently. Results indicate plasma
concentrations of enrofloxacin did not reach adequate bacteriocidal
levels for any of the the following common bacterial isolates in captive
elephants: Mycoplasma
spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Klebsiella
spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. The study
determined that a rectally administered dosage of 2.5 mg/kg of liquid
injectable enrofloxacin was insufficient to obtain therapeutic levels in
African elephants. The low plasma levels of enrofloxacin in all three
elephants may be a result of poor absorption in the distal large
intestine. A future study will determine if oral administration will
provide a more efficient mode of drug delivery and absorption in African
elephants. It is also possible that the current dosage of 2.5 mg/kg is
too low to achieve adequate therapeutic levels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the elephant and veterinary staff at Wildlife
Safari for their participation in conducting this study. Thanks to
Doctors: Modesto McClean, Jason Bennett, Andi Chariffe, Tessa Lohe,
Benji Alacantar. Also thanks to Dinah Wilson, Carol Matthews, Anthony
Karels, Mary Iida, Shawn Finnell, Patches Stroud, Katie Alayan.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Haines, G.R., et. al. 2000. Serum concentrations and
pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after intravenous and intragastric
administration to mares. Can. J.Vet. Res. 64(3):171-177.
2. Sanchez, C.R., et. al. 2005. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of
enrofloxacin administered orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus). Am. J. Vet. Res. 66:1948-1953.
Schmitt, D.,
Charmason, S., Wiedner, E.
Use of luteinizing hormone ELISAs in breeding elephants.
Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and
Amphibian Veterinarians. 120-121. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Successful artificial insemination (AI) of elephants depends
heavily on determining the unique luteinizing hormone (LH) surges that
occur during the follicular phase of the elephant's estrous cycle.
Natural breeding of elephants also can benefit from a rapid and accurate
determination of the two LH surges found in elephants. There are three
ELISAs available for determining the LH
surge; two are commercially-available assays and one is a laboratory
in-house assay. Each vary in their cost, time to complete the assay, and
ease of performing the procedures. Detection of the initial non-ovulatory
peak in luteinizing hormone (LH1) is best accomplished by use of an in
house LH assay, or use of the LH assay available from Dr. Nancy Dahl (UC-Davis,
Davis, CA
95616 USA), both of which are quantitative assays for detection of LH.
For cow-side use during estrus, the qualitative ELISA Witness® LH
Ovulation Timing Test Kit (Symbiotics Corporation, Kansas City, MO 64163
USA) detects LH in elephants within 20 min. This assay requires a
minimum of laboratory precision to detect the ovulatory LH peak (LH2).
Introduction
Elephants are the only species known to exhibit a double LH peak during
a single estrous cycle.2,4 Increased success of artificial insemination
in elephants occurred partly in response to the ability to detect the
LH1 surge about 21 days prior to the ovulatory LH2 surge that occurs at
the end of a two to three day estrus.1 The first reports regarding
detection of the double LH
surges were performed in laboratories using custom ELISA technology that
require exacting procedures and two days to complete the quantitative
assays.2,4 A semi-quantitative elephant LH ELISA that can be performed
in the field in about 2.5 hr was developed at UC-Davis.3 A qualitative
LH assay was developed for use in dogs and cats that uses a latex strip
ELISA. The time for development of the test is 20 min and detects a LH
surge greater than 1 ng/ml using serum. Elephants have LH1 and LH2
surges in the 4-16 ng/ml range,2,4 well within the detectable range for
all of the assays described. The detection of the LH1 peak usually is
from daily samples submitted weekly; this allows some efficiency of
assay resources and provides at least a two-wk notice of LH2. However,
accurate and timely detection of LH2 is needed at least daily and at
times twice daily during estrus. The use of an LH assay which can be
performed 'cow-side' and accurately detect LH2 is essential for
successful AI and can be helpful in determining estrus status for
natural breeding. The Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit from
Symbiotics was developed for use in dogs and cats, but is effective in
other species, including elephants, and meets these requirements.
Discussion
Detection of LH1 provides information for predicting the LH2 surge and
performance of assays that require more laboratory time and precision
are useful since detection of LH1 is not as timesensitive as LH2
detection. Both of the quantitative assays have unique advantages. An
inhouse assay can be set up, but requires greater preparation time,
precision of laboratory procedures is more demanding, often takes two
days to perform, and is more susceptible to environmental variables. The
assay developed by UC-Davis costs about $5.00 per well, takes about 2.5
hr to perform and is more stable. However, for quantitative results the
overhead costs of the standard curve requires about 16 wells ($90), plus
two wells for each unknown sample. The UC-Davis assay can be set up as a
qualitative test with high and low controls and no standard curve. This
requires from three to six wells for a single sample. The Witness® LH
Ovulation Timing Test Kit has a control built into each test strip and
costs about $25.00 per sample. Because 'cow-side' testing possible using
the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit, I recommend its use for
detection of LH2, although the UC-Davis Elephant ELISA is competitively
priced and can be performed in a nearby temporary laboratory. Because
timing is
critical in detecting LH2 and performing subsequent AI, I recommend
using the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit at the time of estrus,
preceded by either one of the other assays for detecting LH1, depending
on availability of laboratory labor and equipment.
LITERATURE CITED
1.
Brown, J. L., F. Goritz, N. Pratt-Hawkes, R. Hermes, M. Galloway, L. H.
Graham, C. Gray, S. L. Walker, A. Gomez, R. Moreland, S. Murray, D. L.
Schmitt, J. G. Howard, J. Lehnhardt, B. Beck, A. Bellem, R. Montali, and
T. B. Hildebrandt. 2004. Successful artificial insemination of an Asian
elephant at the National Zoological Park. Zoo Biol. 23: 45-63.
2. Brown, J. L., D. L. Schmitt, A. Bellem, L. H. Graham, and J.
Lehnhardt. 1999. Hormone secretion in the Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus):
Characterization of ovulatory and anovulatory luteinizing hormone
surges. Biol. Reprod. 61: 1294-1299.
3. Dahl, N. J., D. Olson, D. L. Schmitt, D. R. Blasko, R. S. Kristipati,
and J. F. Roser. 2004. Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay (ELISA) in the elephant (Loxodonta
africana
and
Elephas maximus).
Zoo Biol. 23: 65-78.
4. Kapustin, N., J. K. Critser, D. Olson, and P. V. Malven. 1996.
Nonluteal estrous cycles of 3-week duration are initiated by anovulatory
luteinizing hormone peaks in African elephants. Biol. Reprod.
55:1147-1154.
Steinmetz,
H.W., Eulenberger, U., Hatt, J.M.
Daily clinical examinations in a herd of captive asian elephants.
Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and
Amphibian Veterinarians. 124. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
The captive population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is
not self-sustaining.2 Poor reproduction and high juvenile mortality are
key factors in the decreasing population. Infection with
endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV) is one of the major causes
of death in the captive population, and has resulted in the loss of at
least 40 captive animals.1 EEHV has been
responsible for the peracute death of two juvenile males at Zurich Zoo,
Switzerland. Mortality due to peracute infection with EEHV mainly is
seen in juveniles. Early detection of characteristic clinical signs of
EEHV and immediate initiation of therapy are of crucial
importance due to its rapid progression. Based on past fatal EEHV
experiences, Zurich Zoo modified its daily clinical health monitoring
program to increase staff awareness of EEHV infection. Examinations have
been incorporated into the daily routine and include daily evaluation of
behaviour, appetite, colour of mucosal membranes and the measurement of
body temperature; these examinations are performed by keepers. In our
experiences, characteristic signs of acute EEHV infection are lethargy,
anorexia, mild
colic, and cyanosis of the mucosal membranes. Results of temperature
measurements have shown that best estimations of body temperature are
done by measurement of the temperature in the centre of a fecal ball 5-9
min after defecation. Mean values of 36.5°C (± 0.2°C SD) are within
published reference values, although adult elephants have shown
significantly lower body temperature than juveniles. Establishment of
individual reference values for each elephant is essential to detect
unusual temperature peaks that may indicate possible EEHV viremia. The
present study has shown that daily health examinations increase the
awareness of keepers for
early signs of EEHV infection (e.g., peaks in body temperature and
cyanotic mucosal membranes).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank B. Aeschbach and all elephant keepers for taking
special care of our elephants. The work and organization of Ms. G.
Hürlimann is gratefully appreciated.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S. 2007. Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV). http://www.elephantcare.org/herpes.htm.
cited: 10.04.2008:
2. Wiese, R. J. 2000. Asian elephants are not self-sustaining in North
America. Zoo Biol. 19: 299-309.
Zong, J.C.,
Latimer, E., Heaggans, S.Y., Richman, L.K., Hayward, G.S. Pathogenesis
and molecular epidemiology of fatal elephant endotheliotropic disease
associated with the expanding Proboscivirus genus of the
betaherpesvirinae. Proceedings 2007 IEF Symposium. 23-35. 2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Sinclair, A.R.,
Mduma, S.A., Hopcraft, J.G., Fryxell, J.M., Hilborn, R., Thirgood, S.,
2007. Long-term ecosystem dynamics in the Serengeti: lessons for
conservation. Conserv. Biol. 21, 580-590.
Abstract: Data from long-term ecological studies further understanding
of ecosystem dynamics and can guide evidence-based management. In a
quasi-natural experiment we examined long-term monitoring data on
different components of the Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem to trace the
effects of disturbances and thus to elucidate cause-and-effect
connections between them. The long-term data illustrated the role of
food limitation in population regulation in mammals, particularly in
migratory wildebeest and nonmigratory buffalo. Predation limited
populations of smaller resident ungulates and small carnivores. Abiotic
events, such as droughts and floods, created disturbances that affected
survivorship of ungulates and birds. Such disturbances showed feedbacks
between biotic and abiotic realms. Interactions between elephants and
their food allowed savanna and grassland communities to co-occur. With
increased woodland vegetation, predators' capture of prey increased.
Anthropogenic disturbances had direct (hunting) and indirect (transfer
of disease to wildlife) effects. Slow and rapid changes and multiple
ecosystem states became apparent only over several decades and involved
events at different spatial scales. Conservation efforts should
accommodate both infrequent and unpredictable events and long-term
trends. Management should plan on the time scale of those events and
should not aim to maintain the status quo. Systems can be
self-regulating through food availability and predator-prey
interactions; thus, culling may not be required. Ecosystems can occur in
multiple states; thus, there may be no a priori need to maintain one
natural state. Finally, conservation efforts outside protected areas
must distinguish between natural change and direct human-induced change.
Protected areas can act as ecological baselines in which human-induced
change is kept to a minimum
Wellehan, J.F.,
Johnson, A.J., Childress, A.L., Harr, K.E., Isaza, R., 2007. Six novel
gammaherpesviruses of Afrotheria provide insight into the early
divergence of the Gammaherpesvirinae. Vet Microbiol 2007 Aug 19; [Epub
ahead of print].
Abstract: The Afrotheria represent an early branching of placental
mammals. Only two herpesviruses from Afrotheria have been previously
identified, and the genus Proboscivirus in the subfamily
Betaherpesvirinae has been proposed for them. Six novel
gammaherpesviruses were identified in four species in the superorder
Afrotheria by detection and analysis of their DNA polymerase genes.
Elephantid herpesvirus 3 (ElHV3) and Elephantid herpesvirus 4 (ElHV4)
were identified from conjunctival swabs from Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus). ElHV3 was also found
in a vaginal swab from one elephant with vaginitis. Elephantid
herpesvirus 5 (ElHV5) was identified from vaginal swabs of two Asian
elephants with vaginal plaques. Elephantid herpesvirus 6 was discovered
in a conjunctival swab from an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).
Procavid herpesvirus 1 (PrHV1) was found in spleen and conjunctival
swabs of rock hyrax (Procavia capensis). Trichechid herpesvirus 1
(TrHV1) was identified from skin and buffy coats of Florida manatees (Trichechus
manatus latirostris). ElHV3 and ElHV4 form a distinct cluster, and
ElHV5, ElHV6, TrHV1, and PrHV1 form a second cluster. These viruses may
have codiverged with their host species. Phylogenetic analysis of these
novel herpesviruses suggests that two separate groups of
gammaherpesviruses may have codiverged with the Afrotheria.
2006.
Morphological features of the reproduction of cowpox virus strain EP-2
isolated from an elephant in primary fibroblast cultures and
chorion-allantoic chick embryos. Vopr Virusol 51, 44-48.
Abstract: Electron microscopy was used to study the reproduction of
cowpox virus strain EP-2 in the cells of a primary fibroblast cultures (PFC)
and chorion-allantoic membrane (CAM) of chick embryos (CE). The
sequential stages of viral morphogenesis and the structure of A-type
inclusions were described. The parameters of viral reproduction in PFC
and CE CAM were compared. The formation of crystalloid tubular
structures in PFC, unusual electron dense inclusions in the cells of CE
CAN, and different variants of A-type inclusions in the cells of a pock
was found. The histological and ultrastructural characteristics of pocks
in CE CAM are described.
Agnew, D.W.
Brain removal in charismatic mega-vertebrates: A not-so-charismatic
chore. 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.
2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Examination of the central nervous system, both grossly and
histologically, is an important component of a complete necropsy.
Cerebral nematodiasis, West Nile Virus infection, rabies, distemper, and
organophosphate toxicity are just a few of the possible diseases with
serious herd and public health significance which may only be diagnosed
by careful analysis of the brain and/or spinal cord. Removal of the
brain is strongly suggested for a complete necropsy, and though it may
appear a daunting task, a few guidelines and power tools will allow
efficient removal of the brain and a complete necropsy.
It is usually preferred that the brain be removed whole by removal of
the skull cap. This technique has been well documented in necropsy
texts and is commonly taught in veterinary schools. Briefly, after
skinning the skull, a saw or ax may be used to cut on either side from
the foramen magnum and the occipital condyles cranially and dorsally in
a circular pattern (Fig. 1). This technique is useful to examine the
brain in situ and remove it whole, but unfortunately requires skinning
of the head, can be time-consuming, and is almost impossible to complete
in rhinoceros and elephants. There are many alternative approaches to
brain removal, but the author has found the following methods using
commonly available tools are quick, leave a relatively intact skull, and
the brain itself is removed in two parts. Certainly, the techniques
presented here can be adapted to the individual preferences of the
prosector and to other similar species. If nothing else, a discussion
of brain removal techniques will reinforce the importance of collecting
a complete set of tissues during a post-mortem examination.
Ehlers, B.,
Dural, G., Marschall, M., Schregel, V., Goltz, M., Hentschke, J., 2006.
Endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus, the first betaherpesvirus with a
thymidine kinase gene
411. Journal of General Virology 87, 2781-2789.
Abstract: Endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus (elephantid herpesvirus
1; ElHV-1) is apathogenic for African elephants (Loxodonta africana),
but causes fatal haemorrhagic disease in Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus). This is thought to occur through transmission from African
elephants in places where both species are housed, such as zoological
gardens. The virus has caused considerable losses in North American and
European zoological gardens and thus severely impedes breeding of the
endangered Asian elephant. Previously, the ultrastructural and genetic
characterization of ElHV-1 from a male Asian elephant that died from the
disease at the Berlin zoological gardens in 1998 have been reported.
Here, a partial characterization of the ElHV-1 genome is presented. A 60
kbp locus, spanning 34 open reading frames, was analysed. Most of the
detected genes were found to be conserved among the herpesviruses and
showed an overall arrangement most similar to that of betaherpesviruses,
in particular Human herpesvirus 6 and Human herpesvirus 7. Most
importantly, in addition to a protein kinase gene that is homologous to
the human cytomegalovirus UL97 gene, a thymidine kinase (TK) gene was
found, which is generally missing in betaherpesvirus genomes. Thus,
ElHV-1 is the only known betaherpesvirus to encode a TK gene. This
peculiarity might contribute to the fulminant pathogenicity of ElHV-1,
but also provide a crucial enzymic activity for developing an efficient
antiviral therapy with currently available nucleoside analogues
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Hermes, R., Ratanakorn, P., Rietschel, W., Fickel, J., RetNat, D.,
Frey, R., Reid, C., Goeritz, F. Ultrasonographic assessment and
ultrasound-guided biopsy of the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in
elephants. 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.
117-118. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: So far there are no valid diagnostic tools available for
identifying latent carriers of endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV).
For this reason, the lateral retropharyngeal lymph node complex (LARELYNOC)
of elephants, identified during postmortem studies as target organ for
EEHV and suitable for transcutaneous biopsy, was grossly described.
Transcutaneous ultrasound (3.5 MHz) was applied behind the ear region to
identify the LARELYNOC containing up to four single lymph nodes on each
side. The lymph node tissue is situated 20-50 mm below the skin surface.
