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Elephant
Bibliographic
Database
www.elephantcare.org
References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent
first.
Garner, M.M.,
Helmick, K., Ochsenreiter, J., Richman, L.K., Latimer, E., Wise, A.G.,
Maes, R.K., Kiupel, M., Nordhausen, R.W., Zong, J.C., Hayward, G.S.,
2009. Clinico-pathologic features of fatal disease attributed to new
variants of endotheliotropic herpesviruses in two Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus)
119. Vet. Pathol. 46, 97-104.
Abstract: The first herpesviruses described in association with serious
elephant disease were referred to as endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV)
because of their ability to infect capillary endothelial cells and cause
potentially fatal disease. Two related viruses, EEHV1 and EEHV2, have
been described based on genetic composition. This report describes the
similarities and differences in clinicopathologic features of 2 cases of
fatal endotheliotropic herpesvirus infections in Asian elephants caused
by a previously unrecognized virus within the betaherpesvirus subfamily.
EEHV3 is markedly divergent from the 2 previously studied fatal
probosciviruses, based on polymerase chain reaction sequence analysis of
2 segments of the viral genome. In addition to ascites, widespread
visceral edema, petechiae, and capillary damage previously reported,
important findings with EEHV3 infection were the presence of grossly
visible renal medullary hemorrhage, a tropism for larger veins and
arteries in various tissues, relatively high density of renal herpetic
inclusions, and involvement of the retinal vessels. These findings
indicate a less selective organ tropism, and this may confer a higher
degree of virulence for EEHV3
Bechert, U.,
Southern, S., Chase, M.
Minimally invasive molecular health analysis in elephants.
Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and
Amphibian Veterinarians. 88. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
This
paper describes the application of a new assay platform called Stress
Response Profiling (SRP) to the analysis of health status in elephants.
SRP assays use a large biomarker panel as an indicator of chronically
perturbed physiologic homeostasis ("chronic stress"),1,2 which is a
known predictor of increased morbidity, infertility and mortality
rates.3-8 SRP assays have a broad-based sensitivity to diverse types of
stressors in multiple species of vertebrates.2 A minimally invasive SRP
assay is based on skin microsamples obtained using routine biopsy
procedures.9 The skin SRP assay was applied to captive African elephants
with clinically diagnosed gastrointestinal infections and to healthy
wild elephants.10 The elephant health status was classified using a
reference database of SR biomarker profiles corresponding to eight
species of normal and stressed animals. The biomarker profiles were
converted into pathway profiles indicating that the molecular mechanism
of the elephant gastrointestinal infections preferentially involved
responses to misfolded proteins and DNA lesions. To rapidly and
economically screen samples from 70 free-ranging African elephants
sampled in Northern Botswana, we used a multiplexed SRP assay called
multi-SRP.1,2 Statistical analysis of the multi-SRP scores showed
correlations with population density, movements, and human-elephant
conflict reports. In
summary, this paper documents that SRP and multi-SRP assays are suitable
for the elephant skin and relevant to both symptomatic diseases and
asymptomatic effects of environmental and anthropogenic stressors. We
anticipate that the SRP technology might have a wide range of potential
applications in veterinary medicine and ecosystem conservation.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Southern, S.O., A.C. Allen, and N. Kellar. 2002. Molecular
signature of physiological stress in dolphins based on protein
expression profiling of skin. Administrative Report LJ-02-27, National
Marine Fisheries Service, SW Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla,
California.
2. Southern, S.O., and G.W. Lilienthal. 2008. New technology for early
detection of health threats. Proc. SPIE 69450F.
3. Camougrand, N., and M. Rigoulet. 2001. Aging and oxidative stress:
studies of some genes involved both in aging and in response to
oxidative stress. Respir. Physiol. 128:393-40.
4. Epel, E.S., J. Lin, F.H. Wilhelm, O.M. Wolkowitz, R. Cawthon, N.E.
Adler, C. Dolbier, W.B. Mendes, and E.H. Blackburn. 2006. Cell aging in
relation to stress arousal and cardiovascular disease risk factors.
Psychoneuroendocrinology. 31:277-87.
5. Feder, M.E., and G.E. Hofmann. 1999. Heat-shock proteins, molecular
chaperones, and the stress response: evolutionary and ecological
physiology. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 61:243-82.
6. Kapahi, P., M.E. Boulton, and T.B.L. Kirkwood. 1999. Positive
correlation between mammalian life span and cellular resistance to
stress. Free Radical Biol. Med. 26:495-500.
7. Selye, H.A. 1936. Syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents. Nature
138:32.
8. Wilson, J.F., and E.J. Kopitzke 2002. Stress and infertility Curr.
Womens Health Rep. 2: 194
Lotfy, W.M.,
Brant, S.V., DeJong, R.J., Le, T.H., Demiaszkiewicz, A., Rajapakse, R.P.,
Perera, V.B., Laursen, J.R., Loker, E.S., 2008. Evolutionary origins,
diversification, and biogeography of liver flukes (Digenea, Fasciolidae).
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 248-255.
Abstract: Fasciolid flukes are among the largest and best known
digenetic trematodes and have considerable historical and veterinary
significance. Fasciola hepatica is commonly implicated in causing
disease in humans. The origins, patterns of diversification, and
biogeography of fasciolids are all poorly known. We have undertaken a
molecular phylogenetic study using 28S, internal transcribed spacer 1
and 2 (ITS-1 and ITS-2) of nuclear ribosomal DNA, and mitochondrial
nicotinamide dehydrogenase subunit 1 (nad1) that included seven of the
nine recognized species in the family. The fasciolids examined comprise
a monophyletic group with the most basal species recovered from African
elephants. We hypothesize fasciolids migrated from Africa to Eurasia,
with secondary colonization of Africa. Fasciolids have been conservative
in maintaining relatively large adult body size, but anatomical features
of their digestive and reproductive systems are available. These flukes
have been opportunistic, with respect to switching to new snail (planorbid
to lymnaeid) and mammalian hosts and from intestinal to hepatic habitats
within mammals
Meyers, D.A.,
Isaza, R., MacNeill, A.
Evaluation of acute phase proteins for diagnosis of inflammation in
Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus).
Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and
Amphibian Veterinarians. 128. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
In
many domestic species, routine hematology assays are useful diagnostic
tools to diagnose inflammatory conditions. Unlike other species, these
hematologic tests apparently are insensitive indicators of inflammation
in elephants.1 We studied a novel group of blood proteins, called acute
phase proteins, which increase during inflammatory conditions, for their
usefulness in diagnosing elephants with inflammatory diseases. Although
these proteins currently are useful in humans and domestic animals, each
species has a different set of important proteins that must be
individually investigated.2 We tested several acute phase proteins
(C-reactive protein, alpha-1 glycoprotein, alpha-1 antitrypsin, serum
amyloid A, haptoglobin, fibrinogen, ceruloplasmin, and albumin) as well
as complete blood counts, chemistry panels, serum protein
electrophoresis, and 3-D gel electrophoresis to determine their
usefulness for diagnosing different types of inflammatory conditions in
Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Animals with inflammatory
conditions were classified as those individuals with known illnesses
such as mycobacteriosis, arthritis, nail bed abscesses, and malignant
tumors. Control animals were thoseanimals that were suspected to not
have any inflammation and be healthy at the time of testing as
determined by physical examination and obtaining a thorough medical
history.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Lyashchenko, K., R. Greenwald, J. Esfandiari, J. Olsen, R. Ball,
G. Dumonceaux, F. Dunker, C. Buckley, M.
Richard, S. Murray, J.B. Payeur, P. Anderson, J.M. Pollock, S. Mikota,
M. Miller, D. Sofranko, and W.R.
Waters. 2006. Tuberculosis in Elephants: Antibody responses to defined
antigens of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, potential for early diagnosis, and monitoring of
treatment. Clin. Vacc. Immunol. 13: 722-732.
2. Murata H., N. Shimada, M. Yoshioka. 2004. Current research on acute
phase proteins in veterinary diagnosis:
an overview. Vet J. 168: 28-40.
Miller, J.,
McClean, M.
Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) after a single rectal dose.
Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and
Amphibian Veterinarians. 224-225. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
Captive African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) are susceptible to
many types of gram negative bacterial infections such as Escherichia
coli, Mycoplasma spp., Salmonella spp., Klebsiella
spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. Enrofloxacin (Baytril®,
Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee
Mission, KS 66201) is a potentially effective antibiotic for
treatment of these bacterial infections in elephants. Very limited data
exists on the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in elephants2 and most of
the dosage regimes for gastrointestinal absorption are based on horse
dosages since they share a similar gastrointestinal tract. Three
African elephants from Wildlife Safari in Winston, Oregon, two females
both 37-yr-old and one male 26-yr-old, were used to determine whether
therapeutic levels of enrofloxacin could be achieved thru rectal
administration of liquid injectable enrofloxacin (Baytril 100®, 100
mg/ml, Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee
Mission, KS 66201) at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg. A pretreatment baseline
blood sample was collected. Following administration, blood samples were
collected at 45 min, 1.5hr, 2.5hr, 5hr, 9hr, 23hr, 36hr to determine
plasma enrofloxacin levels. Plasma enrofloxacin levels were measured at
North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine using
high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Plasma
ciprofloxacin levels were measured concurrently. Results indicate plasma
concentrations of enrofloxacin did not reach adequate bacteriocidal
levels for any of the the following common bacterial isolates in captive
elephants: Mycoplasma
spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Klebsiella
spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. The study
determined that a rectally administered dosage of 2.5 mg/kg of liquid
injectable enrofloxacin was insufficient to obtain therapeutic levels in
African elephants. The low plasma levels of enrofloxacin in all three
elephants may be a result of poor absorption in the distal large
intestine. A future study will determine if oral administration will
provide a more efficient mode of drug delivery and absorption in African
elephants. It is also possible that the current dosage of 2.5 mg/kg is
too low to achieve adequate therapeutic levels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the elephant and veterinary staff at Wildlife
Safari for their participation in conducting this study. Thanks to
Doctors: Modesto McClean, Jason Bennett, Andi Chariffe, Tessa Lohe,
Benji Alacantar. Also thanks to Dinah Wilson, Carol Matthews, Anthony
Karels, Mary Iida, Shawn Finnell, Patches Stroud, Katie Alayan.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Haines, G.R., et. al. 2000. Serum concentrations and
pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after intravenous and intragastric
administration to mares. Can. J.Vet. Res. 64(3):171-177.
2. Sanchez, C.R., et. al. 2005. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of
enrofloxacin administered orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus). Am. J. Vet. Res. 66:1948-1953.
Schmitt, D.,
Charmason, S., Wiedner, E.
Use
of luteinizing hormone ELISAs in breeding elephants.
Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and
Amphibian Veterinarians. 120-121. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Successful artificial insemination (AI) of elephants depends
heavily on determining the unique luteinizing hormone (LH) surges that
occur during the follicular phase of the elephant's estrous cycle.