An ultrasonographic assessment of the LARELYNOC and two biopsies were
performed on 39 healthy Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Samples were
tested for EEHV via PCR. Whole blood samples were also collected and
tested for active EEHV infection. Lymph nodes were ultrasonographically
classified as active (calculated mean volume=17.4 ± 6.9 cm3, P>0.001),
inactive (calculated mean volume=3.1 ± 0.6 cm3, P<0.001), or chronic
active (calculated mean volume=10.6 ± 1.0 cm3, P<0.05). Histology
confirmed not only the presence of lymph tissue but also the
ultrasonographically diagnosed reactivity status of the lymph node
biospies. Although all samples including whole blood were found to be
negative for the EEHV DNA particles, the successful development of this
procedure in elephants could prove beneficial for the screening of not
only latent EEHV infections but might also be a less dangerous
alternative method for the diagnosis of zoonotic infections such as
tuberculosis.
Isaza, R.,
Davis, R.D., Moore, S.M., Briggs, D.J., 2006. Results of vaccination of
Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) with monovalent inactivated rabies
vaccine. American Journal of Veterinary Research 67, 1934-1936.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the humoral immune response of Asian
elephants to a primary IM vaccination with either 1 or 2 doses of a
commercially available inactivated rabies virus vaccine and evaluate the
anamnestic response to a 1-dose booster vaccination. ANIMALS: 16 captive
Asian elephants. PROCEDURES: Elephants with no known prior rabies
vaccinations were assigned into 2 treatment groups of 8 elephants; 1
group received 1 dose of vaccine, and the other group received 2 doses
of vaccine 9 days apart. All elephants received one or two 4-mL IM
injections of a monovalent inactivated rabies virus vaccine. Blood was
collected prior to vaccination (day 0) and on days 9, 35, 112, and 344.
All elephants received 1 booster dose of vaccine on day 344, and a final
blood sample was taken 40 days later (day 384). Serum was tested for
rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies by use of the rapid fluorescent
focus inhibition test. RESULTS: All elephants were seronegative prior to
vaccination. There were significant differences in the rabies geometric
mean titers between the 2 elephant groups at days 35, 112, and 202. Both
groups had a strong anamnestic response 40 days after the booster given
at day 344. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results confirmed the
ability of Asian elephants to develop a humoral immune response after
vaccination with a commercially available monovalent inactivated rabies
virus vaccine and the feasibility of instituting a rabies virus
vaccination program for elephants that are in frequent contact with
humans. A 2-dose series of rabies virus vaccine should provide an
adequate antibody response in elephants, and annual boosters should
maintain the antibody response in this species
Oni, O.,
Wajjwalku, W., Boodde, O., Chumsing, W., 2006. Canine distemper virus
antibodies in the Asian elephant (Elaphas maximus)
407. Veterinary Record 159, 420-421.
Reid, C.E.,
Hildebrandt, T.B., Marx, N., Hunt, M., Thy, N., Reynes, J.M.,
Schaftenaar, W., Fickel, J., 2006. Endotheliotropic elephant herpes
virus (EEHV) infection. The first PCR-confirmed fatal case in Asia
436. Vet. Q. 28, 61-64.
Abstract: Since 1995, 4 suspected cases of Endotheliotropic Elephant
Herpes Virus (EEHV) infection, i.e. based on clinical presentation, have
occurred in Asia without resulting in epidemic outbreaks as expected. In
order to confirm the presence of EEHV on the continent of Asia, viral
DNA particles from liver samples of a wild-caught 3-year-old elephant
found dead at a Cambodian elephant sanctuary and clinically diagnosed
with EEHV, were PCR processed using known EEHV strain primers. The
presence of EEHV viral nucleic acids was confirmed and the nucleic acids
had a 99% sequence similarity to the U.S.A strain (gene bank locus:
AF117265) and 97% sequence similarity to the European strain (gene bank
locus: AF354746) assigning this case to the EEHV-1 cluster. More than
the confirmation of EEHV on the continent of Asia, is the phylogenic
relationship to the USA and European strains with no corresponding
contact or transport of USA or European elephants to Asia. Thus, this
brings many of the traditional theories into question. Although almost
forgotten, this disease is still ramped in captive elephant populations
worldwide and continues to devastate particularly the neonatal and
weaning-age population. Special attention and continued research are
needed specifically in the area of basic virology and epidemiology
Sharam, G.,
Sinclair, A.R.E., Turkington, R., 2006. Establishment of broad-leaved
thickets in Serengeti, Tanzania: The influence of fire, browsers, grass
competition, and elephants. Biotropica 38, 599-605.
Abstract: The role of Euclea divinorum in the establishment of
broad-leaved thickets was investigated in Serengeti National Park,
Tanzania. Thickets are declining due to frequent fires, but have not
reestablished when fires have been removed. Seedlings of E. divinorum, a
fire-resistant tree, were found in grassland adjacent to thickets and as
thicket canopy trees and may function to facilitate thicket
establishment. Seedlings of thicket species were abundant under E.
divinorum canopy trees but not in the grassland, indicating that E.
divinorum can facilitate forest establishment. We examined E.divinorum
establishment in grassland by measuring survival and growth of seedlings
with respect to fire, browsers, elephants, and competition with grass.
Seedling survival was reduced by fire (50%), browsers (70%), and
competition with grass (50%), but not by elephants. Seedling growth rate
was negative unless both fire and browsers, or grass was removed.
Establishment of thickets via E. divinorum is not occurring under the
current conditions in Serengeti of frequent fires, abundant browsers,
and dense grass in riparian areas. Conditions that allowed establishment
may have occurred in 1890-1920s during a rinderpest epizootic, and
measurements of thicket canopy trees suggest they established at that
time.
Wellehan,
J.F.X., Johnson, A.J., Isaza, R. Identification of two novel
herpesviruses associated with ocular inflammation in Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus).
2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 173. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Disease caused by a herpesvirus (EEHV) is a serious concern in
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) calves. Herpesviruses are known for
latency and life-long infections, with periodic shedding from mild
inflammatory lesions in adapted adult hosts, and ocular disease has been
seen with other herpesviruses in other species. Ocular inflammation is
not uncommonly seen in Asian elephants. Degenerate PCR primers targeting
a conserved region of herpesvirus DNA-dependent DNA polymerase were used
to amplify products from eye swabs of eight Asian elephants with
epiphora, blepharitis, and conjunctivitis. Nucleotide sequencing of the
PCR products showed two novel herpesviruses distinct from EEHV.
Comparative sequence analysis shows that these viruses are probable
members of the subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae. The sequence phylogeny of
these viruses has implications for both viral and host evolution.
Further understanding and characterization of these viruses is needed to
understand their role in elephant health.
Zuba, J.R.,
Oosterhuis, J.E., Pessier, A.P. The toenail "abscess" in elephants:
treatment options including cryotherapy and pathologic similarities with
equine proliferative pododermatitis (canker). 2006 Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 187-190. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Foot problems potentially represent the single most important
clinical disease of captive elephants. Predisposing factors include
obesity, lack of exercise, nail or sole overgrowth, improper foot care,
poor hygiene, inappropriate enclosure surfaces, poor conformation,
malnutrition and secondary skeletal disorders such as degenerative joint
disease. Furthermore, factors such as elephant management philosophy,
disposition of elephants, facilities and competency of staff in caring
for elephant feet will contribute significantly to the foot health of
captive animals. It is important to note that these conditions are
rarely reported in free-ranging elephants. The elephant toenail abscess
is characterized grossly by proliferative outgrowth of "crab meat-like"
tissue that may acutely rupture through the surface of the nail wall
and/or adjacent cuticle or sole. True abscess formation with localized
collections of suppurative material is not a consistent clinical
feature. In most cases, the inciting cause of these lesions are
typically not found and are likely due to one or more of the
predisposing factors listed above. Once established, these frustrating
lesions require extensive, intensive and prolonged medical attention.
If not cared for properly, these wounds may progress to phalangeal
osteomyelitis and the need for surgical intervention. Sole abscesses
are equally frustrating and difficult to manage with proposed etiologies
similar to toenail lesions. There are no reports in the literature
describing the pathology of the classic proliferative abscess tissue of
the elephant nail abscess. Although variously interpreted as fibrous or
granulation tissue, the authors are unaware of previous histologic
descriptions of this tissue. Biopsy samples of toenail abscess tissue
from two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at the San Diego Wild Animal
Park (SDWAP) consisted of stratified squamous epithelium arranged in
columns resembling horn tubules. The predominant histologic finding was
marked, near diffuse, hydropic degeneration of keratinocytes. There
were multifocal areas of suppurative inflammation with admixed bacterial
colonies. Inflammatory foci comprised only a small portion of the
lesion and were interpreted as the external surfaces of the biopsy with
likely secondary bacterial colonization. Because descriptions of the
normal histology of the elephant toenail could not be located, a grossly
normal toenail from a different Asian elephant was obtained to compare
histologic features with those of the toenail abscesses. Sections
demonstrated formation of the toenail in a manner similar to that of the
hoof of the horse and cattle with tubular, intertubular and laminar
horn. Primary and secondary epidermal laminae were identified.
Proliferative lesions of horn-producing epithelium associated with
ballooning degeneration and inadequate keratinization of keratinocytes,
have been described in horses as equine "canker" and coronary band
dystrophy. Equine canker is most commonly observed in the hind feet of
draft horses and begins in the frog sometimes with extension to the sole
and hoof wall. Grossly, lesions are characterized by soft white
papillary to "cauliflower-like" tissue associated with a foul odor.
Similar to what is noted in elephant foot problems, predisposing factors
for the development of equine canker include poor hygiene or wet
environmental conditions. There is a lack of gross and histologic
description of the normal nail and sole tissue of the elephant and
further investigations are warranted. A review of the anatomy and
histology of the normal equine hoof may provide a basic understanding of
the elephant nail until more specific and detailed elephant information
is available. From our investigation, the authors offer that a more
accurate description of the elephant toenail abscess would be
proliferative pododermatitis, the term synonymous with equine canker. A
more colloquial term such as "elephant canker" may be appropriate, as
well. Canker in the horse is an uncommon but difficult to treat disease
of the hoof. Historically, treatment options for elephant toenail
abscesses include corrective trimming, superficial debridement and
application of topical disinfectants or antibiotics. Others have
constructed innovative sandals to treat and protect the affected sole or
nail with success. The use of regional intravenous perfusion of the
affected limb with antibiotics has also been successful. Since the
elephant nail abscess now appears to be histologically and clinically
comparable to equine canker, this novel characterization of an old
disease may offer unique insight for treatment. In the least, it has
provided our practice with a new list of treatment options and
experienced equine clinicians for consultation who have been managing
patients with a similar disease for many years. One of the Asian
elephants at the SDWAP has had chronic toenail abscesses for over 2 yr.
Radiographs of the affected digits, as reported by others to assess
degree of involvement, have fortunately been negative for evidence of
osteomyelitis. Several bacterial and fungal cultures of deep tissue
biopsies and swabs of affected lesions have resulted in a mixture of
organisms with no consistent single etiologic agent. Biopsies were
found negative for presence of viral DNA (elephant papillomavirus and
herpesvirus) by PCR. Typical elephant foot care at the SDWAP includes
trimming and debriding with hoof knives, foot soaks and topical
antibiotics. Although difficult, attempts are made in keeping the
affected foot clean and dry. Following recommendations for the
treatment of equine canker, we recently implemented the routine use of
cryotherapy in all elephants with proliferative pododermatitis with
improved success in the control and recession of exuberant nail lesions.
The proliferative tissue of the nail is first cleaned then disinfected,
debrided, trimmed with hoof knives and allowed to dry. Modified brass
branding tools with contact surfaces of variable size (2-5 cm diameter)
and shape (round or ovoid) are placed into liquid nitrogen (-196 C) for
several minutes and then placed directly on the cankerous tissue for
30-60 sec. This process is then repeated 4-5 min later, following a
complete thaw of tissue. Within 24 hr, the cryoburned tissue becomes
macerated and necrotic and is readily removed with gentle scrubbing.
Cryotherapy offers the advantage of destroying tissue to a deeper level
than trimming alone and provides hemostasis, as well. Because of
decreased sensation at the cryotherapy treatment site, a memorable
painful event is avoided and the elephant patient is more routinely
accepting of this technique. With the use of hoof knives, we typically
remove 2-3 mm of proliferative tissue before the patient refuses further
treatment, presumably due to discomfort. With cryotherapy, we are able
to remove an additional 3-5 mm of tissue by cell freezing and necrosis.
The result is quicker resolution of cankerous lesions without the need
for aggressive, and potentially painful, interventions. In conclusion,
it appears that elephant nail abscesses can best be described as
proliferative pododermatitis, or canker, as is seen in other species.
Further gross and microscopic descriptions of normal and pathologic nail
or sole lesions are necessary. Routine cryotherapy has shown promise in
the treatment of these chronic, frustrating and potentially devastating
lesions of our captive elephants.
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Hermes, R., Ratanakorn, P., Rietschel, W., Fickel, J., Frey, R.,
Wibbelt, G., Reid, C., Goritz, F., 2005. Ultrasonographic assessment and
ultrasound-guided biopsy of the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus)
552. Veterinary Record 157, 544-548.
Abstract: Endotheliotropic herpesvirus causes a fatal disease in young
Asian elephants, but there are no methods for identifying latent
carriers of the virus. During the postmortem study of one female African
elephant and three male and two female Asian elephants, a lymph node
located bilaterally caudoventral to the parotid gland, approximately 1.5
to 5 cm below the skin, was identified as suitable for transcutaneous
ultrasound-guided biopsy. An ultrasonographic assessment and two
biopsies were performed on 39 Asian elephants, and these lymph nodes
were classified ultrasonographically as active, inactive or chronically
active. The calculated mean (se) volume of 10 active lymph nodes was
17.4 (6.9) cm(3), and that of three chronically active lymph nodes was
10.6 (1.0) cm(3), whereas the mean volume of 17 inactive lymph nodes was
3.1 (0.6) cm(3). The presence of lymph node tissue in samples obtained
by ultrasound-guided biopsy from three animals that were maintained
under conditions that allowed for additional sampling was confirmed
histologically. The dna extracted from the lymphoid tissue and the whole
blood of all the elephants was negative for endotheliotropic herpesvirus
by PCR.
Wise, D.J.,
Carter, G.R., Flores, E.F. Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections.
Carter, G. R., Wise, D. J., and Flores, E. F. A Concise Review of
Veterinary Virology. Ithaca: International Veterinary Information
Service (www. ivis. org), 2005; Document No. A3407. 0305. 2005.
Ref Type: Electronic Citation
Greenwood,
A.D., Englbrecht, C.C., MacPhee, R.D., 2004. Characterization of an
endogenous retrovirus class in elephants and their relatives
667. BMC. Evol. Biol. 4, 38.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Endogenous retrovirus-like elements (ERV-Ls,
primed with tRNA leucine) are a diverse group of reiterated sequences
related to foamy viruses and widely distributed among mammals. As shown
in previous investigations, in many primates and rodents this class of
elements has remained transpositionally active, as reflected by
increased copy number and high sequence diversity within and among taxa.
RESULTS: Here we examine whether proviral-like sequences may be suitable
molecular probes for investigating the phylogeny of groups known to have
high element diversity. As a test we characterized ERV-Ls occurring in a
sample of extant members of superorder Uranotheria (Asian and African
elephants, manatees, and hyraxes). The ERV-L complement in this group is
even more diverse than previously suspected, and there is sequence
evidence for active expansion, particularly in elephantids. Many of the
elements characterized have protein coding potential suggestive of
activity. CONCLUSIONS: In general, the evidence supports the hypothesis
that the complement had a single origin within basal Uranotheria
Musser, J.M.B.,
2004. A practitioner's primer on foot-and-mouth disease. Journal of the
American Veterinary Medical Association 224, 1261.
Abstract: Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is caused by an RNA virus of the
genus Aphthovirus; 7 immunologically distinct serotypes of the virus
have been identified. Susceptible species are mainly domestic and wild
even-toed ungulates, such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, bison, and
deer. All body fluids of infected animals can contain the virus and are
considered infective. The primary mode of transmission is
animal-to-animal transmission through inhalation or ingestion of
aerosois containing the virus. The virus can also be spread mechanically
by contaminated organic debris and fomites and can survive for 48 hours
on human oral and nasal mucosa and be spread to uninfected animals in
the manner. There is a rapid progression of clinical signs after an
animal becomes infected, and the virus spreads rapidly throughout a
herd. Clinical signs include excessive salivation; fever; vesicles and
erosions of the oral and nasal mucosa, coronary band, interdigital area,
and teats; lameness; sloughing of claws; reluctance to move; anorexia;
mastitis; decreased milk production; and abortion or weak newborns. In
mature animals, FMD has high morbidity and low mortality rates. Infected
animals can become inapparent carriers of the virus.
Chakraborty,
A., 2003. Diseases of elephants (Elephas maximus) in India-A
Review. Indian Wildlife Year Book 2, 74-82.
Fickel, J.,
Liekfeldt, D., Richman, L.K., Streich, W.J., Hildebrandt, T.B., Pitra,
C., 2003. Comparison of glycoprotein B (gB) variants of the elephant
endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) isolated from Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus). Vet Microbiol 91, 11-21.
Abstract: The recently described elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses
(EEHV) have been associated with the deaths of numerous captive
elephants. A proposed tool for the detection of EEHV infection in
elephants is the PCR-based screening for EEHV-DNA in whole blood
samples. Unfortunately, this detection method has only been successful
in post-mortem analyses or in animals already displaying clinical signs
of EEHV disease, thus rendering this method unsuitable for
identification of carrier elephants. Here, we focus on glycoprotein B (gB)
for serologic assay development, since gB is an envelope protein known
to induce a neutralising antibody response in other herpesvirus
infections. We sequenced the entire gB gene from five Asian elephants
with EEHV, representing four different gB variants. Computer-aided
methods were used to predict functionally important regions within
EEHVgB. An extra-cytoplasmic region of 153 amino acids was predicted to
be under positive selection and may potentially contain antigenic
determinants that will be useful for future serologic assay development.
Isaza, R.,
Hunter, R.P., Richman, L.K., Montali, R.J., Schmitt, D.L., Koch, D.E.,
Lindsay, W.A. Famciclovir pharmacokinetics in young Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus). Proc. American Assoc. of Zoo Veterinarians. 82-83.
2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are susceptible to a unique
infection caused by elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV).3,4
Worldwide, between the years 1983 and 2000, there have been 26 confirmed
deaths from this virus in Asian elephants.2 Although most cases have
been fatal, treatment with famciclovir (Famvir, SmithKline Beecham
Pharmaceuticals, Philadelphia,PA 19101 USA) has been associated with
survival in three cases of six cases of EEHV infection proven by
PCR.2,5,6 Dose selections for surviving elephants (5.5 - 8.0 mg/kg, p.o.
every 8 hr) were made without the benefit of elephant pharmacokinetics
and were a direct extrapolation from recommended human dosages (7 mg/kg,
p.o. every 8 hr).5,6 In this study, famciclovir was administered both
orally and rectally in healthy young Asian elephants. The doses tested
in this study were 5 mg/kg orally, 5 mg/kg rectally, and 15 mg/kg
rectally. Blood samples were analyzed for famciclovir and penciclovir
using a validated LC/MS assay. Famciclovir was absorbed well by both
routes and underwent rapid biotransformation to the active compound
penciclovir. None of the plasma samples had detectable famciclovir.
Pharmacokinetic parameters for penciclovir were determined using
non-compartmental analysis. After a single oral dose of 5 mg/kg the Cmax
was 1.3 ìg/mL with a Tmax at 1.1 h. After a rectal dose of 5 mg/kg the
Cmax was 1.2 ìg/mL with a Tmax at 0.34 hr. After a rectal dose of 15 mg
the t½ was 2.6 h, with a Cmax of 3.6 ìg/mL at Tmax 0.66 h. These results
were similar to those reported in humans where an oral dose of 500 mg (7
mg/kg) had a t½ of about 2 h with a Cmax of 3.3 ìg/mL. A dose range of 8
-15 mg/kg given orally or rectally every 8 hours should produce
penciclovir concentrations in Asian elephants that are considered
therapeutic in humans.
LITERATURE CITED
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Gilman's The pharmacological basis of therapeutics, Tenth edition.
McGraw-Hill Co. New York, New York. USA. Pp. 1322-1324.
2. Montali, R.J., Richman, L.K., Mikots,S.K., Schmitt,D.L., Larsen, R.S.,
Hildebrandt,T.B., Isaza,R., Lindsay,W.A. Management Aspects of
Herpesvirus Infections and Tuberculosis in Elephants. International
Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.
3. Richman, L.K., R.J. Montali, R.L. Garber, M.A. Kennedy, J. Lehnhardt,
T. Hildebrandt, D. Schmitt, D. Hardy, D.J. Alcendor, G.S. Hayward.
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4. Richman, L.K., R.J. Montali, R.C. Cambre, D. Schmitt, D. Hardy, T.
Hildebrandt, F.M. Hamzeh, A. Shahkolahi, G.S. Hayward. 2000. Clinical
and pathological findings of a newly recognized disease of elephants
caused by endotheliotrophic herpesvirus. J. Wild. Dis. 36:1-12.
5. Schaftenaar, W., J.M.C.H. Mensink, A.M. de Boer, T.B. Hildebrandt,
and J. Fickel. 2001. Successful treatment of a subadult Asian elephant
bull (Elephas maximus) infected with the endotheliotropic elephant
herpes virus. Verhber. Erkrg. Zootiere. P. 40.
6. Schmitt, D., D.A. Hardy, R.J. Montali, LK Richman, Lindsay WA, R.
Isaza, G. West. 2000. Use of famciclovir for the treatment of
endotheliotropic herpesvirus infections in Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus). J. Zoo Wild. Med. 31:518-522.
Mahanta,
P.N., 2003. Health monitoring and common diseases in free ranging
elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of
Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp.
130-136.
Rahman, T.,
2003. Infectious and non-infectious disease of elephants. In: Das, D.
(Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project
Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 108-118.
Rehman, A.,
2003. Disease control program of elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.),
Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project
Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 152-156.
Schmitt, D.L.,
2003. Proboscidea (Elephants). In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.),
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. Elsevier Science USA, pp. 541-550.
Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Specific diseases of Asian elephants. Journal
of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 31-34.
Abstract: The earliest writing describing the diseases of elephants in
ancient literature said to be the works on "Gajasastra" (Elephantology)
written in Sanskrit by authors like Gautama, Narada, Mrigacharma,
Rajaputra and Vyasa. "Hasthyayurveda" a legendary book in Sanskrit
written by a safe Palakapya deals with some diseases, treatment,
desirable and undesirable points of selection, management practices and
some mythological aspects on the origin of elephants. The earliest book
in English dealing with diseases of elephants seems to be that of W.
Gilchrist "A practical treatise on the treatment of diseases of
elephants" published in 1848. Later Slym (1873), Sanderson (1878), Steel
(1885), Evans (1910), Herpburn (1913), Milroy (1922), Ptaff (1940),
Ferrier (1947), Utoke Gale (1974), Chandrasekharan (1979) and Panicker
(1985) have documented their findings on the incidence, etiology and
control of diseases of Asian elephants.
Essbauer, S., Meyer, H., Kaaden, O.R., Pfeffer, M., 2002.
Recent cases
in the German poxvirus consulting laboratory. Revue de Medecine
Veterinaire 153, 635-642.
Abstract: Designated as poxvirus consulting laboratory by the
Robert-Koch-Institute (Berlin), we provide scientific advice regarding
any aspects of poxviruses affecting different animals e.g. cats,
elephants, swines, birds and men. Human smallpox was eradicated in the
1980s, and consequently with diminishing vaccination a generation
susceptible for other zoonotic poxviruses grows up. Although the
epidemiology of orthopoxvirus infections in Germany remains unclear, in
the last few years we observed a drastic increase of zoonotic poxvirus
infections with three case reports on human 'cowpox' infections
presented here. In the two cases, we could only retrospectively trace
the source of the orthopoxvirus to cats based on seroconversion. In one
case, a young cat transmitted the virus to three humans; all developed
clinical pox lesions. Underlying the zoonotic potential of cowpoxviruses
(CPXV), these viruses exhibit a broad host range. In the year 2000, two
elephants (Elephas maximus) of a German travelling circus revealed a
fatal orthopoxvirus infection. The animals exhibited many poxviral
lesions and died. Thus, we provide the modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA)
for vaccination of exotic or expensive animals. Classical virological
and serological methods as well as molecular-biological techniques
including PCR, sequencing and restriction fragment patterns of the newly
isolated poxviruses show a very close relationship of the investigated
CPXV isolates irrespective of their host species. These findings and our
long-term data give evidence of an increase in orthopoxviruses
infections in animals and men; thus, highlighting the importance of
further investigations on virus transmission and orthopoxvirus
reservoirs.
McCallum, H.,
Dobson, A., 2002. Disease, habitat fragmentation and conservation. Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. B 269, 2041-2049.
Abstract: Habitat loss and the resultant fragmentation of remaining
habitat is the primary cause of loss of biological diversity. How do
these processes affect the dynamics of parasites and pathogens? Hess has
provided some important insights into this problem using metapopulation
models for pathogens that exhibit 'S-I' dynamics; for example, pathogens
such as rabies in which the host population may be divided into
susceptible and infected individuals. A major assumption of Hess's
models is that infected patches become extinct, rather than recovering
and becoming resistant to future infections. In this paper, we build
upon this framework in two different ways: first, we examine the
consequences of including patches that are resistant to infection;
second, we examine the consequences of including a second species of
host that can act as a reservoir for the pathogen. Both of these effects
are likely to be important from a conservation perspective. The results
of both sets of analysis indicate that the benefits of corridors and
other connections that allow species to disperse through the landscape
far outweigh the possible risks of increased pathogen transmission. Even
in the commonest case, where harmful pathogens are maintained by a
common reservoir host, increased landscape connectance still allows
greater coexistence and persistence of a threatened or endangered host.
Schaftenaar,
W., 2002. Use of vaccination against foot and mouth disease in zoo
animals, endangered species and exceptionally valuable animals. Rev.
sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz. 21, 613-623.
Abstract: A historical review of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in
non-domestic species is given and the use of FMD vaccines to protect
those species is described. Several non-domestic species are susceptible
to FMD. Legislation in many countries, based on the definition of FMD-free
status as determined by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE:
World organisation for animal health), forms an important barrier
against the use of vaccines. National authorities may even feel obliged
to slaughter animals of threatened species protected by international
agreements during an outbreak of FMD to preserve their FMD-free status.
The importance of international breeding programmes for endangered
species is forcing the international community to reconsider the role
that vaccination against FMD should play in animal health prevention
programmes of captive populations. Much research is still required in
regard to vaccine types and diagnostic procedures. Species-specific
differences in susceptibility to FMD make this a challenging research
topic for zoological institutions. Use of vaccination against foot and
mouth disease in zoo animals, endangered species and exceptionally
valuable animals
Burkhardt,
S., Goltz, M., Bergmann, V., Ochs, A., Weiler, H., Hentschke, J., 2001.
Genetic and ultrastructural characterization of a European isolate of
the fatal endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus. Journal of General
Virology 82, 475-482.
Abstract: A male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) died at the Berlin
zoological gardens in August 1998 of systemic infection with the novel
endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus (EIHV-1). This virus causes a
fatal haemorrhagic disease in Asian elephants, the so-called endothelial
inclusion body disease, as reported from North American zoological
gardens. In the present work, EIHV-1 was visualized ultrastructurally in
affected organ material. Furthermore, a gene block comprising the
complete glycoprotein B (gB) and DNA polymerase (DPOL) genes as well as
two partial genes was amplified by PCR-based genome walking and
sequenced. The gene content and arrangement were similar to those of
members of the Betaherpesvirinae. However, phylogenetic analysis with gB
and DPOL consistently revealed a very distant relationship to the
betaherpesviruses. Therefore, EIHV-1 may be a member of a new genus or
even a new herpesvirus subfamily. The sequence information generated was
used to set up a nested-PCR assay for diagnosis of suspected cases of
endothelial inclusion body disease. Furthermore, it will aid in the
development of antibody-based detection methods and of vaccination
strategies against this fatal herpesvirus infection in the endangered
Asian elephant.
Ehlers, B.,
Burkhardt, S., Goltz, M., Bergmann, V., Ochs, A., Weiler, H., Hentschke,
J., 2001. Genetic and ultrastructural characterization of a European
isolate of the fatal endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus. J Gen Virol
82 (Pt 3), 475-482.
Abstract: A male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) died at the Berlin
zoological gardens in August 1998 of systemic infection with the novel
endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus (ElHV-1). This virus causes a
fatal haemorrhagic disease in Asian elephants, the so-called endothelial
inclusion body disease, as reported from North American zoological
gardens. In the present work, ElHV-1 was visualized ultrastructurally in
affected organ material. Furthermore, a gene block comprising the
complete glycoprotein B (gB) and DNA polymerase (DPOL) genes as well as
two partial genes was amplified by PCR-based genome walking and
sequenced. The gene content and arrangement were similar to those of
members of the Betaherpesvirinae. However, phylogenetic analysis with gB
and DPOL consistently revealed a very distant relationship to the
betaherpesviruses.Therefore, ElHV-1 may be a member of a new genus or
even a new herpesvirus subfamily. The sequence information generated was
used to set up a nested-PCR assay for diagnosis of suspected cases of
endothelial inclusion body disease. Furthermore, it will aid in the
development of antibody-based detection methods and of vaccination
strategies against this fatal herpesvirus infection in the endangered
Asian elephant.
Fickel, J.,
Richman, L.K., Montali, R., Schaftenaar, W., Goritz, F., Hildebrandt,
T.B., Pitra, C., 2001. A variant of the endotheliotropic herpesvirus in
Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in European zoos. Veterinary
Microbiology 82, 103-109.
Abstract: Newly discovered, lethal elephant endotheliotropic
herpesviruses (EEHV) have been identified in both Asian (Elephas
maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Carried by
otherwise healthy African elephants, they can be fatal, mainly for young
Asian elephants. Since zoos often harbour both elephant species, we
conducted a survey on the presence of EEHV in elephants (Asian
elephants, n=57; African elephants, n=17) from 12 zoos and 3 circuses in
Europe (Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands), and 1 zoo in Israel
[date not given]. Six of the 57 Asian elephants were positive for EEHV.
Five elephants died of the infection, while one survived. EEHV was not
detected in any of the 17 African elephants. All EEHV that affected the
Asian elephants belonged to the EEHV1 group. We described the detection
and the partial sequencing of an endotheliotropic herpesvirus variant
(named EEHV1b) in Asian elephants, being either an EEHV endogenous to
Asian elephants or indicating different sources (African elephants) of
infection.
Greenwood,
A.D., Lee, F., Capelli, C., DeSalle, R., Tikhonov, A., Marx, P.A.,
MacPhee, R.D., 2001. Evolution of endogenous retrovirus-like elements of
the woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) and its relatives. Mol Biol
Evol 18, 840-870.
Abstract: Endogenous retrovirus-like elements characterizable by a
leucine tRNA primer (ERV-Ls) are reiterated genomic sequences known to
be widespread in mammals, including humans. They may have arisen from an
ancestral foamy virus-like element by successful germ line infection
followed by copy number expansion. However, among mammals, only primates
and rodents have thus far exhibited high copy number amplification and
sequence diversification. Conventionally, empirical studies of proviral
amplification and diversification have been limited to extant species,
but taxa having good Quaternary fossil records could potentially be
investigated using the techniques of "ancient" DNA research. To examine
evolutionary parameters of ERV-Ls across both time and taxa, we
characterized this proviral class in the extinct woolly mammoth (Mammuthus
primigenius) and living elephants, as well as extant members of the
larger clade to which they belong (Uranotheria, a group containing
proboscideans, sirenians, hyraxes, and their extinct relatives).
Ungulates and carnivores previously analyzed demonstrated low copy
numbers of ERV-L sequences, and thus it was expected that uranotheres
should as well. Here, we show that all uranothere taxa exhibit
unexpectedly numerous and diverse ERV-L sequence complements, indicating
active expansion within this group of lineages. Selection is the most
parsimonious explanation for observed differences in ERV-L distribution
and frequency, with relative success being reflected in the persistence
of certain elements over a variety of sampled time depths (as can be
observed by comparing sequences from fossil and extant elephantid
samples).
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Fickel, J., Goritz, F., Rietschel, W., Liekfeldt, D., Montali,
R.J., Richman, L.K., Ratanakorn, P. Survey on presence of the
endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus (EEHV) in Thai camp elephants.
Kirk Baer, C. and Wilmette, M. W. Proceedings American Association of
Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians,
Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians and the National
Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians Joint Conference 2001.
183-184. 2001. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 9-18-2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Hinke, A.,
Wipplinger, J. A Severe Case of Pox Disease in Two Asian Elephants (Elephas
maximus) of a Small Travelling Circus Overwintering Near Erfurt. A
Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the
International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11,
2001. 53-56. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: A 32 and a 35 year old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
belonging to a small travelling circus showed symptoms of a severe pox
disease in September 2000 during overwintering near Erfurt. From mucous
conjunctival excretions and typical lesions of the mucosa of the mouth a
poxvirus strain was isolated which showed the biological characteristics
of cowpox virus (Orthopoxvirus bovis). Because of the fact that the
elephants were treated about 5 weeks the wrong way from another
veterinarian who had no experience with pox disease in elephants medical
treatment started to became a bit difficult. After weeks of intensive
medical care the condition improved, however due to massive cycles of
further virus development it deteriorated, and the animals had to be
euthanised after about 5 weeks of treatment.
McLelland,
D., Kirkpatrick, J.F., Rose, K., Dixon, R. Studies on
encephalomycarditis virus (EMCV) in a zoologic context.
AAZV,AAWV,ARAV,NAZWV Joint Conf. 337. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Montali,
R.J., Richman, L.K., Mikota, S.K., Schmitt, D.L., Larsen, R.S.,
Hildebrandt, T.B., Isaza, R., Lindsay, W.A. Management Aspects of
Herpesvirus Infections and Tuberculosis in Elephants. A Research Update
on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and
Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 87-95. 2001. Vienna,
Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) infections and
tuberculosis have emerged as causes of illness and mortality in captive
elephants. Twenty-six confirmed EEHV cases are documented. Since 1995, 7
have occurred in North America, 10 in Europe and 2 in Asia. A PCR test
was used to detect the virus in symptomatic animals; a serological test
to identify carrier elephants is under development. The African elephant
is a potential source of the EEHV that is lethal for Asian elephants.