Natural breeding of elephants also can benefit from a rapid and accurate
determination of the two LH surges found in elephants. There are three
ELISAs available for determining the LH
surge; two are commercially-available assays and one is a laboratory
in-house assay. Each vary in their cost, time to complete the assay, and
ease of performing the procedures. Detection of the initial non-ovulatory
peak in luteinizing hormone (LH1) is best accomplished by use of an in
house LH assay, or use of the LH assay available from Dr. Nancy Dahl (UC-Davis,
Davis, CA
95616 USA), both of which are quantitative assays for detection of LH.
For cow-side use during estrus, the qualitative ELISA Witness® LH
Ovulation Timing Test Kit (Symbiotics Corporation, Kansas City, MO 64163
USA) detects LH in elephants within 20 min. This assay requires a
minimum of laboratory precision to detect the ovulatory LH peak (LH2).
Introduction
Elephants are the only species known to exhibit a double LH peak during
a single estrous cycle.2,4 Increased success of artificial insemination
in elephants occurred partly in response to the ability to detect the
LH1 surge about 21 days prior to the ovulatory LH2 surge that occurs at
the end of a two to three day estrus.1 The first reports regarding
detection of the double LH
surges were performed in laboratories using custom ELISA technology that
require exacting procedures and two days to complete the quantitative
assays.2,4 A semi-quantitative elephant LH ELISA that can be performed
in the field in about 2.5 hr was developed at UC-Davis.3 A qualitative
LH assay was developed for use in dogs and cats that uses a latex strip
ELISA. The time for development of the test is 20 min and detects a LH
surge greater than 1 ng/ml using serum. Elephants have LH1 and LH2
surges in the 4-16 ng/ml range,2,4 well within the detectable range for
all of the assays described. The detection of the LH1 peak usually is
from daily samples submitted weekly; this allows some efficiency of
assay resources and provides at least a two-wk notice of LH2. However,
accurate and timely detection of LH2 is needed at least daily and at
times twice daily during estrus. The use of an LH assay which can be
performed 'cow-side' and accurately detect LH2 is essential for
successful AI and can be helpful in determining estrus status for
natural breeding. The Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit from
Symbiotics was developed for use in dogs and cats, but is effective in
other species, including elephants, and meets these requirements.
Discussion
Detection of LH1 provides information for predicting the LH2 surge and
performance of assays that require more laboratory time and precision
are useful since detection of LH1 is not as timesensitive as LH2
detection. Both of the quantitative assays have unique advantages. An
inhouse assay can be set up, but requires greater preparation time,
precision of laboratory procedures is more demanding, often takes two
days to perform, and is more susceptible to environmental variables. The
assay developed by UC-Davis costs about $5.00 per well, takes about 2.5
hr to perform and is more stable. However, for quantitative results the
overhead costs of the standard curve requires about 16 wells ($90), plus
two wells for each unknown sample. The UC-Davis assay can be set up as a
qualitative test with high and low controls and no standard curve. This
requires from three to six wells for a single sample. The Witness® LH
Ovulation Timing Test Kit has a control built into each test strip and
costs about $25.00 per sample. Because 'cow-side' testing possible using
the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit, I recommend its use for
detection of LH2, although the UC-Davis Elephant ELISA is competitively
priced and can be performed in a nearby temporary laboratory. Because
timing is
critical in detecting LH2 and performing subsequent AI, I recommend
using the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit at the time of estrus,
preceded by either one of the other assays for detecting LH1, depending
on availability of laboratory labor and equipment.
LITERATURE CITED
1.
Brown, J. L., F. Goritz, N. Pratt-Hawkes, R. Hermes, M. Galloway, L. H.
Graham, C. Gray, S. L. Walker, A. Gomez, R. Moreland, S. Murray, D. L.
Schmitt, J. G. Howard, J. Lehnhardt, B. Beck, A. Bellem, R. Montali, and
T. B. Hildebrandt. 2004. Successful artificial insemination of an Asian
elephant at the National Zoological Park. Zoo Biol. 23: 45-63.
2. Brown, J. L., D. L. Schmitt, A. Bellem, L. H. Graham, and J.
Lehnhardt. 1999. Hormone secretion in the Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus):
Characterization of ovulatory and anovulatory luteinizing hormone
surges. Biol. Reprod. 61: 1294-1299.
3. Dahl, N. J., D. Olson, D. L. Schmitt, D. R. Blasko, R. S. Kristipati,
and J. F. Roser. 2004. Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay (ELISA) in the elephant (Loxodonta
africana
and
Elephas maximus).
Zoo Biol. 23: 65-78.
4. Kapustin, N., J. K. Critser, D. Olson, and P. V. Malven. 1996.
Nonluteal estrous cycles of 3-week duration are initiated by anovulatory
luteinizing hormone peaks in African elephants. Biol. Reprod.
55:1147-1154.
Steinmetz,
H.W., Eulenberger, U., Hatt, J.M.
Daily clinical examinations in a herd of captive asian elephants.
Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and
Amphibian Veterinarians. 124. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
The
captive population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is not
self-sustaining.2 Poor reproduction and high juvenile mortality are key
factors in the decreasing population. Infection with endotheliotropic
elephant herpes virus (EEHV) is one of the major causes of death in the
captive population, and has resulted in the loss of at least 40 captive
animals.1 EEHV has been
responsible for the peracute death of two juvenile males at Zurich Zoo,
Switzerland. Mortality due to peracute infection with EEHV mainly is
seen in juveniles. Early detection of characteristic clinical signs of
EEHV and immediate initiation of therapy are of crucial
importance due to its rapid progression. Based on past fatal EEHV
experiences, Zurich Zoo modified its daily clinical health monitoring
program to increase staff awareness of EEHV infection. Examinations have
been incorporated into the daily routine and include daily evaluation of
behaviour, appetite, colour of mucosal membranes and the measurement of
body temperature; these examinations are performed by keepers. In our
experiences, characteristic signs of acute EEHV infection are lethargy,
anorexia, mild
colic, and cyanosis of the mucosal membranes. Results of temperature
measurements have shown that best estimations of body temperature are
done by measurement of the temperature in the centre of a fecal ball 5-9
min after defecation. Mean values of 36.5°C (± 0.2°C SD) are within
published reference values, although adult elephants have shown
significantly lower body temperature than juveniles. Establishment of
individual reference values for each elephant is essential to detect
unusual temperature peaks that may indicate possible EEHV viremia. The
present study has shown that daily health examinations increase the
awareness of keepers for
early signs of EEHV infection (e.g., peaks in body temperature and
cyanotic mucosal membranes).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank B. Aeschbach and all elephant keepers for taking
special care of our elephants. The work and organization of Ms. G.
Hürlimann is gratefully appreciated.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S. 2007. Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV). http://www.elephantcare.org/herpes.htm.
cited: 10.04.2008:
2. Wiese, R. J. 2000. Asian elephants are not self-sustaining in North
America. Zoo Biol. 19: 299-309.
Tshikae, B.P.,
Davis, A.L., Scholtz, C.H., 2008. Trophic associations of a dung beetle
assemblage (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) in a woodland savanna of
Botswana. Environ. Entomol. 37, 431-441.
Abstract: Species richness and abundance of dung beetles were assessed
across a range of bait types that acted as surrogates for the food
resources available in Chobe National Park, Botswana. These bait types
were comprised of the dung of pig (omnivore), cattle (ruminant herbivore
dropping fine-fiberd pads), sheep (pellet-dropping ruminant herbivore),
and elephant (monogastric, nonruminant herbivore producing
coarse-fibered droppings), and chicken livers (carrion). Species
richness was similar between traps baited with pig, cattle, and elephant
dung but was relatively lower in those baited with sheep dung and
carrion. In traps baited with pig dung, abundance was relatively greater
than in all other bait types. A cluster analysis of species abundance
distributions for the 30 most abundant species identified four different
patterns of bait type association at a 60% level of similarity. All but
1 of the 15 species in cluster A were attracted primarily to the dung of
omnivores and pad-dropping ruminant herbivores (pig and cattle). All
seven species of cluster B were attracted primarily to coarse-fibered,
nonruminant herbivore dung (elephant). All four species of cluster C
were primarily carrion and pig dung associated, whereas all four species
of cluster D were carrion specialists. In conclusion, the most abundant
species were attracted to all bait types, but most species were largely
specialized to different dung types or carrion, with dung attracting the
majority of the fauna in terms of both species richness and abundance
Clauss, M.,
Streich, W.J., Schwarm, A., Ortmann, S., Hummel, J., 2007. The
relationship of food intake and ingesta passage predicts feeding ecology
in two different megaherbivore groups. Oikos 116, 209-216.
Abstract: Digestion, especially of plant material, is a time-dependent
process. In herbivores, an increase in food intake is usually correlated
to an acceleration of ingesta passage through the gut, and could hence
depress digestive efficiency. Therefore, the nature of the relationship
between food intake and ingesta passage (i.e. whether the increase in
ingesta passage due to the increase in food intake is mild or drastic)
should determine the flexibility of the feeding strategy of herbivore
and omnivore species. Using two megaherbivore groups, the elephants and
the hippopotamuses, as examples from opposing ends of the range of
potential adaptations to this problem, we demonstrate that the
species-specific relationship of food intake and ingesta passage can
precisely predict feeding ecology and activity budgets. In hippos, the
distinct acceleration in ingesta passage due to increased intake limits
the additional energy gained from eating more forage, and explains the
comparatively low food intake and short feeding times generally observed
in these animals. In elephants, increased food intake only leads to a
very moderate increase of ingesta passage, thus theoretically allowing
to optimize energy gain by eating more, which is in accord with the high
food intake and long feeding times observed in these animals. We suggest
that the characterization of the intake-passage relationship in herbi-
and omnivorous species is of much higher ecological relevance than the
determination of a supposedly species-specific "passage time/mean
retention time.".
Clauss, M.,
Steinmetz, H., Eulenberger, U., Ossent, P., Zingg, R., Hummel, J., Hatt,
J.M., 2007. Observations on the length of the intestinal tract of
African Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach 1797) and Asian elephants Elephas
maximus (Linne 1735). European Journal of Wildlife Research 53,
68-72.
Abstract: The digestive tract of elephants is surprisingly short
compared to other herbivorous mammals. However, measurements relating
the length of the intestine to the body mass of the respective
individual are rare. In this study, we report such data for an African
elephant and an Asian elephant. Our data support the hypothesis that
Asian elephants have a longer intestinal tract than their African
counterparts. These findings are in accord with the observation of
longer retention times and higher digestion coefficients in Asian as
compared to African elephants. This difference between the species could
be the reflection of slightly different ecological niches, with Asian
elephants adapted to a natural diet with a higher proportion of grass.
Pan, D.,
2007. Hippo signaling in organ size control. Genes Dev. 21,
886-897.
Abstract: The control of organ (or organism) size is a fundamental
aspect of life that has long captured human imagination. What makes an
elephant grow a million times larger than a mouse? How do our two hands
develop independently of each other yet reach very similar size? How
does a liver precisely regenerate its original mass when two-thirds of
it is removed? The recent discovery of a novel signaling network in
Drosophila, known as the Hippo (Hpo) pathway, might provide an important
entry point to these fascinating questions. The Hpo pathway consists of
several negative growth regulators acting in a kinase cascade that
ultimately phosphorylates and inactivates Yorkie (Yki), a
transcriptional coactivator that positively regulates cell growth,
survival, and proliferation. Components of the Hpo pathway are highly
conserved throughout evolution, suggesting that this pathway may
function as a global regulator of tissue homeostasis in all metazoan
animals. Here, I provide a historical review of this potent
growth-regulatory pathway and highlight outstanding questions that will
likely be the focus of future investigation
Bojesen,
A.M., Olsen, K.E., Bertelsen, M.F., 2006. Fatal enterocolitis in Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile. Vet
Microbiol Epub ahead of print.