Fatal infections have also occurred in Asian elephants without African
elephant contacts. Three of 6 elephants recovered after treatment with
antiviral famciclovir; however, more research is needed to improve the
usefulness of this drug. Asian elephants that are less than 10-years old
and have been moved to another facility and/or have had contact with
African elephants are at increased risk for contracting EEHV. Animals
traveling between facilities with a history of EEHV cases may be at
greater risk. All young elephants should be monitored daily for
anorexia, lethargy, body swellings and blue discoloration (bruising) of
the tongue, and be trained for blood sampling and potential oral and
rectal treatment with famciclovir.
Since 1996, Mycobacterium tuberculosis has affected about 3% of
Asian elephants in North America. Most were from 5 U.S. States with some
contacts between private herds. Mandatory annual testing for
tuberculosis by trunk wash cultures was established in 1998, and 22
culture-positive M. tuberculosis elephants were identified
between 1996-2001. Fifteen were treated with anti-tuberculosis drugs and
7 that died or were euthanized were proven to have tuberculosis at
necropsy. Antemortem sera was available from 4/7 4 (75%) were strongly
ELISA positive. Tuberculosis is uncommon in African elephants but was
recently associated with M. bovis in the U.S. and M.
tuberculosis in Germany. Conversely, M. bovis tuberculosis,
apparently unrecognized in Asian elephants, recently occurred in
Germany. Management issues of elephant tuberculosis will be discussed
relative to its complex epidemiology and clinical-pathological
correlations.
Ratanakorn,
P. Elephant Health Problems and Management in Cambodia, Lao and
Thailand. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the
International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11,
2001. 111-114. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Richman, L.K.,
Montali, R.J., 2001. Elephant herpesvirus infections. In: Williams, E.S.,
Barker, I.K. (Eds.), Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals, 3rd edition.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 170-178.
Ryan, S.J.,
Thompson, S.D., 2001. Disease risk and inter-institutional transfer of
specimens in cooperative breeding programs: Herpes and the elephant
species survival plans. Zoo Biology 20, 89-101.
Abstract: Managers of cooperative breeding programs and re-introduction
projects are increasingly concerned with the risk of disease
transmission when specimens are transferred among facilities or between
facilities and the natural environment. We used data maintained in North
American studbooks to estimate the potential risks of disease
transmission by direct and indirect contact of specimens in the American
Zoo and Aquarium Association's Elephant Species Survival Plan.
Histological evidence for a novel herpesvirus disease transmitted
between and within elephant species housed in North American facilities
prompted an examination of the scope of possible transmission routes
within the captive population. We found that, compared with other
species managed through Species Survival Plans, elephants experience
relatively few transfers between zoos. Nevertheless, the number of
direct contacts with other elephants born during the study period of
1983-1996 (excluding stillbirths) was much higher than we had
anticipated (&mgr; = 25 +/- 27; N = 59) and the number of potential
indirect contacts was surprisingly large (&mgr; = 143 +/- 92; N = 59).
Although these high rates of potential contacts complicate exact
identification of infection pathways for herpesvirus, we were able to
propose potential routes of transmission for the histologically
identified cases. Furthermore, the extraction of data from studbooks
allowed us to readily identify other specimens that did not succumb to
the disease despite similar exposure. Moreover, we were able to identify
other possible cases to recommend for histological examination. Herein
we reveal the possibilities of multiple disease transmission pathways
and demonstrate how complex the patterns of transmission can be,
confounded by the unknown latency of this novel herpesvirus. This
emphasizes the need for zoo veterinarians and cooperative breeding
programs to consider the full potential for disease transmission
associated with each and every inter-zoo transfer of specimens.
Schaftenaar,
W., Mensink, J.M.C.H., Deboer, A.M., Hildebrandt, T.B., Fickel, J.
Successful treatment of a subadult Asian elephant bull (Elephas maximus)
infected with elephant herpes virus. Proc. of the International
Symposium for diseases of Zoo and Wildlife Animals (Rotterdam).
141-146. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Wisser, J.,
Pilaski, J., Strauss, G., Meyer, H., Burck, G., Truyen, U., Rudolph, M.,
Frolich, K., 2001. Cowpox virus infection causing stillbirth in an Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 149, 244-246.
Calle, P.P.,
Ludwig, G.V., Smith, J.F., Raphael, B.L., Clippinger, T.L., Rush, E.M.,
McNamara, T., Manduca, R., Linn, M., Cook, R.A., et, al. Clinical
aspects of West Nile virus infection in a zoological collection. Proc.
AAZV and IAAAM Joint Conf. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Fickel, J.,
Richman, L.K., Reinsch, A., Montali, R., Schaftenaar, W., Goritz, F.,
Hildebrandt, T.B. Survey on the occurrence of the endotheliotropic
elephant herpesvirus (EEHV) in Asian (Elephas maximus) and African
(Loxodonta africana) elephants in Europen zoos. European Association of
Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians Third Scientific Meeting, Paris, France,
May 31-June 4, 2000. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Lin, Y.N.,
Wong, W.K., 2000. Sero-prevalence of Japanese Encephalitis virus in
various species of animals in Singapore - a preliminary study. Singapore
Journal of Primary Industries 28, 57-61.
Abstract: A study was conducted to determine exposure of local animals
to Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) 9 years after the removal of its
main amplifying host animals in Singapore. 295 serum samples from local
(40 dogs, 10 cats, 10 wild boars, 40 chickens, 10 dairy cattle, 10 dairy
goats, 55 crows, 44 domestic pigs) and imported (10 ducks, 28 chickens,
5 babirusas, 11 pot-bellied pigs, 5 bearded pigs, 1 Ankole cattle, 1
Asian elephant, 2 orangutans, 3 long-tailed macaques, 1 springbok, 2
reticulated pythons, 1 mouflon, 1 red-eared terrapin, 1 Cape hunting
dog, 1 siamang, 1 leopard cat, 1 puma and 5 bats) were screened for JEV
antibodies. Imported exotic animals like babirusas, pot-bellied pigs,
bearded' pigs, Ankole cattle, Asian elephant and orangutans were
seropositive for JEV. High titres and exposure rates were observed in
72.7% of pot-bellied pigs and 100% of the babirusas and bearded pigs
with titres of 430.5, 256 and 256, respectively. Antibodies were not
detected in the other species of wildlife tested. Among local animals,
100% of goats had moderate antibody levels (GMT=34) while 70% of local
cattle had low (GMT=9,8) titres. Ten pet dogs were seronegative while
military and stray dogs had 20 and 40% exposure rates, respectively.
Local ducks and chickens had low exposure rates (10%, GMT=32 and 0%,
respectively) while imported ducks and chickens from Malaysia had high
rates (80%, GMT_90.5 and 35.7%, GMT=48.5%, respectively). The cats and
crows were seronegative for JEV antibodies. 89% of domestic sows
(GMT=217) and 20% of gilts (GMT=16) were seropositive while weaners were
seronegative. Wild boars from Pulau Tekong also had high exposure rates
(100%, GMT=238.9). It is concluded that a low level of JEV is currently
maintained in certain animal populations in Singapore.
Richman, L.K.,
Montali, R.J., Hayward, G.S., 2000. Review of a newly recognized disease
of elephants caused by endotheliotropic herpesviruses. Zoo Biology 19,
383-392.
Abstract: There are two newly recognized herpesviruses that cause a
fatal disease syndrome in elephants. They are known as the elephant
endotheliotropic herpesviruses, of which one is fatal for Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) and the other for African elephants
(Loxodonta africana) The disease syndrome affects predominantly young
elephants and has been described in North America, Europe, and Israel.
The predominant clinical signs for both species include lethargy,
oedematous swellings of the head, neck, and thoracic limbs, oral
ulceration, cyanosis of the tongue, and death of most elephants in 1-7
days. Three affected young Asian elephants recovered after a 3-4-week
course of therapy with the anti-herpesvirus drug famciclovir. Additional
reported herpesvirus-associated lesions in otherwise healthy elephants
include localized skin papillomas in African elephants, proliferative
vulval lymphoid patches in African elephants, and pulmonary nodules in
African elephants. Recent findings suggest that these localized
herpesvirus-associated lesions in healthy African elephants may be one
source of the herpesvirus that causes disseminated disease and death in
the Asian species and the African species. These findings have
implications for management practices in facilities keeping both African
and Asian elephants and in protecting natural elephant habitats from
virulent forms of the virus.
Richman, L.K.,
Montali, R.J., Cambre, R.C., Schmitt, D., Hardy, D., Bengis, R.G.,
Hamzeh, F.M., Shahkolahi, A., Hayward, G.S., 2000. Clinical and
pathological findings of a newly recognized disease of elephants caused
by endotheliotropic herpesviruses. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 36,
1-12.
Abstract: The unique clinical and pathological findings in nine Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) and two African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) from North American Zoos with a highly fatal disease caused by
novel endotheliotropic herpesviruses are described. Consensus primer
polymerase chain reaction combined with sequencing yielded molecular
evidence that confirmed the presence of 2 novel but related
herpesviruses associated with the disease, one in Asian elephants and
the other in African elephants. Disease onset was acute, with lethargy,
edema of the head and thoracic limbs, oral ulceration and cyanosis of
the tongue followed by death of most animals in 1 to 7 days. Pertinent
laboratory findings in 2 of 3 clinically evaluated animals included
lymphocytopenia and thrombocytopenia. Two affected young Asian elephants
recovered after a 3- to 4-week course of therapy with famciclovir. PM
examination in the fatal cases revealed pericardial effusion and
extensive petechial hemorrhages in the heart and throughout the
peritoneal cavity, hepatomegaly, cyanosis of the tongue, intestinal
hemorrhage and ulceration. Histologically, there were extensive
microhemorrhages and edema throughout the myocardium and mild, subacute
myocarditis. Similar hemorrhagic lesions with inflammation were evident
in the tongue, liver and large intestine. Lesions in these target organs
were accompanied by amphophilic to basophilic intranuclear viral
inclusion bodies in capillary endothelial cells. Transmission electron
microscopy of the endothelial inclusion bodies revealed 80 to 92 nm
diameter viral capsids consistent with herpesvirus morphology. The short
course of the herpesvirus infections, with sudden deaths in all but the
2 surviving elephants, was ascribed to acute cardiac failure attributed
to herpesvirus-induced capillary injury with extensive myocardial
hemorrhage and edema.
Schmitt, D.L.,
Hardy, D.A., Montali, R.J., Richman, L.K., Lindsay, W.A., Isaza, R.,
West, G., 2000. Use of famciclovir for the treatment of
endotheliotrophic herpesvirus infections in Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 31, 518-522.
Abstract: Two juvenile Asian elephants (E. maximus) presented with an
acute onset of facial oedema and lethargy. Examination of the oral
cavity of each animal revealed cyanosis of the tip and distal margins of
the tongue suggestive of endothelial inclusion body disease (EIBD) of
elephants. Whole-blood samples were obtained, and polymerase chain
reaction tests confirmed the presence of elephant herpesvirus. The
animals were administered famciclovir (Flamvir; 500 mg/70 kg body
weight, with a loading dose of 1000 mg/70 kg body weight) a potent human
anti-herpesvirus drug, in the course of their disease, and recovery
followed a treatment regime of 3-4 wk. These are the first known cases
of elephants surviving EIBD.
Backues, K.A.,
Hil, M., Palmenberg, C., Miller, C., Soike, K.F., Aguilar, R., 1999.
Genetically engineered Mengo virus vaccination of multiple captive
wildlife species. Journal of Wildlife Diiseases 35, 384-387.
Barman, N.N.,
Sarma, D.K., Das, S., Patgiri, G.P., 1999. Foot-and-mouth disease in
wild and semi-domesticated animals of the north-eastern states of India.
Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 69, 781-783.
Abstract: The outbreaks (n=23) of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in the
northeastern states of India for 14 years (1974 to 1997) were reported.
The outbreaks were recorded in 7 different species of wild and
semi-domesticated animals. The highest number of outbreaks was recorded
in mithun, followed by yak and elephant. Contact with migratory cattle
possibly played an important role in the spread of the disease. The
morbidity rates in mithun and yak were 22.90 and 24.51%, respectively.
About 6.5% of the affected mithun died during the outbreaks. Three FMD
cases were recorded in the elephant, and baby elephants were affected
with severe erosive lesions in the foot pad and trunk. Sources of
infection in elephants were contaminated water and feed. In sambar deer,
morbidity and mortality were 35.57 and 10.81%, respectively. In spotted
and barking deer, the morbidity was 18.75%. Sources of infection were
suspected to be the feed and attendants from nearby villages where FMD
outbreaks in cattle was observed. In wild buffaloes, 3 out of 67 were
affected and the source of infection was similar to deer. Of the 23
clinical samples typed for the presence of FMD virus, 11 were positive
for FMD virus type O, 2 for type A, and each for A22 and Asia.
Burkhardt,
S., Hentschke, J., Weiler, H., Ehlers, B., Ochs, A., Walter, J.,
Wittstatt, U., 1999. Elephant herpes virus - a problem for breeding and
housing of elephants. Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift.
112, 174-179.
Abstract: Herpesvirus infections which take a fatal turn on African
elephants as well as on Asian elephants seem to occur increasingly not
only in the USA but also in European stocks. The endotheliotropic
herpesvirus causes a rapidly progressing and severe disease which makes
any therapeutical effort unsuccessful and finally results in death of
the animal, especially in young Asian elephants. As all attempts to
culture the virus failed up to now, molecular biological procedures have
to be used more often for diagnostic purpose together with the common
methods of pathology, virology, and electronmicroscopical evaluation.
This is a report on the case of 'KIBA', an eleven year old male elephant
at the Zoological Garden Berlin, infected with the endotheliotropic
elephants herpesvirus. 'KIBA' was born at the Zoo in Houston, Texas, and
raised within his herd. Upon arriving in Berlin in November 1997 he
adapted to the new premises and climate and new social circumstances
without any problems. In June 1998 he already serviced three females of
his new herd several times. In August 1998 he died after passing a
peracute progression of the disease after residenting in Berlin for only
9 months. The dissection of the animal revealed some evidence on an
agent damaging the endothelium. Major signs indicating this agent were
bleedings in several serous membranes, mucosa and on the right atrium,
as well as other parts of the myocardium. Furthermore there have been
ulcerations at various localizations of the whole digestive tract.
Slightly basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies have been found
histologically in endothelial cells of different organ samples. An
examination of altered organ-material by electronmicroscopy made some
herpesvirus-like particles visible. A virological investigation first
revealed evidence of giant cell formations with solitary basophilic
intranuclear inclusion bodies in different cell cultures, however,
without any distinct cytopathogenic effect. Supported by molecular
biological procedures the infection of 'KIBA' could be verified as the
elephants herpesvirus. By means of PCR and subsequent sequence analysis
a DNA-sequence typical for the elephants herpesvirus could be obtained
which showed an identity of 97% with the terminase sequence of the
elephant herpesvirus described by American authors. The deduced amino
acid-sequences were 100% identical. To the terminase of the human
cytomegalovirus, the elephant sequence had an identity of 53%
(similarity: 74%). Based on the cooperation of ILAT, Institute of
Veterinary-Pathology/Free University Berlin, Robert-Koch-Institut
Berlin, and Zoological Garden Berlin, the cause of 'KIBA's' death could
be discovered immediately. Possible implications of this case especially
on breeding and keeping elephants are discussed briefly.
Ferber, D.,
1999. Virus suspect identified in elephant deaths. Science 283,
1093-1094.
Kuntze, A.,
1999. Poxvirus infections in elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E.
(Eds.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders,
Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 547-550.
Meyer, H.,
Schay, C., Mahnel, H., Pfeffer, M., 1999. Characterization of
orthopoxviruses isolated from man and animals in Germany. Archives of
Virology 144, 491-501.
Abstract: Fourteen orthopoxvirus strains isolated from humans, cats, a
dog, a cow, and an elephant in Germany between 1985 and 1991 were
characterized. All were classified as cowpox virus based on haemorrhagic
lesions induced on the chorioallantoic membrane of chicken eggs and
reactivity of a 160 kDa protein with anti-A-type inclusion protein
hyperimmune serum in a Western blot. More detailed comparison of the
isolates by restriction endonuclease mapping using HindIII and XhoI
demonstrated a close relationship between all isolates and confirmed
them as cowpox viruses. Some minor differences between the isolates were
detected which proved to be of epidemiological value. One group
consisting of 5 closely related isolates contained a unique 4.0 kb
HindIII fragment. In a Southern blot this fragment failed to hybridize
with other cowpox virus isolates including the reference strain.
Mikota, S.K.,
1999. Diseases of the Elephant: A Review. Verh. ber. Erkrg. Zootiere 39,
1-15.
Richman, L.K.,
Montali, R.J., Garber, R.L., Kennedy, M.A., Lehnhardt, J., Hildebrandt,
T., Schmitt, D., Hardy, D., Alcendor, D.J., Hayward, G.S., 1999. Novel
endotheliotropic herpesviruses fatal for Asian and African elephants.