Abstract: Two cases of fatal enteritis caused by Clostridium difficile
in captive Asian elephants are reported from an outbreak affecting five
females in the same zoo. Post mortem examination including
histopathology demonstrated fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis. C. difficile
was isolated by selective cultivation from two dead and a third severely
affected elephant. Four isolates were obtained and found positive for
toxin A and B by PCR. All isolates were positive in a toxigenic culture
assay and toxin was demonstrated in the intestinal content from one of
the fatal cases and in a surviving but severely affected elephant. PCR
ribotyping demonstrated that the C. difficile isolates shared an
identical profile, which was different from an epidemiologically
unrelated strain, indicating that the outbreak was caused by the same C.
difficile clone. It is speculated that the feeding of large quantities
of broccoli, a rich source of sulforaphane, which has been shown to
inhibit the growth of many intestinal microorganisms may have triggered
a subsequent overgrowth by C. difficile. This is the first report of C.
difficile as the main cause of fatal enterocolitis in elephants. The
findings emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially
dangerous for elephants and caution is recommended concerning antibiotic
treatment and feeding with diets containing antimicrobials, which may
trigger an expansion of a C. difficile population in the gut.
Fidgett, A.L.,
Newman, E.C., Sanderson, S. Using faecal analysis as an indicator of
dental condition: A case study at Chester Zoo. Proceedings International
Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium. 250. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Reid, C.E.,
Hildebrandt, T.B., Marx, N., Hunt, M., Thy, N., Reynes, J.M.,
Schaftenaar, W., Fickel, J., 2006. Endotheliotropic elephant herpes
virus (EEHV) infection. The first PCR-confirmed fatal case in Asia
436. Vet. Q. 28, 61-64.
Abstract: Since 1995, 4 suspected cases of Endotheliotropic Elephant
Herpes Virus (EEHV) infection, i.e. based on clinical presentation, have
occurred in Asia without resulting in epidemic outbreaks as expected. In
order to confirm the presence of EEHV on the continent of Asia, viral
DNA particles from liver samples of a wild-caught 3-year-old elephant
found dead at a Cambodian elephant sanctuary and clinically diagnosed
with EEHV, were PCR processed using known EEHV strain primers. The
presence of EEHV viral nucleic acids was confirmed and the nucleic acids
had a 99% sequence similarity to the U.S.A strain (gene bank locus:
AF117265) and 97% sequence similarity to the European strain (gene bank
locus: AF354746) assigning this case to the EEHV-1 cluster. More than
the confirmation of EEHV on the continent of Asia, is the phylogenic
relationship to the USA and European strains with no corresponding
contact or transport of USA or European elephants to Asia. Thus, this
brings many of the traditional theories into question. Although almost
forgotten, this disease is still ramped in captive elephant populations
worldwide and continues to devastate particularly the neonatal and
weaning-age population. Special attention and continued research are
needed specifically in the area of basic virology and epidemiology
Clauss, M.,
Robert, N., Walzer, C., Vitaud, C., Hummel, J., 2005. Testing
predictions on body mass and gut contents: dissection of an African
elephant Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1797. Eur J Wildl Res 51,
291-294.
Abstract: The values reported in the literature for the total
gastrointestinal tract (GIT) content mass of elephants are lower than
expected from interspeci.c mammalian regression. This .nding agrees with
theoretical considerations that elephants should have less capacious
GITs than other herbivorous mammals, resulting in short ingesta
retention times. However, the data on elephants was so far derived from
either diseased zoo specimens or free-ranging animals subjected to an
unknown hunting stress. In this study, we weighed the wet contents of
the GIT segments of a captive African elephant that was euthanased
because of a positive serological tuberculosis test, but that was
clinically healthy, did not show a reduced appetite, and ingested food
up to the time of euthanasia. The animal weighed 3,140 kg and its total
gut contents were 542 kg or 17% of body mass. This is in close accord
with the published mammalian herbivore regression equation of Parra
(Comparison of foregut and hindgut fermentation in herbivores. In:
Montgomery GG (ed) The ecology of arboreal folivores. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington DC, pp205-230, 1978) and contradicts the
notion that elephants have comparatively less capacious gastrointestinal
tracts. Data on the individual gut segments, however, do support earlier
suspicions that elephants have a comparatively less capacious caecum and
a disproportionally capacious colon.
Deem, S.L.,
Brown, J.L., Eggert, L., Wemmer, C., Htun, W., Nyunt, T., Murray, S.,
Leimgruber, P. Health and management of working elephants in Myanmar
(Burma). Procedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 228-231.
2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Myanmar has approximately 6,000 working elephants. Remaining
wild elephants are declining, partly because of live-capture for
captivity. Through health and reproductive assessments, genetic
analyses and GPS tracking of captive and wild elephants, we are
exploring linkages between the two populations and conducting studies to
reduce morbidity and mortality of captive elephants. Captive elephants
live and work in Myanmar's forests in close proximity and contact to the
remaining wild herds. We propose that reducing morbidity and mortality
in the captive elephants will decrease the need for live-capture, and
the risk of disease transmission, to wild elephants.
Introduction
There are an estimated 6,000 working elephants in Myanmar - half owned
by the government operated Myanmar Timber Enterprise (MTE) and half
owned privately.5 This may be one of the largest captive
elephant populations in the world and its management will have a
significant impact on remaining wild herds in Myanmar.4,6,8
With mortality rates higher than birth rates, the working population is
probably maintained by supplementing it with elephants captured from the
wild.5 There is evidence that continued harvest of wild
elephants may have reduced the remaining wild populations of Myanmar.
Recent surveys of wild populations in two of Myanmar's protected
elephant ranges revealed extremely low dung counts, indicative of small
and declining herds. Constant contact with captive elephants in
Myanmar's forests may exacerbate the threat to Myanmar wild elephants by
increasing the transmission of disease between these two groups. For
both the above reasons, we believe that the conservation of wild
elephants in Myanmar will require significant improvements in the care
and management of currently existing captive populations.
Elephants owned by MTE receive veterinary care from the Burmese
veterinarians that work for the timber company and travel extensively
throughout the country to sites were the elephants are located.1
There is a dire need for veterinary supplies and laboratory capabilities
in the country. Currently, veterinary practices are based on the
extensive field experience of lead MTE veterinarians. However, MTE
veterinarians frequently rely on older published work 3,7 and
would benefit significantly from training that incorporates new insights
into elephant health and new veterinary techniques. Similarly, because
of their close-up experience of elephant health problems in the forests,
MTE veterinarians may be able to make important new contributions to the
care and management of elephants elsewhere.
The overall objective of our study is to work jointly with MTE
veterinarians to develop long-term captive population management
strategies to reduce mortality and increase births in the working timber
elephants and stop the continued off-take of animals from the wild to
supplement captive herds.
Methods
The health component of this study has five major objectives. These are
to:
1 Conduct a training workshop, in conjunction with MTE
veterinarians, on elephant management and veterinary care.
2 Develop protocols so that the MTE veterinarians can
collect samples for reproductive, genetic, and health status
assessments.
3 Analyze samples and provide data to MTE veterinarians to
improve husbandry, preventive care and disease treatment of working
elephants.
4 Develop a comprehensive bibliography of all published
information on the health and management of Myanmar elephants.
5 Perform an epidemiologic evaluation of records available
on the historic and current working elephant population.
Specific steps to achieve these objectives include:
1 Determine causes and rates of morbidity and mortality of
captive MTE elephants.
2 Determine causes of low rates of reproduction in
captivity.
3 Develop a genetic profile of the captive herds.
4 Develop a protocol to assess oozies-Burmese
mahout-expertise in parallel with endocrine and health assessments to
determine quality of care and potentially related stress.
5 Develop small population viability models to assess how
current mortality effects long-term survival of the captive population
and what supplementation from the wild is needed for short- and
long-term sustainability.
6 Use population viability models to demonstrate how
supplementation from the wild will negatively affect that population.
7 Get baseline health parameter data on free-ranging
elephants.
8 Quantify habitat/space use using GPS and satellite
tracking of captive and wild elephants.
Results and Discussion
During an initial exploratory visit in November 2004, we learned that
the annual mortality rate for MTE working elephants was 2.4% (66) in
2003. Deaths occurred in all age groups (>18 yr, n = 40; 4 - 17 yr, n =
11; <4 yr, n = 15) and included preventable diseases (i.e., poor
nutrition, heat stroke, diarrhea, dystocia, infectious and parasitic
agents). Additionally, we collected samples for performing health,
genetic and endocrine analyses of 22 elephants maintained in one of the
working camps (results to be presented). A relationship also was
established with the veterinary staff at the Yangon Zoo, including
follow up donations of veterinary literature and journals to the zoo. We
provided medical advice for the care of an orphaned elephant calf and
other animals housed at the zoo during our brief visit. We are seeking
funds for a training course to be conducted in late 2005 and hope to
perform health evaluations on a larger number of zoo and working
elephants during that visit.
The National Zoo already has an extensive conservation program for wild
elephants in Myanmar.4,6,8 This program has focused on
assessing wild elephant populations in protected areas and
satellite-tracking of four wild elephants to learn more about their
conservation status and ecology in Myanmar. Currently this work is
being extended to a national elephant survey. Part of this work included
collecting fecal samples for genetic and health assessments.
The Smithsonian team of researchers involved in this project
includes a veterinarian, reproduction physiologist, geneticist,
conservation biologist, and landscape ecologist. All members of this
multidisciplinary team have extensive experience working with elephants
and together provide the necessary expertise to study and understand the
numerous factors affecting Myanmar's captive elephants and the long-term
survival of elephants in Myanmar. These challenges range from human
land use and elephant population fragmentation, human-elephant conflict,
poor reproduction and health care of captive elephants and lack of
information on the health status of the wild elephants. A viable
conservation initiative for the elephants of Myanmar requires that
health issues be addressed as one component of a comprehensive program
to address the anthropogenic pressures on both working and wild
elephants.2
The elephants of Myanmar are an excellent example of the fine line
that exists between captive and wild animals, especially as it relates
to health. Captive and wild elephants are regularly in direct and
indirect contact. The working elephants live with their oozies who may
expose them to diseases, such as tuberculosis. The working elephants in
turn may encounter wild elephants at night in the forests where they
forage and live during non-working hours. In fact, the majority of
captive born calves are said to be sired by wild bulls. Potentially,
the use of working elephants in selectively extracting valuable timber
provides new strategies for the conservation of elephants and forests.
Most likely, "elephant-logging" is less damaging than machine-operated
timbering projects that tend to clear-cut areas and also damage the soil
and streams. However, decreasing the negative impact of such practices
(i.e., minimizing off-take of elephants from the wild, decreasing
disease risks to the wild elephants) is imperative.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Aung, T., and T. Nyunt. 2002. The care and management of the
domesticated Asian elephant in Myanmar. In: Baker, I., and M.