Science 283, 1171-1176.
Abstract: A highly fatal haemorrhagic disease was identified in 10 young
Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants at
zoos in the USA between 1983 and 1997. In the affected animals there was
ultrastructural evidence for herpesvirus-like particles in endothelial
cells of the heart, liver, and tongue. Consensus primer polymerase chain
reaction combined with sequencing yielded molecular evidence that
confirmed the presence of 2 novel but related herpesviruses associated
with the disease, one in Asian elephants and another in African
elephants. Otherwise healthy African elephants with external herpetic
lesions yielded herpesvirus sequences identical to that found in Asian
elephants with endothelial disease. It is suggested that the Asian
elephant deaths were caused by cross-species infection with a
herpesvirus that is naturally latent in, but normally not lethal to,
African elephants. A reciprocal relationship may exist for the African
elephant disease.
Richman, L.K.,
Montali, R.J., Cambre, R.C., Schmitt, D., Hardy, D. Clinical and
pathologic aspects of a fatal herpesvirus disease in Asian (Elephas
maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Proceedings of the
American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 263-266. 1999. 10-9-1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Richman, L.K.,
Montali, R.J., Hildebrandt, T., Fickel, J., Schmitt, D., Hayward, G.S.
Status of a new, fatal herpesvirus disease in elephants in North America
and Europe. Verhandlangsbericht des 39 International Symposium uben
Erkrankungen der Zoo und Wildtiere, Wien. 39:17-21. Verh.ber Erkrg.
Zootiere 39. 17-21. 1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Wimalaratne,
O., Kodikara, D.S., 1999. First reported case of elephant rabies in Sri
Lanka. Veterinary Record 144, 98.
Abstract: An 84-year-old female domesticated elephant presented with a
4-day history of lethargy. Appetite and water intake was normal but the
following day she was unsteady, aggressive and restless. There were
secretions from both temporal glands. On the sixth day she was
completely anorectic, had developed paralysis of the trunk and was
unable to stand, falling each time she tried to stand up, and she was
noticed to be blind. She died on the ninth day after the first symptoms
were observed. PM examination showed the brain to be more vascular than
normal and a brain smear was positive for rabies antigen. A serum sample
went to the WHO Collaborating Center for Rabies in Bangkok, Thailand,
which determined a rabies virus neutralizing antibody titre of 0.68 IU/ml
by the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test. Antigenic typing and
genetic sequencing showed the virus to be similar, but not identical, to
the common Sri Lankan dog rabies variant, although there was no history
of an animal bite to the elephant.
Bhat, M.N.,
Manickam, R., Aruni, W., 1998. Detection of bluetongue antibody and
antigen in Indian elephants, spotted deer and blackbucks. Indian Journal
of Animal Sciences 68, 135.
Hunter, P.,
Swanepoel, S.P., Esterhuysen, J.J., Raath, J.P., Bengis, R.G., Van der
Lugt, J.J., 1998. The efficacy of an experimental oil-adjuvanted
encephalomyocarditis vaccine in elephants, mice and pigs. Vaccine 16,
55-61.
Abstract: An oil-adjuvanted inactivated encephalomyocarditis (EMC)
vaccine was developed to protect a wild population of elephants against
a natural outbreak of disease. The experimental vaccine was initially
tested for efficacy by challenging mice and pigs. Mice showed protection
against challenge and pigs developed high antibody levels. Since both
vaccinated and control pigs failed to develop clinical disease,
apparently due to the low virulence of the strain in this species,
protection in pigs could not be evaluated. Three wild elephants and 12
captive elephant calves given the vaccine developed high antibody titres.
All of the captive elephants were protected from a challenge 2 months
after vaccination, whereas 6 controls (not vaccinated but challenged)
developed fatal or sub-clinical myocarditis. This is apparently the
first report of an inactivated EMC vaccine inducing high antibody titres
in domestic and wild animals. Due to the potency of this vaccine and the
acceptability of the oil adjuvant used, it has potential for use in
animals in zoological collections as well as in the pig industry.
Jacobson, R.H.,
1998. Validation of serological assays for diagnosis of infectious
diseases. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz. 17, 469-486.
Schmitt, D.L.,
Hardy, D.A., 1998. Use of famciclovir for the treatment of herpesvirus
in an Asian elephant. Journal of the Elephant Managers' Association 9,
103-104.
Wright, P.F.,
1998. International standrads for test methods and reference sera for
diagnostic tests for antibody detection. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz.
17, 527-533.
Backues, K.A.,
Aguilar, R.A., Hill, M., Palemberg, A.C. A new modified live virus
vaccine for encephalomyocarditis (EMC) virus protection, preliminary
trials at the Audubon Zoo. Proc. Amer.Assoc. of Zoo Vet. 166-167. 1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Barnard,
B.J.H., 1997. Antibodies against some viruses of domestic animals in
southern African wild animals. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary
Research 64, 95-110.
Abstract: Twenty-four species of South African wild animals were tested
for the presence of antibodies to the viruses of 16 common diseases of
domestic animals around 1993-5. Positive results were obtained for
African horse sickness, equine encephalomyelitis virus, equine
herpesvirus-1, bovine herpesvirus-1, Allerton disease (Herpes
mammillitis; bovine herpesvirus 2), lumpy skin disease, parainfluenza,
encephalomyocarditis, bluetongue, Wesselsbron disease, bovine ephemeral
fever, and Akabane disease complex. No antibodies could be demonstrated
against the viruses of equine influenza, equine infectious anaemia,
equine viral arteritis or Rift Valley fever. The negative results
support observations that the latter diseases, with the exception of
equine viral arteritis, are absent in South Africa. The number of animal
species found positive for a specific virus, ranged from 0-16. No
antibodies were found in crocodiles or warthogs, whereas antibodies
against Wesselsbron and bovine herpesvirus-1 were present in 16 species.
Antibodies against viruses of horses were found almost exclusively in
zebras and, although elephants reacted to African horse sickness, no
neutralizing antibodies against it could be demonstrated in their sera.
Zebras were also found to be positive for Wesselsbron and Akabane, which
are usually regarded as viruses of ruminants. Antibodies against most
viruses were encountered in all vegetation zones in South Africa, but
most viruses were more prevalent in the high-rainfall zone in
KwaZulu-Natal.
Bhat, M.N.,
Manickam, R., Kumanan, K., 1997. Serological evidence of bovine
herpesviruses 1 and 2 in Asian elephants. Journal of Wildlife Diseases
33, 919-920.
Abstract: Antibodies were detected against bovine herpesviruses 1 (BHV
1) and 2 (BHV 2) in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) using the passive
haemagglutination (PHA) test. The study was conducted during May to
December 1994 using sera collected from zoos and national parks in
India. Four (4%) of 109 elephant sera had PHA titres ranging from 1:8 to
1:32 against BHV 1. 25 (23%) of the 109 elephant sera had PHA titres
ranging from 1:8 to 1:64 against BHV 2. It is concluded that Asian
elephants appear to be better reservoirs for herpesviruses which are
serologically related to BHV 2.
Bhat, M.N.,
Manickam, R., 1997. Foot and mouth disease virus infection associated
(VIA) antibodies in wild herbivores. Indian Veterinary Journal 74,
827-820.
Bhat, M.N.,
Manickam, R., 1997. Detection of rinderpest antibodies in elephants,
spotted deer, and blackbucks. International Journal of Animal Sciences
12, 201-203.
Cambre, R.C.,
Buick, W.W., 1996. Special challenges of maintaining wild animals in
captivity in North America. Rev Sci Tech 15, 251-266.
Abstract: The maintenance of wild animals in captivity in North America
is regulated by a number of different laws and government agencies in
each country. Member institutions of zoo and aquarium associations in
Canada, the United States of America and Mexico experience an extra tier
of regulation in the form of industry standards, which are sometimes
stricter than those imposed by government. Climate, natural disasters
and harmful pest species all contribute to the challenge of keeping
animals in certain locales. Vigilance against zoonotic disease
transmission is maintained through industry and government-mandated
sanitation standards, which are fortified by reporting regulations of
local, regional and Federal health agencies. Current controversies in
the keeping of particular taxa in North America include the threat to
non-human primate breeding programmes precipitated by strict new import
regulations, the fear of herpesvirus B infection, and commercial airline
transport bans. Successive human fatalities among elephant handlers have
prompted the industry and governments to re-examine the manner in which
these potentially dangerous creatures are maintained in captivity.
Emerson, C.L.,
Wagner, J.L., 1996. Antibody responses to two encephalomyocarditis virus
vaccines in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). J Med Primatol 25,
42-45.
Abstract: Two groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) housed in
rodent-controlled outdoor corrals were inoculated with two different
encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) vaccines. One group (n = 45) received
a vaccine made from an inactivated field isolate of virus cultured
during an outbreak at a zoo in Florida. This vaccine produced fourfold
increases in the titers of 28 animals (62%); the increases persisted for
at least 18 months (last test) after a single injection of the vaccine.
The other group (n = 51) received a vaccine made from an inactivated
porcine field strain of the virus. This vaccine did not produce titers
in any of the vaccinees.
Osorio, J.E.,
Hubbard, G.B., Soike, K.F., Girards, S., van der Werf, S., Moulin, J.,
Palmenberg, A.C., 1996. Protection of non-murine mammals against
encephalomyocarditis virus using a genetically engineered Mengo virus.
Vaccine 14, 155-161.
Richman, L.K.,
Montali, R.J., Cambre, R.C., Lehnhardt, J., Kennedy, M., Kania, S.,
Potgieter, L. Endothelial inclusion body disease: a newly recognized
fatal herpes-like infection in Asian elephants. Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 483-486. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Barnard,
B.J.H., Bengis, R.G., Keet, D.F., Dekker, E.H., 1995. Epidemiology of
African horsesickness: antibodies in free-living elephants (Loxodonta
africana) and their response to experimental infection. Onderstepoort
Journal of Veterinary Research 62, 271-275.
Abstract: Serum samples were obtained from blood collected from
elephants during a culling operation in Kruger National Park, South
Africa, in 1993. Sera from 63/80 (79%) elephants reacted positively in
an ELISA for African horse sickness virus (AHSV). The titres of almost
65% of the positive samples were less than 10 000. In comparison, 34/34
zebra samples reacted positively and their ELISA titres were
significantly higher, with more than 84% having a titre of 10 000 or
higher. 26% of 14 sera from elephants tested for the 9 types of AHSV,
reacted positively with virus-neutralizing titres of 20 or higher.
Experimental infection of 6 elephant calves resulted in conflicting
results. No detectable viremia nor virus could be demonstrated in the
organs of the calves and none of them mounted significant levels of
neutralizing antibodies against the virus. On the other hand, all calves
showed a slight rise in ELISA titres. This rise, however, was modest
when compared with the rise in experimentally infected zebra. The
presence of low levels of group- and type-specific antibodies in the
serum of some free-living elephants was judged to be the result of
natural hyper-immunization due to frequent exposure to infected biting
insects. It is concluded that, despite the presence of low levels of
antibodies, elephants should be regarded as poorly susceptible and
unlikely to be a source of AHSV.
Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., Cheeran, J.V., Nair, K.N.M.,
Prabhakaran, T., 1995. Review of the Incidence, Etiology and Control of
Common Diseases of Asian Elephants with Special Reference to Kerala. In:
Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the
International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History
Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 439-449.
Abstract: Incidence, etiology, symptoms and control of specific and
non-specific diseases of captive and wild elephants have been reviewed.
Asian elephants have been observed to be susceptible to various
parasitic diseases such as helminthiasis, trypanosomiasis and
ectoparasitic infestations, bacterial diseases such as tetanus,
tuberculosis, haemorrhagic septicemia, salmonellosis and anthrax, viral
diseases such as foot and mouth disease, pox and rabies and non-specific
diseases like impaction of colon, foot rot and corneal opacity. A
detailed study extending over two decades on captive and wild elephants
in Kerala, revealed high incidence of helminthiasis (285), ectoparasitic
infestation (235), impaction of colon (169) and foot rot (125). Diseases
such as trypanosomiasis (21), tetanus (8), tuberculosis (5) pox (2) and
anthrax (1) were also encountered. The line of treatment against the
diseases mentioned, have been discussed in detail.
Grobler, D.G.,
Raath, J.P., Braack, L.E.O., Keet, D.F., Gerdes, G.H., Barnard, B.J.H.,
Krick, N.P.J., Jardine, J., Swanepoet, R., 1995. An outbreak of
encephalomyocarditis-virus infection in free ranging African elephants
in the Kruger National Park. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary
Research 62, 97-108.
Abstract: An increase in unexplained elephant mortality was seen in the
Kruger National Park (KNP) from December 1993 to November 1994,
concurrent with a wide-spread increase in the KNP rodent population.
The majority of animals were found dead. Examination of carcasses ruled
out common causes of death, including poaching, anthrax, intraspecific
fighting, and intoxication. Sixty-four animals died from unexplained
causes during the perceived outbreak, 83% of which were adult bulls.
Eight carcasses were in sufficiently good condition for tissues to be
collected for diagnostic testing. Cardiac failure appeared to be the
most likely cause of death in seven of the animals, with gross findings
of pulmonary edema, hepatic congestion, ascities, and hydrothorax.
Myocarditis and necrosis of myocytes were the most striking findings on
histopathological examination. Heart tissue from three animals was
submitted for virus isolation; all three yielded encephalomyocarditis
(EMC) virus. Serologic testing for EMC virus antibody was performed on
the KNP between 1984 and 1994. Results demonstrated that the virus has
been present in the KNP from 1987 on. EMC virus antibody was not
detected in preserved rodent tissues until 1993, prior to the rodent
population explosion and the outbreak of disease in elephants. It is
unclear whether rodents play a role in transmitting the virus to other
animals or if they reflect a general circulation of the virus in
multiple species in a given environment. One lion cub which was found
dead with bacterial pneumonia had a serum neutralizing antibody titer to
EMC virus of 128. It is hypothesized that this animal may have been
predisposed to pneumonia through the formation of lung edema as a result
of EMC virus infection. Three lions that were seen feeding on the
carcass of an elephant with lesions compatible with EMC virus infection
were monitored for seroconversion, which did not occur. EMC virus
disappears rapidly from most tissues after death and probably was not
present in the tissues consumed by the lions. The predilection for male
elephants could not be explained, although increased mortality among
males has also been demonstrated with EMC virus in mice.
Raath, J.P.,
Bengis, R.G. The evaluation of a vaccine against encephalomyocarditis
infection in elephants (Loxodonta africana) under controlled
conditions. Proceedings, American Association of Zoo Veterinarians,
Wildlife Disease Association, American Association of Wildlife
Veterinarians. Joint Conference, East Lansing, Michigan, August 12-17,
1995. 304-308. 1995.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Encephalomyocarditis killed 64 elephants in the Kruger
National Park between October 1993 and November 1994. An inactivated
vaccine was inoculated into 14 elephants aged 6-8 years, 6 of which were
challenged later with virulent virus. 3 of 4 infected, unvaccinated
elephants developed the clinical disease and 2 died. Vaccinated
elephants developed antibodies at 1-4 weeks after vaccination, and the 6
challenged animals remained healthy.
Formenty, P.,
Domenech, J., Lauginie, F., Ouattara, M., Diawara, S., Raath, J.P.,
Grobler, D., Leforban, Y., Angba, A., 1994. Epidemiological study of
bluetongue in sheep, cattle and various wild animal species in the Cote
d'Ivoire. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office International des
Epizooties 13, 737-751.
Abstract: Between 1992 and 1993, serum samples from 623 sheep, 215
cattle and 211 other ruminants from Cote d'Ivoire were tested for
bluetongue virus antibodies using the agar gel immunodiffusion test.
Seroprevalence was 52±4% in sheep, 95±3% in cattle and 56±7% in wild
herbivores. Bluetongue antibodies were detected in kob (Kobus kob),
common waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), roan antelope (Hippotragus
equinus), buffalo (Syncerus caffer), hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus)
and elephant (Loxodonta africana). A significant geographical variation
was observed in presence of bluetongue in sheep. Antibody prevalence
increased significantly with age in sheep and wild herbivores, and
seroprevalence was higher in dams with a history of abortion. It is
concluded that bluetongue is enzootic in Cote d'Ivoire.
Meiswinkel,
R., Braack, L.E.O., 1994. African horsesickness epidemiology: five
species of Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) collected live
behind the ears and at the dung of the African elephant in the Kruger
National Park, South Africa. Oderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research
61, 155-170.
Abstract: During the culling of elephants (Loxodonta africana) at 5
sites in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, 682 Culicoides of 5
species of the subgenus Avaritia were found either living behind the
ears of elephants or attracted to the freshly disemboweled intestinal
dung of elephants. The species were Culicoides tororoensis, C. kanagai,
C. loxodontis, and 2 undescribed species, Culicoides sp. £50 and
Culicoides sp. £54 pale form (p.f.). Of 511 female midges found behind
ears, 39.9% were nulliparous, 57.3% empty parous, 2.5% freshly bloodfed
and 0.2% gravid. The age composition of this subpopulation indicates
that the Culicoides were behind the ears to suck blood and, furthermore,
would do so in broad daylight. The age composition of 171 Culicoides of
3 species attracted to dung was entirely different: 1.8% nulliparous,
14.6% empty parous, and 83.0% gravid, indicating that the great majority
of midges captured at dung were about to oviposit or had just oviposited.