Kashio (eds.): Giants on our hands. Proc. Int. Workshop Domesticated
Asian Elephant. Dharmasarn Co., Ltd. Bangkok, Thailand. Pp. 89 - 102.
2 Deem, S.L., W.B. Karesh, and W. Weisman. 2001. Putting theory into
practice: wildlife health in conservation. Conserv. Biol. 5: 1224-1233.
3 Evans, G.H. 1910. Elephants and Their Diseases. Government Printing.
Rangoon. 323
4 Kelly, D.S. 2005. Habitat selection in declining elephant populations
of Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park. Masters Thesis. George Mason
University.
5 Lair, R.C. 1997. Myanmar. In: Gone Astray: The Care and
Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity. FAO Regional Office for
Asia and the Pacific, Thailand. RAP Publication. Pp. 99-131
6 Leimgruber, P., and C. Wemmer. 2004. National elephant symposium and
workshop. Report to the USFWS and the Myanmar Forest Department.
7 Pfaff, G. 1930. Reports on Diseases of Elephants. Government
Printing. Rangoon. 91
8 Wemmer, C., P. Leimgruber and D. S. Kelly. 2005. Managing wild
elephants in Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park and Htamanthi Wildlife
Sanctuary. Report to the USFWS and the Myanmar Forest Department.
Neiffer, D.L.,
Miller, M.A., Weber, M., Stetter, M., Fontenot, D.K., Robbins, P.K., Pye,
G.W., 2005. Standing sedation in African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
using detomidine-butorphanol combinations. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36,
250-256.
Abstract: Standing sedation was provided for 14 clinical procedures in
three African elephants (Loxodonta africana) managed by combined
protected and modified-protected contact and trained through operant
conditioning. An initial hand-injection of detomidine hydrochloride and
butorphanol tartrate at a ratio of 1:1 on a microg:microg basis was
administered intramuscularly, with a dosage range of 50-70 mg (12.9-19.7
microg/kg) for each drug. The initial injection resulted in adequate
sedation for initiation and completion of eight procedures, whereas
supplemental doses were required for the remaining procedures. The
dosage range for the supplemental injections of each drug was 4.0-7.3
microg/kg. Initial effect was noted within 3.0-25 min (mean = 11.6 min,
SD +/- 5.9 min), with maximal effect occurring at 25-30 min for those
procedures not requiring supplementation. In all but one procedure, this
effect was maintained until the end of the procedure, which ranged from
47 to 98 min (mean = 74.7 min, SD +/- 18.8 min). No cardiac or
respiratory depression was appreciated. Recovery after administration of
reversal agents was rapid and complete, ranging from 2 to 20 min (mean =
9.0 min, SD +/- 7.0 min). On the basis of the authors' experience,
recommended dosage ranges for reversal agents would be intravenous
yohimbine (73.4-98.5 microg/kg), intravenous naltrexone (48.9-98.5
microg/kg), and intramuscular naltrexone (73.4-98.5 microg/kg).
Approximately one-third to one-half of the total naltrexone dose should
be administered intravenously. Mild adverse side effects limited to the
gastrointestinal tract were observed in association with five procedures
including abdominal distention with or without transient anorexia.
Administration of reversal agents, encouraging exercise and water
consumption, and administration of flunixin meglumine were helpful in
the resolution of signs. In addition to gastrointestinal signs, slight
ataxia was observed before initiation of surgical stimulation during one
procedure in which 19.7 microg/kg of each drug was administered. On the
basis of the procedures that did not require supplementation to initiate
treatment and taking into consideration the potential for ataxia at
higher doses, a starting dosage range of 14.7-16.2 microg/kg of both
detomidine and butorphanol in a ratio of 1:1 on a microg:microg basis
administered i.m. simultaneously is recommended
Pendlebury,
C., Odongo, N.E., Renjifo, A., Naelitz, J., Valdez, E.V., McBride, B.W.,
2005. Acid-insoluble ash as a measure of dry matter digestibility in
captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24,
261-265.
Abstract: There are limited data on the diet dry matter digestibility (DMD)
of captive African elephants. Although the total fecal collection method
is the standard for determining DMD, it is labor-intensive,
time-consuming, and expensive. The acid-insoluble ash (AIA) marker
technique has been used successfully to determine DMD in ruminants and
monogastrics. The objective of this study was to assess how accurately
the AIA marker technique could estimate the DMD of captive African
elephants (Loxodonta africana). Three mature male African
elephants at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida were used in this study.
The animals were offered a Bermuda grass hay-based ration, and the total
dry matter intake (DMI) and total fecal output were measured daily over
a 7-day period to determine the total collection DMD. The feed
ingredients and fecal samples were also analyzed for AIA. Although
there were differences (P < 0.05) in total DMI and total fecal outputs,
the DMD values did not (P > 0.05) differ (35.1 +/- 0.72 vs. 37.1 +/-
0.72 for total collection and AIA, respectively). There was a linear
(y=0.9461x; R-2 = 0.74) relationship between the total collection and
AIA marker technique DMD values. These results suggest that AIA can be
used to accurately estimate the DMD of captive African elephants.
Suarez, R.K.,
Darveau, C.A., Childress, J.J., 2004. Metabolic scaling: a many-splendoured
thing
656. Comp Biochem. Physiol B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 139, 531-541.
Abstract: Animals at rest and during exercise display rates of aerobic
metabolism, VO2, that represent mainly the sum of mitochondrial
respiration rates in various organs. The relative contributions of these
organs change with physiological state such that internal organs such as
liver, kidney and brain account for most of the whole-body VO2 at rest,
while locomotory muscles account for >90% of the maximum rate, VO2max,
during maximal aerobic exercise. Mechanisms that regulate VO2 are
complex and the relative importance of each step in a series, estimated
by metabolic control analysis, depends upon the level of biological
organization under consideration as well as physiological state. Despite
this complexity, prominent single-cause models propose that metabolic
rates are supply-limited and that the scaling of supply systems provides
a sufficient explanation for the allometric scaling of metabolism. We
argue that some assumptions, as well as current interpretations of the
meaning (or consequences) of these constraints are flawed, i.e.,
elephants do not have lower mass-specific basal or maximal rates of
aerobic metabolism because their mitochondria are more supply-limited
than those of shrews. Animals do not violate the laws of physics, and
the allometric scaling of supply systems would be expected, to some
extent, to be matched by capacities for (and rates of) energy
expenditure. But life is not so simple. Animals are so diverse that to
do justice to metabolic scaling, it is also necessary to consider the
scaling of energy expenditure. It is by doing so that models of
metabolic scaling can be consistent with current paradigms in metabolic
regulation and accommodate the range of inter- and intraspecific
exponents found in nature. The "allometric cascade," a first attempt at
such an accounting, was a source of great satisfaction to Peter
Hochachka. It was the last door that he helped open to comparative
physiologists before he said goodbye
Clauss, M.,
Frey, R., Kiefer, B., Lechner-Doll, M., Loehlein, W., Polster, C.,
Rossner, G.E., Streich, W.J., 2003. The maximum attainable body size of
herbivorous mammals: morphophysiological constraints on foregut, and
adaptations of hindgut fermenters. Oecologia 136, 14-27.
Abstract: An oft-cited nutritional advantage of large body size is that
larger animals have lower relative energy requirements and that, due to
their increased gastrointestinal tract (GIT) capacity, they achieve
longer ingesta passage rates, which allows them to use forage of lower
quality. However, the fermentation of plant material cannot be optimized
endlessly; there is a time when plant fibre is totally fermented, and
another when energy losses due to methanogenic bacteria become punitive.
Therefore, very large herbivores would need to evolve adaptations for a
comparative acceleration of ingesta passage. To our knowledge, this
phenomenon has not been emphasized in the literature to date. We propose
that, among the extant herbivores, elephants, with their comparatively
fast passage rate and low digestibility coefficients, are indicators of
a trend that allowed even larger hindgut fermenting mammals to exist.
The limited existing anatomical data on large hindgut fermenters
suggests that both a relative shortening of the GIT, an increase in GIT
diameter, and a reduced caecum might contribute to relatively faster
ingesta passage; however, more anatomical data is needed to verify these
hypotheses. The digestive physiology of large foregut fermenters
presents a unique problem: ruminant-and nonruminant-forestomachs were
designed to delay ingesta passage, and they limit food intake as a side
effect. Therefore, with increasing body size and increasing absolute
energy requirements, their relative capacity has to increase in order to
compensate for this intake limitation. It seems that the foregut
fermenting ungulates did not evolve species in which the intake-limiting
effect of the foregut could be reduced, e.g. by special bypass
structures, and hence this digestive model imposed an intrinsic body
size limit. This limit will be lower the more the natural diet enhances
the ingesta retention and hence the intake-limiting effect. Therefore,
due to the mechanical characteristics of grass, grazing ruminants cannot
become as big as the largest browsing ruminant. Ruminants are not absent
from the very large body size classes because their digestive physiology
offers no particular advantage, but because their digestive physiology
itself intrinsically imposes a body size limit. We suggest that the
decreasing ability for colonic water absorption in large grazing
ruminants and the largest extant foregut fermenter, the hippopotamus,
are an indication of this limit, and are the outcome of the competition
of organs for the available space within the abdominal cavity. Our
hypotheses are supported by the fossil record on extinct ruminant/tylopod
species which did not, with the possible exception of the Sivatheriinae,
surpass extant species in maximum body size. In contrast to foregut
fermentation, the GIT design of hindgut fermenters allows adaptations
for relative passage acceleration, which explains why very large extinct
mammalian herbivores are thought to have been hindgut fermenters.
Institute of Animal Physiology, Physiological Chemistry and Animal
Nutrition, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Veterinaerstrasse 13, 80539,
Munich, Germany. clauss@tiph.vetmed.uni-muenchen.de
Gage, L.,
Schmitt, D. Dystocia in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).
Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet. 88. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: A 24-yr-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was
inseminated on 12/2/00 and again on 12/4/00. Pregnancy was confirmed on
1/21/01 with an ultrasound evaluation, and elevated progesterone levels
of over a twelve to sixteen week period supported the diagnosis. The
pregnancy progressed without complication. Ultrasounds confirmed calf
growth and movement throughout the pregnancy. On 10/5/02, 673 days
post-insemination, the cow passed the mucous plug in the evening. The
chorio-allantois ruptured shortly after that. There were a few modest
contractions over a period of about three hours, which then ceased.
Fetal front feet could be palpated in the birth canal, just into the
cranial pelvis. Fetal circulation was confirmed using color doppler
ultrasound of the fetal extremities. Oxytocin was administered on
10/6/02. The first two doses resulted in a few good contractions.
Fetal feet entered further into the pelvis, and fetal viability was
confirmed again with color doppler ultrasound. Oxytocin was administered
three more times resulting in a few small contractions and some
stretching. One dose of 110 IU Oxytocin resulted in one large
contraction, subsequent doses of oxytocin did not yield any appreciable
additional efforts. That evening while walking the elephant, the
amniotic sac broke releasing several liters of fluid. Blood was drawn
and serum chemistries were within normal range. On 10/7/02 the uterus
did not respond to oxytocin. Color doppler ultrasound of the fetal legs
revealed no discernable fetal circulation. Antibiotics and supportive
care were initiated. For the next week the feet were easily palpated
within the pelvis. For the several days the elephant was stiff and
moderately depressed. Her appetite was good and she was drinking water.
The elephant was given another dose of oxytocin on 10/15/02, which
resulted in a few moderate contractions, but no progress was made in
delivering the calf. The next day the elephant seemed more depressed
and uncomfortable. Her appetite and water intake were markedly reduced
and within two days she exhibited what appeared to be abdominal pain.
The elephant was treated aggressively with antibiotics and fluids for
several weeks. Severe peritonitis was confirmed during a laparoscopic
procedure and the elephant was euthanized. The post-mortem examination
revealed a tear in the uterus and a normal-sized fetus in normal
presentation in the birth canal. The fetus however was abnormal and had
arthrogryposis affecting all four limbs to varying degrees. Both rear
limbs of the fetus were particularly affected and the joints of those
limbs were bent in an abnormal way, anchoring the fetus inside the dam.
The arthrogryposis of the calf was likely the cause of the dystocia, and
was likely the contributing factor to the tear in the uterus.
Kashid, K.P.,
Shrikhande, G.B., Bhojne, G.R., 2003. Incidence of gastro-intestinal
helminths in captive wild animals at different locations. Zoos' Print
Journal 18, 1053-1054.
Abstract: The faecal samples of various species of wild and zoo animals
in six different locations in India were analysed for the presence of
gastrointestinal helminths. The percentages of infection for the tigers,
leopards, elephants, monkeys, spotted deer, lions, peacocks, geese and
ducks, kaka-kuas and other animals are given. The isolated worms
included Amphistoma, strongyles, Trichuris spp., Moniezia spp.,
Ascaridia galli, Toxascaris leonina, Raillietina tetragona, Paragonimus
westermani, Filaroides osleri [Oslerus osleri], F. hirthi, Ascaridia
galli + R. tetragona, Taenia taeniaeformis, Trichuris + P. westermani
and Ascaridia galli + Subulura spp.
Kongsila, A.,
Thongtip, N., Yatbantung, N. Oesophageal obstruction (choke) in Asiatic
elephant (Elephas maximus): case report. Proceedings of 41st Kasetsart
University Annual Conference, 3-7 February, 2003. 678-683. 2003.
Kasetsart University; Bangkok; Thailand.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Manna, S.,
2003. Enteritis and it's treatment in an Asian elephant. Zoos' Print
Journal 18, 1130.
Steenkamp,
G., 2003. Oral biology and disorders of tusked mammals. Veterinary Clin
North Am Exot Anim Pract. 6, 689-725.
Abstract: Tusked mammals can be terrestrial or aquatic. Many of these
magnificent animals are kept in captivity all over the world. Functions
of tusks vary as much as the species in which they occur. Dental
anomalies and disorders of tusks and the rest of the dentition in these
mammals were discussed, with an emphasis on the elephant. The tusk
anatomy, with its large, conically-shaped pulp, makes it an ideal tooth
for partial pulpectomy treatment in trauma cases where the pulp is
exposed. Surgical techniques for tusks have been developed and were
discussed. Oral tumors occur, but are rare.Department of Companion
Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of
Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0010, South Africa. steenkamp@op.up.ac.za
Yamada, M.,
Nakamura, K., Nozaki, H., Tanaka, H., 2003. Hepatocellular endoplasmic
reticulum storage disease in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). J
Comp Pathol 128, 192-194.
Abstract: Large intracytoplasmic inclusions were observed in hepatocytes
of a 7-year-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana). The inclusions
were oval to polyhedral with either a homogeneous glassy or a granular
appearance. They were positive for the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)
reaction. Electron microscopical examination revealed that the
inclusions consisted of granular material with moderate electron-density
and were membrane-bounded. The findings suggested that the inclusions
were derived from endoplasmic reticulum. The light and electron
microscopical features were similar to those of endoplasmic reticulum
storage disease of the liver in man. Such inclusions have not previously
been reported in animals. National Institute of Animal Health, Kannondai,
Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan.
2002. Large
Animal Internal Medicine. Mosby, St.Louis.
Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Elephant - an overview. Journal of Indian
Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 8-11.
Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Specific diseases of Asian elephants. Journal
of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 31-34.
Abstract: The earliest writing describing the diseases of elephants in
ancient literature said to be the works on "Gajasastra" (Elephantology)
written in Sanskrit by authors like Gautama, Narada, Mrigacharma,
Rajaputra and Vyasa. "Hasthyayurveda" a legendary book in Sanskrit
written by a safe Palakapya deals with some diseases, treatment,
desirable and undesirable points of selection, management practices and
some mythological aspects on the origin of elephants. The earliest book
in English dealing with diseases of elephants seems to be that of W.
Gilchrist "A practical treatise on the treatment of diseases of
elephants" published in 1848. Later Slym (1873), Sanderson (1878), Steel
(1885), Evans (1910), Herpburn (1913), Milroy (1922), Ptaff (1940),
Ferrier (1947), Utoke Gale (1974), Chandrasekharan (1979) and Panicker
(1985) have documented their findings on the incidence, etiology and
control of diseases of Asian elephants.
Cheeran, J.V.,
Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 2002. Tranquilization and
translocation of elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association
Kerala 7, 42-46.
Gracenea, M.,
Gomez, M.S., Torres, J., Carne, E., Fernandez-Moran, J., 2002.
Transmission dynamics of Cryptosporidium in primates and herbivores at
the Barcelona zoo: a long-term study. Vet Parasitol 104, 19-26.
Abstract: Factors influencing the transmission of Cryptosporidium in
primates and herbivores housed at the Barcelona zoo have been analyzed.
The relationship between continuous and discontinuous oocyst shedding,
both animal housing conditions and abiotic factors (seasonality,
humidity, temperature) was examined to explain the epizootiology of the
protozoan. Thirty six fecal samples from each of 11 primates (Pongidae,
Cebidae, Cercopithecidae and Lemuridae) and 22 herbivores (Elephantidae,
Camelidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae and Bovidae) were examined over the
period of 1 year. The parasite transmission was based on the chronic
infection status of some animals serving as a source of successive
reinfection for other animals. The environmental temperature and
humidity (seasonality), the physical features of the facilities, the
vicinity of the animals and the physiological status induced by
captivity contributed to transmission. The long-term character of this
study was essential for obtaining these results and interpreting the
complex relationships.
Naveen, P.K.,
2002. Homeopathy in elephant practice. Journal of Indian Veterinary
Association Kerala 7, 52.
Pearson,
E.G., 2002. Diseases of the hepatobiliary system. In: Smith, B.P. (Ed.),
Large Animal Internal Medicine. Mosby, St.Louis, pp. 790-795.
Sharma, K.K.,
Choudhury, B.D., Sarma, M., 2002. Lingual thrush in a hand reared
elephant (E.maximus) calf. Wildlife Information Bulletin, vii,
53-54.
Bacciarini,
L.N., Pagan, O., Frey, J., Grone, A., 2001. Clostridium perfringens
beta2-toxin in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana)with ulcerative
enteritis. Vet Rec 149, 618-620.
Abstract: A 22-year-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
developed diarrhea of unknown cause which lasted for two days. The
animal was euthanized after it remained recumbent and refused to get up.
Gross pathological changes were present mainly in the gastrointestinal
tract. The intestinal contents were watery and dark brown. Several areas
of the mucosa of the small intestine were covered minimally to
moderately with fibrin and had a few 0.1 x 10 to 15 cm linear
ulcerations. Microscopical lesions consisted of discrete areas of
necrosis of the surface and crypt epithelium without overt inflammatory
infiltrates. Culture of the small intestinal contents resulted in a
moderate growth of Clostridium perfringens. No salmonella were found in
the small or large intestine. PCR of the isolate of C. perfringens
revealed the presence of the beta2-toxin gene cpb2 and the alpha-toxin
gene cpa but no other known toxin genes. The expression of the
beta2-toxin gene in vivo was demonstrated by the immunohistochemical
localization of the beta2-toxin to the microscopical lesions in the
small intestine.
Clauss, M.
Tannins in the Nutrition of Wild Animals. A Research Update on Elephants
and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research
Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 251. 2001. Vienna, Austria,
Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Loehlein, W.,
Kienzle, E., Wiesner, H., Clauss, M. Investigations on the Use of
Chromium Oxide as an Inert, External Marker in Captive Asian Elephants (Elephas
maximus): Passage and Recovery Rates. A Research Update on Elephants
and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research
Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 250. 2001. Vienna, Austria,
Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Raman, M.,
Jayathangaraj, M.G., Malik, P.K., 2001. In vitro survivability of
strongylid larvae of elephants. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 71,
1043-1044.
Abstract: Under laboratory conditions, larvae of Murshidia sp. revealed
high motility until 4 months and maintained moderate motility until 7
months. In comparison, larvae of Quilonia sp. and Decrusia sp. displayed
a high degree of motility during the first 2 months, but this
subsequently declined. These observations suggest that, under in vitro
conditions, strongylid larvae from captive Asiatic elephants of the
Chennai region may survive for 4 to 7 months.
Rasmussen,
L.E.L., 2001. Source and cyclic release pattern of (Z)-7-dodecenyl
acetate, the pre-ovulatory pheromone of the female Asian elephant.
Chemical Senses 26, 611-623.
Abstract: Female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) release a pre-ovulatory
urinary pheromone, (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate (Z7-12:Ac), to signal males
of their readiness to mate. Z7-12:Ac is quantitatively elevated during
the follicular stage of oestrus, reaching maximum concentrations just
prior to ovulation, as demonstrated by two complementary headspace
techniques: (1) evacuated canister capture followed by cryogenic
trapping and (2) solid phase microextraction (SPME) used prior to gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). These patterns were coincident
with observed male behaviours and were consistent with biochemical and
binding properties of the active ligand, including optimal binding pH.
To release maximum amounts of Z7-12:Ac for quantitation, serum and urine
samples from three mature female Asian elephants in their luteal and
follicular stages of several oestrous cycles were subjected to heat and
pH changes and were then treated with protease prior to SPME-GC/MS
analyses. When the post-luteal serum progesterone concentrations
declined to baseline levels, Z7-12:Ac became detectable in the female
urine. Throughout the follicular stage, pheromone concentrations
increased linearly with no apparent relationship to the two serum
luteinizing hormone peaks. Pre-ovulatory urine also contained related
compounds, including (Z)-7-12-dodecenol. The relative amount of this
alcohol increased relative to acetate during long-term storage, with a
proportional reduction in bioactivity. Z7-12:Ac was not detected in
mucus samples from the urogenital tract. A potential precursor of
Z7-12:Ac was identified in liver homogenates from female elephants in
the follicular stage. Erratum in: Chem Senses 2001 Sep;26(7):935
Urashima, T.,
Saito, T., Nakamura, T., Messer, M., 2001. Oligosaccharides of milk and
colostrum in non-human mammals. Glycoconj J 18, 357-371.