Immediately after culling, light traps were operated at 2 of the sites.
Of 4023 Culicoides of 21 species captured, 93% were of the same 5
species found on the ears and at the dung of elephants. Using these and
other unpublished data pertaining to the rearing of these 5 Avaritia
species from elephant dung over the past 7 years, the life cycle of
these Culicoides is broadly sketched, the first for any Afrotropical
species of the genus. The implications that the close association
between elephant and midge has for the dispersal and geographic
distribution of the latter, and how it may influence the involvement of
midges in the transmission of diseases such as African horse sickness,
are also discussed. Owing to difficulties in identifying species of the
subgenus Avaritia in the Afrotropical Region, the taxonomy of each of
the 5 above-mentioned species is briefly appraised. Of the remaining 16
species (7%) captured in light traps, 15 (6%) belong to that sector of
the genus Culicoides whose immature stages develop in groundwater
habitats and include C. imicola, which comprised only 2% of the
light-trap collections. The large disparity in the adult abundance
patterns of the "dung" and "groundwater" species in the middle of dry
bushveld is probably the result of differences in host and larval
habitat preferences, and is briefly discussed. Finally, the few reports
extant on the wild-host preferences of Afrotropical Culicoides are
reviewed.
Meiswinkel,
R. Six species easily confused with Culicoides imicola in Africa: notes
on their life histories. Foot and mouth disease, African horse sickness
and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia: OIE Scientific Conference,
Gaborone, Botswana, 20-23 April, 1994: summaries and conclusions.
45-46. 1994. Paris; France, Office International des Epizooties.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Studies have shown that there are at least 6 species related
to, and easily confused with, C. imicola. These together form the
imicola group within the subgenus Avaritia. Five of these species have
only very recently been described or remain undescribed. Each of these
species has a unique life history. Distinct larval habitats and
differences in adult prevalence, abundance, host preference and
geographic distribution have an important bearing on their potential to
transmit AHS virus. Three of the new imicola group species live
exclusively in the dung of the elephant, rhino, zebra, buffalo and
wildebeest. In certain places and seasons these Avaritia species are far
commoner than C. imicola. The risk from translocation of unvaccinated
wild herbivores (potential virus reservoirs) into the farming land is
discussed, with particular reference to the establishment of some of
these species in dung of cattle.
Mikota, S.K.,
Sargent, E.L., Ranglack, G.S., 1994. Medical Management of the Elephant.
Indira Publishing House, West Bloomfield MI.
Sharma, D.K.,
Islam, S., Hazarika, A.K., 1994. Foot and mouth disease in a baby
elephant (Elephas maximus). Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology 18,
55-56.
Bengis, R.,
1993. Care of the African elephant Loxodonta africana in captivity. The
capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and
transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision
Support Services : South African Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria, pp.
506-511.
Berry, H.H.,
1993. Surveillance and control of anthrax and rabies in wild herbivores
and carnivores in Namibia. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office
International des Epizooties 12, 137-146.
Abstract: Anthrax has been studied intensively in Etosha National Park,
Namibia since 1966; in addition, since 1975, mortality due to rabies and
all other causes has been recorded, totaling 6190 deaths. Standard
diagnostic procedures demonstrated that at least 811 deaths (13%) were
due to anthrax and 115 deaths (2%) were caused by rabies. Of the total
number of deaths due to anthrax, 97% occurred in zebra (Equus burchelli),
elephant (Loxodonta africana), wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and
springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) while 96% of rabies deaths occurred
in kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), jackal (Canis mesomelas), bat-eared
fox (Otocyon megalotis) and lion (Panthera leo). Anthrax deaths were
highest in the rainy season for zebra, wildebeest and springbok, while
elephant mortality peaked during dry seasons. No statistical
relationship existed between seasonal rainfall and overall incidence of
either anthrax or rabies. Control of anthrax is limited to prophylactic
inoculation when rare or endangered species are threatened. Incineration
of anthrax carcasses and chemical disinfection of drinking water are not
feasible at Etosha. Rabies control consists of the destruction of rabid
animals and incineration of their carcasses when possible.
Ebedes, H.,
1993. The use of long-acting tranquilizers in captive wild animals. The
capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and
transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision
Support Services : South African Veterinary Foundation, Pretoria.
Prins, H.H.T.,
Van-der-Jeugd, H.P., 1993. Herbivore population crashes and woodland
structure in East Africa. Journal of Ecology Oxford 81, 305-314.
Abstract: From 1985 to 1991, bush encroachment was serious in Lake
Manyara National Park, northern Tanzania. Shrub cover increased by about
20%. The increase was independent of initial (1985) shrub cover. Since
1987 there has been a steep decline in the number of African elephant
(Loxodonta africana) in the Park due to poaching. Elephant density
decreased from about 6 per km2 to about 1 per km2. However, shrub
establishment, as determined from counting tree-rings, preceded
poaching. Shrub establishment in two areas of the Park coincided with
anthrax epidemics that drastically reduced the impala [Aepyceros
melampus] population. In the northern section of the Park this occurred
in 1984, in the southern section in 1977. The diameter increment of
Acacia tortilis was 5.24 mm/yr, irrespective of the size of the trees.
Size measurements indicated that an even-aged stand of A. tortilis
established in 1961, which coincided with another anthrax outbreak among
impala. Size measurements of old A. tortilis trees indicated that
another even-aged stand established at the end of the 1880s. The size of
trees of this stand was not significantly different from a stand in
Tarangire National Park, nor from a stand near Ndutu (on the boundary
between Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area), also
in northern Tanzania. All three stands are likely to have originated
from bush establishment caused by the rinderpest pandemic at the end of
the 1880s. It is suggested that seedling establishment of A. tortilis is
a rare event under the prevailing conditions of high browsing pressures
by ungulates such as impala. Punctuated disturbances by epidemics among
these ungulates create narrow windows for seedling establishment, which
may explain the occurrence of even-aged stands.
Arora, B.M.,
1992. An overview of infectious diseases and neoplasms of the elephants
(Elephas maximus) in India. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G.
(Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and
Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant
held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January
1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 159-161.
Binepal, V.S.,
Wariru, B.N., Davies, F.G., Soi, R., Olubayo, R., 1992. An attempt to
define the host range for African horse sickness virus (Orbivirus,
Reoviridae) in east Africa, by a serological survey in some Equidae,
Camelidae, Loxodontidae and Carnivore. Vet. Microbiol. 31, 19-23.
Abstract: A survey was carried out in horse, zebra, elephant, camel,
sheep and goat and wild carnivore sera for virus-serum neutralizing
antibody to the nine type strains of African horse sickness virus.
Antibody was found amongst the horse, zebra and elephant sera to all
nine different strains. No antibody was detected in any sera from
camels, sheep and goats. None was found in sera from hyaena and jackals
in this series but had been detected earlier.
Chakraborty,
T., Majumdar, B.K., 1992. Foot and mouth disease in captive Indian
elephant. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian
Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management
(Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the
Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India.
Chandrasekharan, K., 1992. Prevalence of infectious diseases in
elephants in Kerala and their treatment. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K.,
Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases,
Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on
the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur,
India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India,
pp. 148-155.
Jacoby, F.
Contribution to the epidemiology of cowpox virus in the Federal Republic
of Germany. Untersuchungen zur Epidemiologie des Kuhpockenvirus in der
Bundesrepublik Deutschland. 1-140. 1992. Giessen, Germany, Fachbereich
Veterinarmedizin, Justus-Liebig-Universitat.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation
Abstract: The indirect immunofluorescence test for antibodies to cowpox
orthopoxvirus was positive in 218 of 303 wild rodents (Microtus agrestis,
M. arvalis, Apodemus flavicollis, Clethrionomys glareolus and Rattus
norvegicus). Attempts to isolate the virus failed. 202 of 277 cats from
58 of 67 locations in Germany, also 61 of 106 cattle and 13 of 38 zoo or
circus elephants were also positive.
Kalanidhi,
A.P., Nagaish, K., Palanissamy, R., Srinivasan, V.A., 1992. Screening of
Indian elephants, cattle and sheep for antibodies to foot and mouth
disease virus-infection associated antigen. Indian Veterinary Journal 69,
390-393.
Abstract: All of the 24 serum samples taken from Indian elephants in a
wildlife sanctuary in Theppakadu were negative in the double
immunodiffusion test for antibodies to virus infection associated
antigen (VIA) and showed insignificant titres in serum neutralization
tests. Antibodies to VIA were detected in the serum of vaccinated as
well as in foot and mouth disease-infected cattle and sheep sampled from
the Nilgiris District of Tamil Nadu; 13 of 21 cattle and 5 of 6 sheep
were positive.
Pilaski, J.,
Kulka, D., Neuschulz, N., Ippen, R.ed., Schroder, H.D. Outbreak of pox
among African elephants in Thuringer Zoo at Erfurt, Germany.
Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 34. Internationalen
Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere, Santander-Spain
1992. 111-118. 1992.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Schroder, H.D.,
Fischer, M., Ippen, R.ed. Contribution to the occurrence of infection of
zoo mammals with influenzavirus type A. Erkrankungen der Zootiere.
Verhandlungsbericht des 34. Internationalen Symposiums uber die
Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere, Santander-Spain 1992. 119-125.
1992.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Serum samples from 65 of 203 mammals possessed antibodies to 7
type A influenza viruses in HI titres between 1:8 and 1:1024, comprising
5 of 19 carnivores, 4 of 10 elephants, 10 of 26 Perissodactyla and 46 of
137 Artiodactyla [details tabulated]. Titres were highest against
A/Philippines/2/82 (H3N2).
Brahmasa, A.,
1991. Cryosurgery of cutaneous papilloma in two Asian elephants: a case
report. Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 21, 151-159.
Maity, P.K.,
Nandi, B., Chatterjee, U., Sarkar, C.R., Mazumdar, R., Bhattacharya, A.K.,
1991. Foot and mouth disease transmitted to elephants (Elephas maximus)
from infected cattle. Indian J Comp Micro Immunol Infect Dis 12,
68-78.
Chakraborty,
T., Majumdar, B.K., 1990. Foot and mouth disease in an elephant at
Calcutta zoological garden: a case report. Indian Veterinary Medical
Journal 14, 213-214.
Mehrotra, M.L.,
Shukla, D.C., 1990. Seroprevalence, diagnosis and differential diagnosis
of bluetongue virus disease in India. Indian Journal of Virology 6,
98-103.
Abstract: A serological survey, using the agar gel precipitation test,
for bluetongue virus disease (BT) in sheep (mainly) and other domestic
and wild animals was carried out in 11 states of India. Antibodies
against the virus were detected in 8 states among sheep, buffalo and
baby elephant. About 25% of the sera were positive to the test. The
disease was diagnosed by isolation and identification of the virus from
clinical cases. The BHK21 cell line was used for the isolation of virus.
Viruses indistinguishable from BT virus were isolated from 4 states
including Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh. The
disease was differentiated from rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease.
Metzler, A.E.,
Ossent, P., Guscetti, F., Rubel, A., Lang, E.M., 1990. Serological
evidence of herpesvirus infection in captive Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 26, 41-49.
Abstract: In mid 1988 a 3-yr-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) from a
circus in Switzerland died following generalized manifestation of a
herpesvirus infection. In an effort to determine prevalence of infection
with the herpesvirus, and due to lack of a corresponding virus isolate,
it was decided to evaluate contact animals and elephants from a second
herd for antibody to bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV1) and bovine herpesvirus
2 (BHV2). Of 15 sera tested four displayed low neutralizing antibody
titers to BHV2. None of the sera neutralized BHV1. However, as evidenced
by protein A-mediated immunoprecipitation of metabolically radio-
labeled virus-infected and mock-infected cell antigens, followed by
separation of precipitation products in SDS-polyacrylamide gels, the 15
sera precipitated multiple antigens from both viruses. Similar results
were obtained when using BHV4 antigens. The extent of reaction was most
distinct with respect to BHV2 antigens, less prominent with BHV1
antigens, and least with BHV4 antigens. The respective protein patterns,
although less marked, matched well with those obtained with bovine
reference sera. Additional evaluation of sera from six elephants from
two zoos in the Federal Republic of Germany gave essentially identical
results. It was concluded that at least one herpesvirus, immunologically
related to BHV2, may be widely distributed among captive Asian
elephants, and that this virus apparently does not cause overt disease
in the majority of animals
Mushi, E.Z.,
Hill, F.W.G., Dawe, P., Riess, R., 1990. Antibodies to bluetongue and
African horse sickness viruses in the sera of elephants in Zimbabwe.
Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 38, 475.
Abstract: Of 92 elephants [Loxodonta africana] culled in the Hwange and
Gonarezhou National Parks in 1985, 13 had low CF titres (1:4-1:16) to
bluetongue virus and 74 had CF titres of 1:4-1:18 to African horse
sickness virus.
Ossent, P.,
Guscetti, F., Metzler, A.E., Lang, E.M., Rubel, A., Hauser, B., 1990.
Acute and fatal herpesvirus infection in a young Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus). Vet. Pathol. 27, 131-133.
Abstract: Infections with herpesvirus may cause papillomatous lesions in
the Asian and African elephant. In both species, the virus has been
reported to localize only in the skin. Disseminated nodules of
epithelial cells were found in the lungs of a high percentage of wild
African elephants. In these cases, the proliferated cells contained
intranuclear inclusion bodies in which herpesvirus particles were
observed by electron microscopy. The virus in those cases caused no
illness. This report documents the necropsy findings of a juvenile
Asian elephant dying peracutely from massive generalized hemorrhage due
to lesisons in the endothelial cells of the capillaries. The cell
nuclei frequently contained inclusion bodies in which herpesvirus
particles were demonstrated. This has not been described in elephants
before.
Pade, K.,
Ruedi, D., Pilaski, J., Heldstab, A., Muller, M. Lethal outbreak of pox
among five Asian elephants of a German travelling circus. Erkrankungen
der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 32. Internationalen Symposiums
uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo und Wildtiere vom 23. Mai bis 27. Mai 1990
in Eskilstuna. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 32.
Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere
vom 23. Mai bis 27. Mai 1990 in Eskilstuna , 147-155. 1990. Berlin,
German Democratic Republic, Akademie Verlag.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Pilaski, J.,
1990. Pox in European zoos. Foreign Animal Disease Report 18,
6-7.
Sironi, G.,
Caniatti, M., Caniatti, M., 1990. Immunohistochemical detection of
papillomavirus structural antigens in animal hyperplastic and neoplastic
epithelial lesions. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series A 37 ,
760-770.
Abstract: One hundred and seventy two hyperplastic and neoplastic
epithelial lesions from 8 different mammalian and 1 avian species were
tested with an immunohistochemical technique to detect papillomavirus
structural antigens. Selected lesions were diagnosed histologically as
papilloma, fibropapilloma, equine sarcoid, squamous cell carcinoma,
basalioma, epulis, keratoacanthoma, trichoepithelioma, pilomatrixoma,
epidermal inclusion cyst, and hyperkeratotic or acanthotic epidermal
lesions. Positive nuclear staining was detected in 14 out of 23
papillomas, 8 out of 32 fibropapillomas and in 1 out of 3 hyperplastic
epidermal lesions. Positive samples were found in 5 of 8 mammalian
species. Selected samples were also examined by transmission electron
microscopy. In 4 samples papillomavirus was seen. In two other samples,
negative with immunoperoxidase technique, papovavirus-like particles
were observed.
Hegel, G.V.,
Hanichen, T., Mahnel, H., Wiesner, H., 1989. Warts (papilloma/sarcoid)
in elephant. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 31, 201-205.
Abstract: Warts ( Papilloma, Sarcoid) in Elephants ( Hegel,G.)1989;
translated from German by Gerda Martin. Papilloma virus - from the group
Papova virus - is considered an etiological agents of wart- like skin
changes in cattle, sheep, mountain goat, and rabbit. (ROSENBERGER,1970;
ROLLE and MAYR, 1984). Equine sarcoid (PALMER. 1985) found in horses is
most likely caused by bovine papilloma virus. The alternate name is
based on clinical and morphological differences in the actual papilloma.
In the initial stage, the sarcoid is similar to that of the papilloma;
however in later stages, tumorous decay on the surface of the epidermis,
and proliferation of the mesenchymal part of the tumor in the subcutis
dominate (DIET and WIESNER, 1982). Wart- like changes in the skin of
elephants as described by PILASKI et al (1987, 1988), proved to be
caused by Herpes virus. Such skin changes in elephants are not rare and
require treatment since size and volume of the excrescences may cause
functional disturbances in the patient. Even if the animal's general
well being is not impaired, the importance of esthetics and hygiene
should not be disregarded in a place where there are spectators and
visitors (zoo, circus). The following paper reports findings of wart-
like skin changes in elephants. Observations and Therapy In the
elephants kept in the Hellabrunn Zoo, no case of papilloma or similar
skin tumors had occurred since 1972. First case: In 5-28 - 1987, a ca.