Abstract: Mammalian milk or colostrum usually contains, in addition to
lactose, a variety of neutral and acidic oligosaccharides. Although the
oligosaccharides of human milk have been reviewed in several recent
publications, those of non-human mammals have received much less
attention. This paper reviews the chemical structures and the variety of
milk oligosaccharides in species other than humans, including placental
mammals (e.g. primates, domestic herbivores, bears and other carnivores,
the rat and the elephant) as well as monotremes (platypus and echidna)
and marsupials (e.g. wallaby). The gastrointestinal digestion and
absorption and the possible biological functions of these
oligosaccharides are
also discussed.
Kudo, S.,
Ishizaki, T., 1999. Pharmacokinetics of Haloperidol, An update. Clin.
Pharmacokinet 37, 435-456.
Abstract: Haloperidol is commonly used in the therapy of patients with
acute and chronic schizophrenia. The enzymes involved in the
biotransformation of haloperidol include cytochrome P450 (CYP), carbonyl
reductase and uridine diphosphoglucose glucuronosyltransferase. The
greatest proportion of the intrinsic hepatic clearance of haloperidol is
by glucuronidation, followed by the reduction of haloperidol to reduced
haloperidol and by CYP-medicated oxidation. In studies of CYP-medicated
disposition in vitro, CYP3A4 appears to be the major isoform
responsible for the metabolism of haloperidol in humans. The intrinsic
clearances of the back-oxidation of reduced haloperidol to the parent
compound, oxidative N-dealkylation and pyridinium formation are
of the same order of magnitude, suggesting that the same enzyme system
is responsible for the 3 reactions. Large variation in the catalytic
activity was observed in the CYP-medicated reactions, whereas there
appeared to be only small variations in the glucuronidation and carbonyl
reduction pathways. Haloperidol is a substrate of CYP3A4 and an
inhibitor of CYP2D6. Pharmacokinectic interactions occur between
haloperidol and various drugs given concomitantly, for example,
carbamazepine, phenytoin, phenobarbital, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine,
nefazodone, venlafaxine, buspirone, alprazolam, rifampicin (rifampin),
quinidine and carteolol. Overall, drug interaction studies have
suggested that CYP3A4 is involved in the biotransformation of
haloperidol in humans. Interactions of haloperidol with most drugs lead
to only small changes in plasma haloperidol concentrations, suggesting
that the interactions have little clinical significance. On the other
hand, the coadministration of carbamazepine, phenytoin, Phenobarbital,
rifampicin or quinidine affects the pharmacokinectics of haloperidol to
an extent that alterations in clinical consequences would be expected.
In vivo pharmacogenetic studies have indicated that the
metabolism and disposition of haloperidol may be regulated by
genetically determined polymorphic CYP2D6 activity. However, these
findings appear to contradict those from studies in vitro with
human liver microsomes and from studies of drug interactions in vivo.
Interethnic and pharmacogenetic differences in haloperidol metabolism
may explain these observations.
Savage, C.J.,
1999. Diseases of the Liver. In: Colahan, P.T., Merritt, A.M., Moore,
J.N., Mayhew, I.G. (Eds.), Equine Medicine and Surgery. Mosby, St. Louis
MO USA, pp. 816-833.
Bhat, M.N.,
Manickam, R., 1998. Coproculture and demonstration of third stage larvae
of Murshidia sp. in elephants (Elephas maximus). Indian Veterinary
Journal 75, 1140-1142.
Matsuo, K.,
Hayashi, S., Kamiya, M., 1998. Parasitic infections of Sumatran elephant
in the Way Kambas National Park, Indonesia. Japanese Journal of Zoo and
Wildlife Medicine 3, 95-100.
Abstract: In 1995, 3 Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus)
died suddenly of clostridial infection in the Way Kambas National Park,
Lampung province, Indonesia. Postmortem examination revealed that the
gastrointestinal tracts of all 3 animals were also infected with
Murshidia falcifera (Nematoda), Hawkesius hawkesi and Pfenderius
papillatus (Digenea) and Cobboldia elephantis (Diptera). The elephant
louse, Haematomyzus elephantis, was a common cause of dermatopathy in
elephants kept in the national park.
Islam, S.,
1997. Studies on some aspects of fascioliasis in Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus). Journal of Veterinary Parasitology 11, 109.
Abstract: Summary of abstract: The epidemiology of Fasciola jacksoni in
wild and captive elephants (Elephas maximus) was studied in Assam,
India. Wild elephants had an overall prevalence rate of 33.78%. Captive
elephants showed prevalence rates of 42.50, 62.28 and 18.18% according
to locality. The egg, miracidium and adult stages of F. jacksoni were
studied by light and scanning electron microscopy, and their morphology
is described. A diurnal fluctuation in faecal egg count was recorded,
with average counts of 4.89, 2.47 and 2.76 during the morning, noon and
evening, respectively. Young animals were most affected by the parasite
and showed anorexia, constipation, diarrhea, anaemia and icterus, with
death occurring in severe cases. Some old adults survived the disease
with no apparent clinical manifestations. The adult parasites caused
massive liver damage. Treatment with triclabendazole (9 mg/kg, not
exceeding 7200 mg/animal) and oxyclozanide (7.5 mg/kg, not exceeding 6.8
g/animal) were 100 and 72.16% effective, respectively.
Krzywicki,
Z., 1997. A case of indigestion in an elephant. Magazyn Weterynaryjny 6,
48-50.
Majewska, A.C.,
Kasprzak, W., Werner, A., 1997. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium in mammals
housed in Poznan Zoological Garden, Poland. Acta Parasitologica 42,
195-198.
Abstract: At the Zoological Garden in Poznan, Poland, 66 stool specimens
from animals belonging to 40 species of 4 orders (Primates, Proboscidea,
Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla) were examined for Cryptosporidium
oocysts. Cryptosporidium oocysts were observed in 7 of 66 (9.1%) faecal
samples obtained from 6 different animal species. This is the first
report of C. parvum in a lesser slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus), white
rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) and
Thorold's deer (Cervus albirostris). The remaining
Cryptosporidium-positive faecal specimens were collected from Japanese
macaque (Macaca fuscata) and Eld's deer (Cervus eldi).
Matsuo, K.,
Suprahman, H., 1997. Some parasites from Sumatran elephants in
Indonesia. Journal of the Helminthological Society of Washington 64,
298-299.
Abstract: Three Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) in Way
Kambas National Park, Indonesia, that died of clostridiosis were
infected with 1 species of nematode (Murshida falcifera), 2 trematodes (Hawkesius
hawkesi and Pfenderius papillatus), and 1 larval botfly species (Cobboldia
elephantis) in the gastrointestinal tract. This is the first report of
H. hawkesi, P. papillatus and C. elephantis infection in Sumatran
elephants in Indonesia.
Saidul, I.,
1997. Studies on some aspects of fascioliasis in Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus). Journal of Veterinary Parasitology 11, 109.
Timoshenko,
O., Imai, S., 1997. Three new intestinal protozoan species of the genus
Latteuria n.g. (Ciliophora: Trichostomatia) from Asian and African
elephants. Parasitology International 46, 297-303.
Abstract: Three new ciliate species presumed to belong to the family
Paraisotrichidae were recovered from faecal samples from Asian and
African elephants (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana) in Kiev,
Moscow and Warsaw zoos. As all the ciliates have a unique but similar
arrangement of somatic ciliature, a new genus Latteuria gen. nov. was
erected. The genus is characterized by the presence of a tapered frontal
"spout" at the anterior end of the body, posterior ciliary rows in
narrow grooves encircling the posterior half of the body and an anterior
arch of cilia. L. polyfaria sp. nov. (type species) from Loxodonta
africana in Moscow Zoo is the largest species in the genus with 9-11
posterior ciliary rows. In L. media sp. nov. from E. maximus in Kiev
Zoo, of medium body size, the number of rows varies from 4 to 6, and the
smallest species, L. trifaria sp. nov. from Loxodonta africana in Moscow
Zoo, has only 3-4 posterior ciliary rows.
Parrott, J.J.
Analysis of African elephant mature milk in early lactation and
formulation of an elephant calf milk replacer. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.
102-111. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Mature milk samples (n=5) were collected from one African
elephant (Loxodonta africana) during early lactation for analysis of
nutrient composition. Total solids averaged 11.32% and were
significantly lower than previously reported for African elephants.
Lactose averaged 2.79% (24.6% dry matter basis), which was also
significantly lower than previously reported and indicates African
elephants are a low-to-moderate lactose species. Bovine milk contains
1.5-2 times this level, and human milk replacers contain 2.5 times this
level of lactose on a dry matter basis. This could represent a
significant cause of diarrhea when human milk replacers are used in
African elephant calves. Milk fat averaged 4.38% (39% dry matter basis)
and ranged from 3.51-5.32%. Protein levels averaged 2.3% (20% dry matter
basis). Ash levels averaged 0.53% (4.7% dry matter basis). Vitamin A
levels ranged from 28-171 IU/100 g (249-1361 IU/100 g dry matter basis)
and vitamin D ranged from 22-69.8 IU/100 g (196-693 IU/100 g dry matter
basis). Vitamin E ranged from 0.33-0.88 µg/ml, with the cow supplemented
on a diet of 8,000 IU per day. Calcium levels averaged 37.8 mg/100 g
(334 mg/100 g) and ranged from 28-43 mg/100 g (257-431 mg/100 g dry
matter basis); phosphorus averaged 18.8 mg/100 g (166 mg/100 g dry
matter basis) and ranged from 15.9-20.8 mg/100 g (143- 204 mg/100 g dry
matter basis). The calcium:phosphorus ratio averaged approximately 2:1.
An African elephant calf milk replacer was formulated based on the
mature milk analysis of early lactation. The general makeup included:
total solids (11.5%), fat (5%), lactose (2.5%), protein (3.3%), ash
(0.52%), calcium (65 mg/100 g), phosphorus (42 mg/100 g), vitamin A (75
IU/100 g) and vitamin D (46 IU/100 g). Vitamin E is supplemented
separately as 2 IU/kg body weight micellized natural tocopherol (Stuart
Products) to insure bioavailability. The milk replacer is produced
starting with bovine skim milk powder and bovine whey protein
concentrate, mixed to provide the milk proteins necessary in the milk
replacer. Fat is then added using a fat premix and coconut oil (coconut
oil is approximately 25% of the total fat supplied). A mixture of
mineral and vitamin premix completes the formula. The final formulation
maintained lactose on the low end of the milk analysis range (20-26% dry
matter basis), to minimize the risk of a lactose-induced diarrhea.
Protein and fat were maintained at the high end or slightly above the
range in the milk analysis to accommodate the lower lactose and still
maintain a total solids of approximately 11.5%.
Van Aswegen,
G., Van Noorden, S., Kotze, S.H., de Vos, V., Schoeman, J.H., 1996. The
intestine and endocrine pancreas of the African elephant: a
histological, immunocytochemical and immunofluorescence study.
Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 63, 335-340.