18 month old female L.a. named " Sabi" arrived In Hellabrunn. This
animal had a wart- like thickening of 1 cm at the dorsal end of the
trunk. After 8 weeks, more of those such skin changes appeared on trunk
and lower lip without impairment in general well being. Treatment
consisted of one daily, subcutaneous injection of 1 amp. Chelidonium D7
(DHU Chelidonium majus L.), and application of fresh ??Schoellkraut
juice dabbed onto the warts but was unsuccessful. After a change of
treatment was made: 10 drops of Thuja D4 (DHU Thuja occidentalis L) and
20 drops Acidum nitricum D12 (DHU Acidum nitricum), orally, once a day,
at separate times of the day, there remained, after 2 weeks, a wart on
the lower lip the size of a cherry pit, and the before mentioned wart
on the dorsal end of the trunk had now grown to the size of a cherry.
Even the strength of Thuja LM 6 (DHU Thuja occidentalis L.) 20 drops,
oral, the growth of the wart on the dorsal end of the trunk, now with a
diameter of 5 cm, could not be stopped: Exstirpation had to be
performed. Frequent sucking had promoted strong ulceration. A
secondary infection had set in, the surface showed granular tissue
exuding blood and pus.
On 10 - 6 - 1987 the growth was exstirpated and tissue was sent for
virolog. and histolog. examination. In addition, tissue was removed from
a fresh small wart for vaccine. During the operation the animal was
immobilized (anesthetic: 0.3 ml Immobilon* (large animal Immobilon Rc* -
Vet. Ltd.), 10mg Xylacin, 150 IE Hyaluronidase i. m.). There were no
complications during recovery. Two weeks post op., the first
vaccination was given, followed by a second vacc. four weeks there
after, of 5.0 ml, subcut.., of an auto vaccine developed by the
Institute for Medical Microbiology, Dept. of Infectious and Epidemic
Medicine. In February 1988, there occurred another bout with wart- like
growth on the ventral part of the trunk, lower jaw, shoulders and feet,
some with a diameter of 15 mm. From the sedated young animal tissue was
taken from several newly grown warts for the manufacture of auto vaccine
(sedation: "Hellabrunner Mischung" / 150 IE Hyaluronidase). After 10
days, the first vaccination was given, and by the time of the second
vacc." Sabi" was free of externally visible skin changes.
On 6. 6. 1988, "Sabi" fell ill again. Over night she was covered with 48
warts, with diameters from 2mm - 15 mm on trunk and head, and 10 more
on the chest.The attempt to "ice" the warts with liquid nitrogen was
not successful. Instead, coagulation of ca. 20 of the larger warts was
used. The monopolar coagulation electrode of the Erbotom F 2 (Erbe
Elektromedizin) coagulates reaching deeply into the healthy zone of the
surrounding tissue. As before, tissue for the manufacture of the auto
vaccine was taken, as well as 0.5 ml of blood from the ear vein for the
manufacture of a "own- blood" nosode. (Large animal, premedication: 20
mg Xylazin i.m., 20 minutes later : 0.5 ml Immobilon R (large animal
Immobilon R c - Vet Ltd.) and 150 IE Hyaluronidase i.m. The following
day, "Sabi" was given the "own- blood" nosode at a strength of C5 (20
drops daily).In addition, she was vacc. once again. Since "Sabi" was
free of warts at the time of the second vaccination - given 4 weeks
after the first - the "own- blood" treatment was discontinued. Shortly
there after, however, several new warts cropped up (diameter ca. 1 cm),
so that the "own- blood" treatments were continued. Since that time "Sabi"
has had no recurrences.Second case : The Indian elephant cow (E.
maximus) , named "Dirndl" , age ca. 22 years, had been kept in the box
next to "Sabi" since "Sabi's" arrival. They kept trunk contact. On
5-2-1988, "Dirndl" showed on the distal trunk a substantially increased
raised area ca. 2 x 2 cm oozing blood. It seemed to be an injury from a
metal rope used in off limiting. The wound was disinfected and treated
twice a day with chloromycetin spray with Gentian violetR (Parke
Davis). After one week the growth had increased substantially and on
the surface, it had a cauliflower-like ulcerated appearance.Upon light
touch or movement of the dorsal trunk, blood appeard spontaneously.
Four days later, the growth was exstirpated, while the animal was
standing. (Sedation: 2.2 ml Hellabrunn mixture / 150 Hyaluronidase i.
m.) . The attempt to close the skin of the trunk over the wound failed
because the tension in that area was too great. The surface of the
wound was cauterized and treated with ChloromycetinSpray with Gentian
violet R (Parke Davis). Tissue for pathological and histological
examination was sent out. One week after the operation, the area of
the wound was highly swollem and the wound was infected. Treatment:
Several times a day, an ablution with a 0.1 % Rivanol solutionnR (Asid
- 2 Aethoxy-6.9-diamin acridinlactat) and application of
Sulfonamid-Codliver oil salve (WDT = Sulfadimidin- Sodium- cod liver
oil). In addition, analogous to "Sabi" , once daily 20 drops of
"own-blood" nosode, potency C 5 given orally. Three weeks post. op.,
there could be clearly distinguished a limited relapse, an area of 6 x
9 cm rising ca. 2 cm above the healthy skin of the trunk. The surface
looked like the first growth. It was extirpated under general
anesthetic (Premed.:80 mg Xylazin i. m., 20 min. later: 1.8 ml
ImmobilionR and 150 IE Hyaluronidase). In addition, the whole wound was
coagulated by monopolar coagulation electrode as above. Daily for 4
weeks, the wound was brushed with a 1:5 wood tar -alcohol -
solution.There were no complications during recovery. After 5 weeks ,
all that could be seen was a ca. 1.5 cm long small scar on the skin of
the trunk.
Histomorphological Findings: Fixation with formalin, embedding in
paraffin; stain: Hemalaun-Eosin, connective tissue stain in the manner
of Masson. The histomorphological findings based on the tissue samples
of "Sabi" and "Dirndl" are the same, and agree with the findings of 3
other skin tumor tissue taken from elephants of different origin (tab.
1). The tumors consist mainly of fibroplastic cells with more or less
abundant collagen fibers and blood vessels. The boundaries from the
adjacent corium and lower skin is largely indistinct. In all larger
neoplasties , the covering epidermis has been preserved at margins only
due to superficial ulceration. Here the P. acuta aseptica diffusa
borders are irregular and strongly profiled, the epithelium is
acanthoid and hyperkeratotic. The nuclei of tumor cells are
considerably anisomorphic, some have gigantic nuclei. Mitosis is
frequent. Due to the ulcerated epidermis , there is deep infiltration
with infectious cells. Virological findings: From the extirpated tissue
taken from the African Elephant "Sabi" ca. 3 g was homogenated, in
addition, the cells were "opened" by defrosting and ultrasound, and the
"cleared" tissue suspension was analyzed for free virus particles after
concentration and negative-contrasting with electron microscopy . At
the same time, small tissue samples of 2 mm from deeper epidermis
layers were fixed as usual for the ultrahistological exam , embedded in
epoxy resin, and ultra thin slices were scanned by the electron
microscope. No papilloma virus was found in the concentrated, cell free
tissue extract or the ultrathin slices of tissue samples .No virus
particle of any kind was found.
Discussion
To show papilloma by culturing cannot be done since no species of this
genus can be propagated in cell cultures with the exception of its
original host. The failed attempt to prove their presence with the
electronmicroscope does not exclude a papilloma virus etiology in
tumors. When virus particles are viewed in higher concentrations, the
electron microscopic proof is successful. Using ultrahistologyical
methods the particles in cell nuclei can only be found when the few
cells of specific skin cells are in the virus propagation stage. In
the case of virally induced papilloma however, a true virus propagation
is not necessary. In the last few years, it was found that equine
sarcoid can be caused by bovine papilloma virus. But it was only the
genome of the virus which could be isolated by means of gene technology
(ALTMANN, 1980; HAUSEN, 1980); the virus itself could not. The
oncogenetic potency of the virus in heterologic hosts , without true
virus production, has been established. A broader spectrum of hosts
for , at least , the papilloma virus in cattle seems to be the case.
And a bovine papilloma induced skin fibromatose in (a) horse has been
reported (LANCASTER, 1979). This virus can also appear in wild 'cud
chewers, perhaps even carnivores. It is in part also related to the
human papilloma virus. The possibility of transfer to humans (LANCASTER
1982) as well as other mammals such as elephants has not been proved
but is probable. In comparing the histological findings of the 5 skin
growths with those of the viral fibropapilloma in cattle and horse
(called equine sarcoid here), the relative immaturity of the tumorous
tissue is evident. It compares to the so- called sarcoid in horses. The
sarcoid-like structure and the indistinct separation from healthy
tissue speaks for a virus etiology and morphologically a relapse can
be expected. This occurred in both of the clinically described cases.
A differential diagnosis excludes a Herpes virus infection, as described
by PILASKI et al. (1987, 1988) in elephants on the basis of different
histological findings. Inclusions could not be found in any of the
cases. The warts on the elephants were clinically similar to the well
known sarcoids in horses (DIETZ and WIESNER, 1982). The two sick animals
were in "trunk contact" occupying adjacent boxes. Almost one year after
the arrival of "Sabi" who had warts, "Dirndl" fell sick. That points to
the infectious nature of warts. The relapse after the first operation on
"Dirndl" suggests that the extirpation of the growths was not complete.
This may be related to the fact that the animal was standing and only
sedated. In contrast , the extirpation of the "relapse" was carried out
on a fully immobilized animal and with the use of the Erbotom F 2 for
coagulation including the adjacent tissue. We know of various 'wart
therapies' in human medicine with differing success. The various
treatments employed in the one and one half years of "Sabi's" illness
can be labled neither successful, nor unsuccessful. The use of auto
vaccine which is analogous to a "stable specific " vaccine in the
treatment of papilloma in cattle, could perhaps have triggered the
recurrence of warts at the conclusion of the vaccination treatments.
That would favor the etiology of a virus 'picture.' The influence of the
'burn' or extirpation of a single or more growths which returned, in the
surrounding growths cannot be determined. It remains inconclusive if the
use of the "own- blood" nosode C 5 aided the successful therapy , since
the necessity to fight a recurrence had not yet occurred.
Kuntze, A.,
1989. Dermatopathies in elephants and their treatment. Kleintierpraxis
34, 405-415.
Pattnaik, B.,
Venkataramanan, R., 1989. Detection of virus-infection-associated (VIA)
antibody in serum of animals susceptible to foot-and-mouth-disease
virus. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 59, 356-357.
Abstract: Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection in tissue
culture and in animals lead to the production of a small heat-labile
virus infection associated (VIA) antigen. Sera from two elephants
tested, were positive for VIA antibodies in the double-immunodiffusion
test. Of 180 cattle serum samples from animals without known vaccination
history, 64 were positive for VIA antibody. Of the VIA negative 59
cattle all were negative for FMDV neutralizing antibody. Virus carriers
can be detected within regularly vaccinated herds by monitoring the VIA
antibody.
von Hegel,
G., Hanichen, T., Mahnel, H., Wiesner, H. Warts (papilloma/sarcoid) in
two elephants. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 31.
Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere,
Dortmund 1989. 201-205. 1989. Berlin, German Democratic Republic,
Akademie-Verlag.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Wells, S.K.,
Gutter, A.E., Soike, K.F., Baskin, G.B., 1989. Encephalomyocarditis
virus: Epizootic in a zoological collection. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 20, 291-296.
Abstract: Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) was isolated from eight
nonhuman primates, one Thomson's gazelle (Gazella thomsoni), and
one dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) that died peracutely
between January 1985 and October 1987 at Audubon Park Zoo, New Orleans,
Louisiana. Gross pathology consisted of excessive pericardial fluid,
epicardial hemorrhages, and pale foci within the myocardium.
Microscopic changes included myofiber necrosis, edema, and mononuclear
cell infiltration within the myocardium. Anti-EMCV antibody was
found in a variety of species including a capybara (Hydrochoerus
hydrochaeris), which subsequently died of a necrotizing myocarditis
but from which virus was not isolated. Although one hospital staff
member had a high anti-EMCV antibody titer, all primate keepers were
seronegative. Encephalomyocarditis virus was recovered from 38 wild
rodents, one opposum (Didelphis virginiana), and one rabbit (Sylvilagus
sp.) collected on the zoo grounds. Fifty-five percent of the positive
samples were found in areas where confirmed deaths had occurred or
antibody-positive animals were housed. A killed vaccine was developed
and administered to six domestic cats, 12 primates, and one camel.
Antibody response to vaccination was variable.
Gaskin, J.M.
Encephalomyocarditis: A potentially fatal virus infection of elephants.
Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 9. 133-136. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Pilaski, J.,
Rosen-Wolff, A., 1988. Poxvirus infection in zoo-kept mammals. In: Darai,
G. (Ed.), Virus Diseases in Laboratory and Captive Animals pp. 83-100.
Pilaski, J.,
Hentscheke, J., Sinn, D., Francke, R., Rosenbruch, M., Olberding, P.,
Molle, G., 1988. Two virus diseases of different aetiology in Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus) in samll traveling circus. Erkrankungen der
Zootiere 30, 263-269.
Rahman, H.,
Dutta, P.K., Dewan, J.N., 1988. Foot and mouth disease in elephant (Elephas
maximus). Zentralbl. Veterinarmed. [B]. 35, 70-71.
Abstract: A natural case of foot and mouth disease in an Indian elephant
(Elephas maximus) is recorded. The virus isolated was typed as
Asian 1. The source of infection possibly transmitted indirectly was
traced to an outbreak of FMD-Asia 1 in cattle and buffalos of the
district.
Gaskin, J.M.,
Andresen, T.L., Olsen, J.H., Schobert, E.E., Buesse, D., Lynch, J.D.,
Walsh, M., Citino, S., Murphy, D., 1987. Encephalomyocarditis in zoo
animals: Recent experiences with the disease and vaccination.
Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Zoological and Avian
Medicine 491.
Abstract: Encephalomyocarditis (EMC), a specific viral infection caused
by a group of antigenically related viruses in the family
Picornaviridae, a genus of Cardiovirus, continues to be a
source of sporadic mortality loss in zoo animals in Florida. Deaths in
a young Nyala antelope, 2 chimpanzees, 3 llamas, a two-toed sloth, 3
ringtail lemurs, a ruffed lemur, and an orangutan have recently been
confirmed by virus recovery. Experimental vaccine trials were initiated
in pygmy goats, Barbados sheep, and white mice using B-propiolactone
inactivated virus preparations. Various adjuvants, including aluminum
hydroxide, mineral oil, and dimethyl dioctadecyl ammonium bromide (DDAB)
were used to enhance the immune responses to inactivated virus. The
vaccine preparations produced varying levels of hemagglutinations-inhibition
(HI) antibodies in the immunized animals. Experimental challenge of
unvaccinated weaned pigs, pygmy goats, and Barbados sheep demonstrated
that, although they seroconverted, they did not become ill when exposed
to the virulent EMC virus strains used in this study. Laboratory mice,
however, proved to be very susceptible when exposed to these same
strains, and either died acutely or developed posterior paresis and
paralysis subsequent to challenge. All experimental vaccine
preparations protected mice against challenge. In vaccinated goats and
sheep, the oil-emulsion-adjuvanted and DDAB-adjuvanted vaccines produced
the highest and most persistent HI antibody titers. Sera obtained from
African elephants were screened for HI antibodies to EMC virus.
Ninety-three African elephant sera from the Kruger National Park in the
Republic of South Africa had titers of less than 10 hemagglutination-inhibition
units (HIU) while 4 of 76 imported juvenile African elephants had titers
from 10-40 HIU and the rest had no titer. EMC virus infections are
apparently acquired in Florida from reservoir hosts and HI titers of 40
HIU or higher indicate subclinical infection with the virus.
Experimental vaccines may help prevent EMC in susceptible species; HI
responses to vaccination in various exotic species are being evaluated.
Pilaski, J.,
Rosenbruch, M., Gelderblom, H., Olberding, P., Hagenbeck, C., 1987.
Herpes virus infectionin an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
Erkrankungen der Zootiere 29, 179-184.
Rosen, A.,
Pilaski, J., Darai, G., 1987. Genomic characterization of a poxvirus
isolated from a child. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 176, 181-188.