Abstract: Histological, immunocytochemical and immunofluorescence
methods were employed to study the intestine and endocrine pancreas of
the elephant. The histological findings were in line with those in
monogastric animals. In the mucosa of intestine, endocrine cells were
immunoreactive to somatostatin, gastrin, CCK, GIP, secretin, motilin,
glucagon and NPY. Nerve cells immunoreactive to somatostatin, substance
P, VIP, PHI, NPY, bombesin and CGRP were detected. No immunoreactivity
to neurotensin was observed. Islets of the pancreas had insulin cells in
their cores and glucagon and somatostatin cells in their mantles. The
antisera employed failed to demonstrate PP cells in the pancreas, but
NPY-immunoreactive cells were present.
Warren, K.,
Bolton, J., Swan, R., Gaynor, W., Pond, L., 1996. Treatment of
gastrointestinal tract impaction of a 2-year-old Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus). Australian Veterinary Journal 73, 37-38.
Abstract: The case of a 2-year-old Asian elephant (E. maximus) with
gastrointestinal impaction caused by ingesting sand and clay is
reported. The sand was the basic substrate of the elephant's enclosure
at Perth Zoo, Australia, and the clay had been added as a top-dressing.
The behaviour was thought to have been the result of salt deficiency in
the elephant's diet, and once this had been rectified and the impaction
treated, she stopped ingesting sand. There were 3 other elephants in the
enclosure and although they ingested sand, they did not suffer from
impaction. Segments of Anaoplocephalus sp. [Anoplocephala sp.] were
found in her faeces, and this infection had probably been picked up from
a 36-year-old elephant in the enclosure which was known to be infected.
Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., Cheeran, J.V., Nair, K.N.M.,
Prabhakaran, T., 1995. Review of the Incidence, Etiology and Control of
Common Diseases of Asian Elephants with Special Reference to Kerala. In:
Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the
International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History
Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 439-449.
Abstract: Incidence, etiology, symptoms and control of specific and
non-specific diseases of captive and wild elephants have been reviewed.
Asian elephants have been observed to be susceptible to various
parasitic diseases such as helminthiasis, trypanosomiasis and
ectoparasitic infestations, bacterial diseases such as tetanus,
tuberculosis, haemorrhagic septicemia, salmonellosis and anthrax, viral
diseases such as foot and mouth disease, pox and rabies and non-specific
diseases like impaction of colon, foot rot and corneal opacity. A
detailed study extending over two decades on captive and wild elephants
in Kerala, revealed high incidence of helminthiasis (285), ectoparasitic
infestation (235), impaction of colon (169) and foot rot (125). Diseases
such as trypanosomiasis (21), tetanus (8), tuberculosis (5) pox (2) and
anthrax (1) were also encountered. The line of treatment against the
diseases mentioned, have been discussed in detail.
Coetzee,
H.L., Kotze, S.H., Lourens, N., 1995. Characterization of mucus
glycoproteins in the intestinal mucosa of the African elephant
(Loxodonta africana) following lectin histochemistry. Onderstepoort
Journal of Veterinary Research 62, 187-192.
Abstract: The glycoproteins of the small intestines, caecum and colon of
three adult elephants and one recently weaned elephant calf were
examined by means of lectin histochemistry. Tissue sections were
histochemically stained with peroxidase-labelled concanavalin A (Con A),
asparagus-pea (TPA), peanut (PNA) and wheat-germ (WGA) lectins. Con A
and TPA showed no binding activity in the intestinal tract of the adult
elephants or the duodenum and ileum of the elephant calf, but did show a
small amount of binding activity in the caecum and colon of the calf.
WGA bound very intensely throughout the intestinal tracts of the adults
and of the calf--especially with the goblet cells located in the crypts
of Lieberkuhn and the glands of Brunner--decreasing in intensity towards
the luminal surface of the intestinal tract. PNA stained the glands of
Brunner of the duodenum faintly and the goblet cells of the ileum
moderately, with no staining of the caecum and faint staining of the
colon. These results show the distribution of Con A-, WGA-, PNA- and TPA-binding
sites, and the changes that take place in the type of glycoprotein
secreted after a change in the diet of the animal.
Krishnamurthy, V., Wemmer, C. Veterinary Care of Asian Timber Elephants
in India: Historical Accounts and Current Observations. 534. 1995.
Bombay, India, Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press.
Ref Type: Abstract
Modi, G.S.,
Prasad, B.N., Sinha, A.K., Sinha, B.K., 1995. Parasitic infections in
herbivorous zoo animals. Indian Journal of Veterinary Research 4,
45-50.
Abstract: Parasites were detected in 49 of 105 faecal samples collected
from zoo animals in India including elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus,
mithun, nilgai, sambar, black-buck, spotted deer, capped langoor, golden
langur, common langur, and gibbon. The common parasites identified were
Ascaris, Ancylostoma, Oesophagostomum, Trichuris, Strongyloides,
Fasciola, Paramphistomum, Coccidia and Entamoeba. 11 of 19 faecal
samples obtained from animal keepers/attendants were positive for either
Ascaris lumbricoides, Ancylostoma duodenale, Trichuris trichiura,
Hymenolepis nana, Entamoeba coli, E. histolytica or Giardia lamblia [G.
duodenalis].
Raubenheimer,
E.J., van Heerden, W.F., van Niekerk, P.J., de Vos, V., Turner, M.J.,
1995. Morphology of the deciduous tusk (tush) of the African elephant
(Loxodonta africana). Arch Oral Biol 40, 571-576.
Abstract: The tusk of the African elephant is preceded by a deciduous
tooth generally known as the tush. Tushes from nine elephant fetuses and
six calves younger than 1 year were exposed by dissection and described
morphologically. All tushes consisted of a crown, root and pulpal
cavity, the formation of which is completed soon after birth. They
reached a maximum length of 5 cm, appeared not to erupt through the skin
and were pushed aside and resorbed during enlargement of the distally
located primordium of the tusk. Dental enamel, which covered the crown,
could easily be removed and consisted of rods with an interwoven
arrangement; the dentine-enamel junction was flat. Cellular cementum
extended for variable distances over the crown and the dentine was
tubular in nature. Although the tush apparently has no function, it
provides the anlage and orientation for the development of its permanent
successor.
Timoshenko,
O., Imai, S., 1995. Eleven new ciliate species of the genus Triplumaria
(Ciliophora, Entodiniomorphida) from Asian elephant, Elephas maximus and
African elephant, Loxodonta africana. Journal of Protozoology Research 5,
157-175.
Abstract: Intestinal ciliate compositions in faecal samples from 3
zoo-kept Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) (Kiev and Moscow zoo and
Berlin Tierpark) and 1 African elephant (Loxodonta africana) (Moscow
zoo) were examined. The elephants had all been born in the wild. Eleven
new ciliate species belonging to the genus Triplumaria are described.
Four of the new species possessed honeycomb-like thick skeletal plates
and broad linear skeletons which were present in T. hamertonii (type
species) and T. selenica. The anterior location of the micronuclei in T.
selenica also occurred in these 4 new species. However, 2 species
possessed long macronuclei with the posterior end either curved
ventrally (T. longinucleata n. sp.), or straight and extended into the
tail lobe (T. nucleocaudata n.sp.). T. asiatica n. sp. had 2 bulb-like
and one cylindrical caudalia; hill-like caudalia of T. heterofasciculata
n. sp. were clearly characteristic in size. Six new species possessed
thin light skeletal plates and slender linear skeletons which showed
vertebra-like structure; T. antis n. sp. was small in body size and had
a micronucleus in the centre of the macronucleus, whereas the other
species had micronuclei located anteriorly; T. doliiformis n. sp. was
characterized by an anteriorly hooked macronucleus; T. acuticaudata n.
sp. had a triangular tail lobe; T. dvoinosi n. sp. possessed antero-dorsal
and ventral caudalia directed up and downward. The antero-dorsal
caudalium of T. ovina n. sp. was shifted upwards and the ventral
caudalium of T. irregularis n. sp. was shifted to the left. T.
poljanskii n. sp. was characterized by a combination of heavy
honeycomb-like skeletal plate, vertebra-like linear skeleton and the
posterior location of the micronucleus. T. acuticaudata and T.
nucleocaudata were identified in Loxodonta africana, whereas the
remaining 9 species were identified in Elephas maximus.
1994.
Veterinary Laboratory Medicine. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.
Kotze, S.H.,
Coetzee, H.L., 1994. A histocytochemical study of mucus glycoproteins or
mucins in the intestinal tract of the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 61,
177-181.
Abstract: The distribution of neutral mucins, sialomucins and
sulphomucins was determined histochemically in the duodenum, jejunum,
ileum and colon of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). The
techniques used were periodic acid-Schiff (PAS), alcian blue/periodic
acid-Schiff (AB-PAS), high-iron-diamine/alcian blue (HID-AB), alcian
blue at varying pH solutions and alcian blue at high temperature after
methylation and saponification. Acid mucins appear to dominate neutral
mucins, the latter decreasing toward the large intestine. Sulphomucins
and sialomucins occurred in almost equal amounts throughout the
intestinal tract, with a slight decrease of sialomucins toward the
colon.
Shoshani, J.,
1994. Skeletal and other basic anatomical features of elephants. In:
Shoshani, J., Tassy, P. (Eds.), The proboscidea: evolution and
paleoecology of elephants and their relatives. Oxford University Press,
Oxford, pp. 9-20.
Singh, K.P.,
Srivastava, V.K., Prasad, A., Pandey, A.P., 1994. Pathology due to
Fasciola jacksoni in Indian elephants (Elephas indicus). Indian Journal
of Animal Sciences 64, 802-804.
Abstract: F. jacksoni recovered from infected liver and lungs were
almost round, pear-shaped measuring 10-16 mm in length and 8.5-14 mm in
width with ill-defined cephalic end between indistinct shoulders. The
intestine was extensively branched. The yellowish tinged ova were oval
with an operculum at one end and measured 0.112-0.160 (mean 0.13) mm in
length and 0.054-0.096 (mean 0.07) mm in width. Infected liver showed
haemorrhagic tracts, thickening of bile ductules, cirrhotic changes and
pseudolobulations. In the lungs, the bronchial lumen contained
desquamated cells admixed with fibrinohaemorrhagic exudate.
Van-Aswegen,
G., Schoeman, J.H., De-Vos, V., Van-Noorden, S., 1994. The oesophagus
and stomach of the African elephant: a histological, immunocytochemical
and immunofluorescence study. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary
Research 61, 223-229.
Abstract: Histological, immunocytochemical and immunofluorescence
methods were employed to study the oesophagus and stomach of the
elephant. The histological findings were similar to those in monogastric
species like pigs and humans. In the mucosa of the stomach, endocrine
cells were immunoreactive to gastrin, somatostatin, chromogranin A and
serotonin. Nerve cells immunoreactive to somatostatin, bombesin, VIP,
PHI and CGRP were detected in the submucosal and myenteric plexus of the
stomach. In the stomach, the absence of glucagon cells and the presence
of endocrine cells immunoreactive to PYY, are in contrast to the
situation in other mammals and need further investigation. Small gastric
ulcers were observed in some of the specimens.
Wallace, C.,
Byron, T.H., Foerner, J.J., Weston, H., Kilpatrick, J., Jastremski, M.S.
Clinical case report: the medical management and treatment of a 36 year
old premiparturient Asian elephant cow with a dystocia and following a
Caesarian section. 1994.