Abstract: A poxvirus was isolated from a six-year-old girl. The
comparative analyses of the genome of this isolate (H-CP-LSax) which
were carried out using the restriction endonucleases BamHI, HindIII,
KpnI, MluI, NcoI, SacI, and SmaI revealed that this isolate is a member
of the genus orthopoxvirus. Since the girl had never been vaccinated
against smallpox, and had close contact to domestic animals, including
cats, rabbits and guinea pigs, the genome of H-CP-LSax virus was
genetically analysed in comparison with other known orthopoxviruses. The
analysis demonstrates clearly that the HindIII cleavage pattern of H-CP-LSax
DNA is different from the HindIII DNA cleavage patterns of vaccinia
virus, cowpox virus, rabbit poxvirus, cat poxvirus, ectromelia virus,
and okapi poxvirus. Surprisingly, it was found that the HindIII and SmaI
cleavage patterns of the DNA of one out of six elephant poxviruses which
were analysed under the same conditions were virtually identical to the
HindIII and SmaI cleavage patterns of H-CP-LSax DNA. Although SmaI and
HindIII digestion of both virus genomes gave the same fragment patterns,
the viral DNAs can be distinguished from each other by the restriction
endonucleases SacI, BamHI, and KpnI, which also show high similarities
in the fragmentation patterns of both viruses. The results obtained in
this study indicate three possibilities concerning the origin of H-CP-LSax
virus. Firstly that the H-CP-LSax virus originated from an unknown
animal species. Secondly, that this virus is a variant of elephant
poxvirus in which the HindIII and SmaI sites are extremely conserved,
and finally that H-CP-LSax can be a recombinant virus of unknown origin.
Seaman, J.T.,
Finnie, E.P., 1987. Acute myocarditis in a captive African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 23, 170-171.
Jacobson, E.R.,
Sundberg, J.P., Gaskin, J.M., Kollias, G.V., O'Banion, M.K., 1986.
Cutaneous papillomas associated with a herpesvirus-like infection in a
herd of captive African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 189, 1075-1078.
Abstract: Proliferative cutaneous lesions developed in a herd of captive
African elephants (33 from an animal importer in Texas, and 63 young
elephants collected in Zimbabwe). Group-1 elephants were purchased 8
months before the arrival of the group-2 elephants. On arrival, 7
group-1 elephants had raised nodular fibrous growths, located
predominantly on their trunks. Lesions were not observed in the group-2
elephants until approximately 3 months after they were acquired. Lesions
on group-2 elephants began as small focal proliferative growths that
regressed or that progressed into large nodular fibrous growths that
were similar in appearance to those seen in the group-1 elephants.
Lesions at various stages of development were biopsied and examined.
Histologically, early lesions were inverted papillomas, with
hyperplastic and hypertrophic epithelial cells containing amphoteric
intranuclear inclusions in the lesion center. Older, large, nodular
fibrous growths were ulcerated and were composed predominantly of a
thickened dermis containing fibroblasts, collagen, and a mixed
inflammatory cell infiltrate; inclusions were not observed in adjacent
epidermal cells. Using a peroxidase- antiperoxidase technique, we did
not detect group-specific papillomavirus antigens. Southern blot
hybridization analysis of DNA from lesion specimens did not indicate
papillomavirus- specific genomes. Electron-microscopically, inclusions
consisted of aggregates of virus particles. The particles had electron-
dense and electron-lucent cores and were 95 to 103 nm in diameter.
Virions developed envelopes from nuclear membranes. Mature particles
were seen within the cytoplasm and filled the intercellular spaces. On
the basis of size, location, conformation, and envelopment, the
particles most closely resembled those of herpesviruses.
Munson, L.,
Heuschele, W., O'Banion, M.K., Sundberg, J.P., Oosterhuis, J.E., 1986.
Polyp in the urogenital canal of an African elephant. Journal of the
American Veterinary Medical Association 189, 1190-1191.
Pilaski, J.,
Rosen, A., Darai, G., 1986. Comparative analysis of the genomes of
orthopoxviruses isolated from elephant, rhinoceros, and okapi by
restriction enzymes. Brief report. Archives of Virology 88,
135-142.
Abstract: Orthopoxviruses from different zoo-kept mammalian species
including Elephas maximus (8 isolates), Ceratotherium simum (1 isolate),
and Okapia johnstoni (2 isolates) were characterized by restriction
enzyme analysis of the viral genome. The four enzymes BamHI, MluI, NcoI,
and SalI were found to be optimal for strain differentiation.
Gopal, T.,
Rao, B.U., 1984. Rabies in an Indian wild elephant calf. Indian
Veterinary Journal 61, 82-83.
Pilaski, J.,
Foster, J.W., Matern, B., Kloppel, G., Schaller, K. Epidemiology of
diseases similar to cowpox in zoo animals. Proc.Int.Symp.Dis.Zoo Anim.
26, 349-354. 1984.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Leach, E.
Vaginal virus in a mixed elephant herd. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 4.
79-80. 1983.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Wallach,
J.D., Boever, W.J., 1983. Perissodactyla (equids, tapirs, rhinos),
Proboscidae (elephants), and Hippopotamidae (hippopotamus). In: Wallach,
J.D., Boever, W.J. (Eds.), Diseases of exotic animals. W.B. Saunders
Company, Philadelphia, pp. 761-829.
Baxby, D.,
1982. The surface antigens of orthopoxviruses detected by
cross-neutralization tests on cross-absorbed antisera. J Gen Virol 58
(Pt 2), 251-262.
Abstract: Cross-neutralization tests were done on accepted species and
recently isolated members of the genus Orthopoxvirus using antisera
which had been separately absorbed with the various viruses. The results
provided evidence for the involvement of four neutralizing antigens, and
their distribution among 13 virus strains was determined. Monkeypox
(Congo-8-Lombe), camelpox (Gorgan), ectromelia (Mill Hill), 'Lenny' and
elephant poxviruses had distinctive antigenic formulae. Lister and Wyeth
vaccines were indistinguishable but different from Copenhagen and EM63
vaccines which were themselves distinct. Cowpox (Brighton), buffalopox
(BP4), MK 10, and Moscow poxviruses were indistinguishable. Examples
were found where viruses shared surface antigens but were not all
neutralized by antibody to them. This reduced the practical value of the
technique for virus identification. Evidence was also obtained for the
existence in some viruses of a fifth antigen, antibody to which could
block neutralization by antibody to one particular antigen.
Hedger, R.S.,
1981. Foot-and-mouth disease. In: Davis, J.W., Karstad, L.H., Trainer,
D.O. (Eds.), Infectious diseases of wild mammals. The Iowa State
University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Karstad, L.,
1981. Miscellaneous viral infections. In: Davis, J.W., Karstad, L.H.,
Trainer, D.O. (Eds.), Infectious diseases of wild mammals. The
University of Iowa Press, Ames, Iowa.
Murname, T.G.,
1981. Encephalomyocarditis. In: Steele, J.H. (Ed.), CRC Handbook Series
in Zoonoses, Section B: Viral Zoonoses. The Iowa State University Press,
Ames, Iowa, pp. 137-147.
Plowright,
W., 1981. Herpesvirus of wild ungulates, including malignant catarrhal
fever virus. In: Davis, J.W., Karstad, L.H., Trainer, D.O. (Eds.),
Infectious diseases of wild mammals. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Scott, G.R.,
1981. Rinderpest. In: Davis, J.W., Karstad, L.H., Trainer, D.O. (Eds.),
Infectious diseases of wild mammals. The Iowa State University Press,
Ames, Iowa.
Sundberg,
J.P., Russell, W.C., Lancaster, W., 1981. Papillomatosis in Indian
elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 179,
1247-1249.
Gaskin, J.M.,
Jorge, M.A., Simpson, C.F., Lewis, A.L., Olson, J.H., Schobert, E.E.,
Wollenman, E.P., Marlowe, C., Curtis, M.M., 1980. The tragedy of
encephalomyocarditis virus infection in zoological parks of Florida.
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1-7.
Malecki, G.,
Zuchowska, E., 1980. Pox-like disease in Elephas maximus.
Medycyna Weterynaryjna 36, 667-669.
Baxby, D.,
Shackleton, W.B., Wheeler, J., Turner, A., 1979. Comparison of
cowpox-like viruses isolated from European zoos. Archives of Virology 61,
337-340.
Abstract: Poxvirus isolated from captive carnivores in Russia (Moscow
virus) and elephants in Germany (elephant virus) were very
closely-related to cowpox virus. Immunological analysis with absorbed
sera separated elephant virus but not compox and Moscow virus, whereas
polypeptide analysis separated compox but not elephant and Moscow
virus. A combination of biological test separated all three. The
epidemiological implications are briefly reviewed.
Chandrasekharan, K. Common diseases of elephants. State Level Workshop
on Elephants. 51-61. 1979. India, College of Veterinary and Animal
Sicences, Kerala Agricultural University.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Eramus, B.J.,
Young, E., Pieterse, L.M., Boshoff, S.T., 1978. The susceptibility of
zebra and elephants to African horsesickness virus. In: Bryans, J.T.,
Berger, H. (Eds.), Equine infectious diseases. Veterinary Publications,
Princeton, N.J., pp. 409-413.
Gehring, H.,
Mayer, H., 1978. Beitrag zur diagnostik und bekampfung der
pockeninfection bein elefanten. Prakt. Tieraerztl. 2, 106.
Tesh, R.B.,
Wallace, G.D., 1978. Observations on the natural history of
encephalomyocarditis virus. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and
Hygiene 27, 133-143.
Baxby, D.,
Ghaboosi, B., 1977. Laboratory characteristics of pox-viruses isolated
from captive elephants in Germany. Journal of General Virology 37,
407-414.
Abstract: Poxviruses isolated from captive elephants in Germany have
been characterized. Although related to vaccinia and even more closely
to cowpox virus, the separate identity of elephantpox virus was
established by both biological and serological methods. Elephantpox
virus produces A-type inclusions in infected cells, as did cowpox, but
had a lower ceiling temperature, and was more heat resistant and
affected rabbits differently. Cross neutralization tests on absorbed
sera indicted that elephantpox, cowpox and vaccinia shared one surface
antigen, that elephantpox and vaccinia shared an antigen absent from
cowpox, and that vaccinia virus had a surface antigen absent from
elephantpox and cowpox viruses.
Davies, F.G.,
Otieno, S., 1977. Elephants and zebras as possible reservoir hosts for
African horse sickness virus. Veterinary Record 100, 291-292.
Marennikova,
S.S., Maltseva, N.N., Korneeva, V.I., Garanina, N., 1977. Outbreak of
pox disease among carnivora (felidae) and edentata. J Infect Dis 135,
358-366.
Abstract: An outbreak of pox disease in Carnivora of the family Felidae
occurred in the Moscow Zoo. Two forms of the disease were found: (1)
fatal, fulminant pulmonary without skin lesions and (2) dermal with
rash. The severity of the dermal form varied from subclinical to lethal.
The pulmonary form was characterized by pneumonia and exudative
pleuritis, and large concentrations of virus were observed in the lungs
and exudate. In addition to Carnivora of the family Felidae, two giant
anteaters had a severe form of the disease (dermal with hemorrhages) and
died. The agent of the outbreak appeared to be very closely related to
cowpox virus; however, pocks developed at a lower temperature than do
those that result from infection with cowpox virus. Strains isolated
from sick animals were identical to the virus previously isolated from
an outbreak of pox among elephants and okapi. The most probable sources
of infection were rats that were fed to some of the animals. During the
outbreak, a female attendant at the zoo became infected.
Simpson,
C.F., Lewis, A.L., Gaskin, J.M., 1977. Encephalomyocarditis virus
infection of captive elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 171, 902-905.
Abstract: Four Asian elephants at each of 2 widely separated zoologic
gardens in Florida died following a fulminating illness. Tissue
suspensions obtained from an elephant from each of the zoologic gardens
were inoculated into newborn mice, 3- to 4-week-old mice, buffalo green
monkey and baby hamster kidney cell cultures. Encephalitis and
myocarditis developed in the mice. The cell cultures were destroyed
within 24 to 72 hours, and intracytoplasmic viral inclusions were
observed in infected cells by electron microscopy. The viral agent was
neutralized by known antiserum to encephalomyocarditis virus.
Hedger, R.S.,
Brooksby, J.B., 1976. FMD in an Indian elephant (letter). Veterinary
Record 99, 93.
Pyakural, S.,
Singh, U., Singh, N.B., 1976. An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in
Indian elephants (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 99,
28-29.
Abstract: Type O virus has been isolated from a natural outbreak of
foot-and-mouth in Indian elephant. The history, symptoms, and
epizootology of this disease in these animals have also been described.
Hoff, G.L.,
Griner, L.A., Trainer, D.O., 1973. Blue-tongue virus in exotic
ruminants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 163,
565-567.
Howell, P.G.,
Young, E., Hedger, R.S., 1973. Foot-and-mouth disease in the African
elephant (Loxodonta africana). Onderstepoort Journal of
Veterinary Research 40, 41-52.
Abstract: A strain of SAT 2 foot-and-mouth disease virus which was
experimentally inoculated into the epidermis of the tongues of captive
African elephants produced vesicular lesions at the site of
inoculation. After a short period of viraemia, secondary lesions
developed in the mouth and on the feet giving rise to extensive tissue
damage and the separation of the soles. In spite of close contact there
was no spread of the disease to other elephants and by conventional
sampling techniques no carrier virus could be demonstrated. The
neutralizing antibody response was of a low order and this finding
together with the observations made during the course of the
experimental disease are discussed in relation to the possible role of
the elephant in the epizootiology of foot-and-mouth disease in Africa.
Mayer, J.,
1973. Vaccinia in humans caused by generalized infection of a circus
elephant. Zentralblatt fur
Bakteriologie,Parasitenkunde,Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene 1. Abt.
Originale 224, 448-452.
Gehring, H.,
Mahnel, H., Mayer, H., 1972. Elephant pox. Zentralbl. Veterinarmed. [B].
19, 258-261.
Basson, P.A.,
McCully, R.M., de Vos, V., Young, E., Kruger, S.P., 1971. Some parasitic
and other natural diseases of the African elephant in the Kruger
National Park. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 38 ,
239-254.
Erasmus, B.J.,
McCully, R.M., Pienaar, J.G., Young, E., Pieterse, L.M., Els, H.J. The
isolation of a herpes virus from the African elephant [Loxodonta
africana (Blumenbach, 1797)]. Journal of General Virology . 1971.
Ref Type: Unpublished Work
Abstract: Same case as McCully, 1969, 1971; Some references cite this
article as J. Gen. Virol. "in press" 1971, however the article was
apparently never actually published.
Kalter, S.S.,
Heberling, R.L., Claussen, B., 1971. Antibody in wild animal (African)
sera to human and simian viruses. Laboratory Animal Science 21,
829-831.
McCully, R.M.,
Basson, P.A., Pienaar, J.G., Erasmus, B.J., Young, E., 1971. Herpes
nodules in the lung of the African elephant [Loxodonta africana
(Blumenbach, 1797)]. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 38,
225-236.
Abstract: Lymphoid nodules associated with Cowdry Type A intranuclear
inclusions in epithelial and syncytial cells were found in the lungs of
74% of 50 African elephants in the Kruger National Park. Subsequent
studies proved these were caused by a herpes virus (Erasmus,McCully,Pienaar,Young,
Pieterse & Els, 1971). The disease appears to be subclinical or
latent. This virus, in common with other herpes viruses, might be more
pathogenic in some other host. The pathogenesis of the lymphoid nodules
and the various stages of their formation are given and the detailed
characteristics are illustrated.
Piragino, S.,
1970. An outbreak of foot and mouth disease in circus elephant.
Zooprofilani 25, 17-22.
Gainer, J.H.,
1969. Encephalomyocarditis virus infections in Florida, 1960-1966.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 151,
421-425.
McCully, R.M.,
Basson, P.A., Pienaar, J.G., Erasmus, B.J., Young, E., Pieterse, L.M.,
1969. Herpes nodules in elephants. Journal of the South African
Veterinary Medical Association 40, 422.
Abstract: Full text: The lungs of the majority of 50 elephants examined
recently in the Kruger National Park had several lymphoid nodules
varying in size from 3 to 30 mm (Fig. 1 arrow). The alveolar lining
cells within these nodules were metaplastic and contained Type A
intranuclear inclusions (Fig. 2). Electronmicroscopy revealed the
presence of a virus in the epithelial cells. It was subsequently
successfully isolated in tissue culture and characterized as a herpes
virus.
Gainer, J.H.,
Sandifur, J.R., Bigler, W.J., 1968. High mortality in a Florida swine
herd infected with encephalomyocarditis virus. An accompaning
epizootiologic survey. The Cornell Veterinarian 58, 31-47.
McGaughey,
C.A., 1962. Diseases of elephants. Part 4. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 10,
3-9.
Gainer, J.H.,
Murchison, T.E., 1961. Encephalomyocarditis virus infection of swine.
Vet. Med. 56, 173-175.
Gupta, V.,
1945. Rabies in an elephant. Indian Veterinary Journal May.
D'Costa, J.,
1936. Rinderpest: Its symptoms. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science and
Animal Husbandry 13, 7.
Ramiah, B.,
1935. An outbreak of foot and mouth disease in elephants. Indian
Veterinary Journal 12, 28.
Beckett, J.,
1932. Death of an elephant from rabies. Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society 36, 242-243.
Ramiah, B.,
1932. Paralytic rabies in an elephant. Indian Veterinary Journal 9,
142.
Lapin, A.,
1901. Maul-und-Klauenseuche bereinem elephanten. Prezg. Wet. 250,
1.
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