Ref Type: Unpublished Work
Abstract: The medical history and management of a 36 year old
premiparturient Asian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) with a
dystocia requiring a caesarian section are discussed. The examination
and complete medical evaluation to determine the health of the cow and
viability and position of the calf are described. The medical
management of the post-operative complications and the changes in
complete blood counts, differential, serum biochemistry values and
urinalysis prior to the elephant's death are described. Complications
included peritonitis with systemic sepsis, renal failure, and hepatic
failure. Pertinent necropsy findings on the cow included severe diffuse
subacute peritonitis, uterine transmural necrosis, diffuse renal tubular
nephrosis, and hepatic centrolobular degeneration.
Cheah, T.S.,
Rajamanickam, C., Ong, B.L., Lazarus, K., 1993. A first record in
Malaysia of Quilonia travancra (Lane, 1914) and Bathmostomum sangeri (Cobbold,
1879) in Malaysian elephants (Elephas maximus hirsutus). Tropical
Biomedicine 10, 41-43.
Abstract: Quilonia travancra (6 females and 5 males) and Bathmostomum
sangeri (5 females, 9 males) are reported for the first time in
Malaysia. Both were found in Elephas maximus hirsutus, the former
species in an 8-year-old female in a zoo in Perak, and the latter in a
one-year-old male belonging to the State Wildlife and National Parks
Department in Pahang. The worms are described and figured. The elephant
infected with Q. travancra had exhibited signs of anorexia but recovered
after anthelmintic treatment. The carcass of the elephant infected with
B. sangeri appeared generally pale and anaemic; on post-mortem
examination the contents of the stomach and small intestine were loose
and watery and filled with B. sangeri.
Houck, R.,
1993. Veterinary care of performing elephants. In: Fowler, M.E. (Ed.),
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders Company,
Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 453-454.
Li, C.X.,
Rong, Y.M., Xie, Q.P., 1993. A study of helminth parasites of elephants
(Elephas maximus). Chinese Journal of Zoology 28, 43-44.
Abstract: Between 1985 and 1990, the following parasites were recovered
from Elephas maximus in China: Choniangium epistomum, Murshidia
falcifera, M. murshida, M. neveulemairei, Quilonia travancra, Chabertia
erschovi, Gasterophilus pecorum, and G. intestinalis.
Okewole,
P.A., Oyetunde, I.L., Irokanulo, E.A., Chima, J.C., Nwankpa, N., Laleye,
Y., Bot, C., 1993. Anthrax and cowdriosis in an African elephant
(Loxodonta africana). Veterinary Record 133, 168.
Abstract: In February 1992, a 15-year-old African elephant died; it was
the second elephant that had died within 2 weeks at a wildlife park.
Clinical signs in both elephants included frequent micturition,
restlessness and weakness of the hindquarters with frequent falls. PM
examination revealed ecchymosis of the epicardium, atrioventricular
surfaces of the heart and serosal surfaces of the intestines and bladder
with sloughing of intestinal mucosae. The liver was enlarged, ecchymotic
and congested. A serosanguinous exudate with fibrin was present in the
thoracic and abdominal cavities. The meninges were congested. Bacillus
anthracis was cultured from tissue samples and from tissue samples from
guineapigs inoculated with broth cultures of the tissue samples from the
elephant. Cowdria ruminantium was identified in stained impression
smears from the elephant brain. This appears to be the first report of
the simultaneous occurrence of anthrax and cowdriosis in an African
elephant.
Ananthasubramaniam, C.R., 1992. Some aspects of elephant nutrition. In:
Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant:
Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of
the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 86-90.
Chakraborty,
A., Chaudhury, B., Rahman, H., Hussain, A., Baruah, M.C., 1992.
Intussusception and gangrene in elephants. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K.,
Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases,
Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on
the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur,
India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India,
pp. 164-165.
Chakraborty,
A., Chaudhury, B., 1992. Pathology of Fasciola jacksoni infestation in
elephants. Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology 16, 98-101.
Abstract: Fasciola jacksoni infection was discovered in 2 out of 3
elephants autopsied at Assam State Zoo, India, during 1985 to 1989. The
parasites were attached to biliary epithelium. Microscopy demonstrated
that the biliary epithelium was distorted by necrotic tissue which
contained erythrocytes and ova of F. jacksoni. The epithelium was
analyzed by X-ray microanalysis, which showed that the infected
epithelium contained aluminum, silicon, calcium and iron, while
non-infected, normal biliary epithelium contained only phosphorus and
sulfur. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that both the dorsal
and ventral surfaces of the parasite possessed spines.
Kharchenko,
V.A., Marunchin, A.A., 1992. Helminths of mammals in the Kiev zoological
park. Vestnik Zoologii 3, 61-63.
Abstract: Necropsy of 6 animals that died in the Kiev Zoo, Ukraine,
revealed the presence of Trichuris trichiura and Subulura distans in
Macaca nemestrina, Prosthenorchis elegans in Saimiri sciureus,
Murschidia murchida and Hawkesius hawkesi in Elephas maximus and T.
globulosa in Giraffa camelopardalis. No helminths were found in Equus
hemionus and Felis lynx. The deaths of M. nemestrina and S. sciureus
were attributed to the helminth infections. The results of the
examination of faeces of other zoo animals for helminth ova are also
presented.
Radhakrishnan,
K., 1992. Non-specific disease of Asian elephant with particular
reference to their prevalence in Kerala. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K.,
Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases,
Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on
the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur,
India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India,
pp. 168-170.
Teunissen,
M.J., de Kort, G.V., Op den Camp, H.J., Huis in 't Veld, J.H., 1992.
Production of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes during growth of the
anaerobic fungus Piromyces sp. on different substrates. J Gen Microbiol
138 (Pt 8), 1657-1664.
Abstract: Piromyces sp. strain E2, an anaerobic fungus isolated from an
Indian elephant (hindgut fermenter) was tested for its ability to
ferment a range of substrates. The fungus was able to use bagasse,
cellobiose, cellulose, fructose, glucose, lactose, mannose, starch,
wheat bran, wheat straw, xylan and xylose. Formate and acetate were the
main fermentation products after growth on these substrates. The amount
of carbon found in the fermentation products of cultures, in which
substrate digestion was complete averaged 88.5 mM, or 59% of the carbon
offered as substrate. No growth was observed on other substrates tested.
Lactose, starch, cellobiose and filter paper cellulose were good
inducers of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes. Cellulolytic and
xylanolytic enzymes were produced constitutively by Piromyces strain E2,
although enzyme activities were generally lower after growth on glucose
and other soluble sugars. Complex substrates (bagasse, wheat bran, and
wheat straw) were good inducers for xylanolytic enzymes but not for
cellulolytic enzymes. The extracellular protein banding pattern after
SDS-PAGE was therefore only slightly affected by the growth substrate.
Identical beta-glucosidase and endoglucanase activity patterns were
found after growth on different substrates. This indicated that
differences in enzyme activities were not the result of secretion of
different sets of isoenzymes although it remains possible that the
relative amount of each isoenzyme produced is influenced by the growth
substrate.
Wood, D.T.,
1992. Oesophageal choke in an African elephant. Veterinary Record 131,
536-537.
Abstract: A young African elephant suffered a fatal obstruction of the
caudal oesophagus caused by an ingested apple. This report describes the
attempts made to relieve the obstruction and the subsequent post mortem
findings.
Chakraborty,
A., Chaudhury, B. Fasciola jacksoni infection in elephants.
International Seminar on Veterinary Medicine in Wild & Captive Animals,
Bangalore, India, November 8 to 10, 1991. 28. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Pathology of Fasciola jacksoni infection in the bile
duct of elephant have been reported by gross histopathology, Scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) and Energy dispersive X-ray micro-analysis (EDAX).
SEM Study of the parasite was also attempted. Grossly, the parasites
were found attached in the biliary epithelium and microscopically, the
epithelial surface of the bile duct was covered by a necrotic
homogeneous mass admixed with erythrocytes. The liver parenchyma
adjacent to the bile duct, was replaced by fibrous tissue
proliferation. SEM showed distortion of biliary epithelium which turned
into a homogeneous mass. The infected biliary epithelium was analysed
through EDAX and the values were compared with biliary epithelium of
unaffected animal. The infected epithelium contained aluminium, silicon,
calcium and iron while in normal biliary epithelium only phosphorous and
sulphur could be noticed.
On SEM study both the dorsal and ventral surface of the parasite
contained spines.
Cheah, T.S.,
Rajamanickam, C., 1991. Scanning electron microscope study of the
cephalic and tail region of Quilonia renniei Railliet, Henry and Joyeux,
1913 (Nematoda, Strongyloidea). Tropical Biomedicine 8, 187-189.
Abstract: Six male and 8 female specimens of Quilonia renniei recovered
from a 20-year-old male Malaysian elephant were examined using a
scanning electron microscope. Scanning electron micrographs of the
cephalic region, bursa, genital cone and spicules are presented.
Kozaki, M.,
Oura, R., Sekine, J., 1991. Studies on digestion physiology of
herbivorous feral animals. 2. The comparison of intake of total
digestible nutrients among diverse sizes of ruminant and monogastric
animals. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture -Tottori-University 27,
61-68.
Abstract: Digestion trials were carried out on elephant, zebra, giraffe,
eland, blackbuck, zebu cattle, Japanese serow, sika deer, muntjac and
Japanese Black steer during 3 different seasons of the year.
Digestibility of organic matter was about 0.6 for all animals except
elephant, muntjac and blackbuck. Crude protein (CP) digestibility
correlated (P<0.01) with CP concentration in the feed ration. Acid
detergent fibre digestibility ranged from 0.3 to 0.4 in ruminants
compared with 0.1 to 0.2 in monogastric animals. No seasonal effects on
digesta were observed.
Krivolutskii,
D.A., Nguyen, T.K., Fan, T.V., 1991. The fauna of anoplocephalid
tapeworms in domestic and wild animals of Vietnam. Parazitologiia 25,
468-469.
Abstract: 101 species of oribatid mites and 12 species of
helminths--anoplocephalids, transmitted by these mites, were found out
by Soviet-Vietnam studies in agroecosystems and tropical forests of
northern and southern Vietnam. Helminths were recorded from
graminivorous mammals as follows: horses, zebu, sheep, goats, buffaloes,
deer, hares, elephant, 2 species of rates, 5 species of monkeys and 11
species of birds.
Mandlekar,
B.D., Soni, J.L., Nema, S.K. Disintegrating trypanosomes in elephant;
diagnosis and chemotherapy. International Seminar on Veterinary Medicine
in Wild and Captive Animals, Nov. 8-10, Bangalore, India. 30. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Sudden change in behaviour of six elephants was observed
violent in nature did not permit their use for tourist. They were losing
their condition. Anorexia, pyrexia, and anemia vis-a-vis the infected
elephants were lethargic,eyes shrunken with lacrimation and they became
unresponsive to command. Disintegrating trypanosomes in elephants of
Kanha National Park were diagnosed by blood sample. NSD findings were
reported by other diagnostic laboratories. Chemotherapy with corridane
(Hindustan antibiotic) was done. An elephant of average build was
injected with 12.5 gms of corridane dissoved in 75 ml of dist. water
subcutaneously. A single injection was effective for 3 months. In
recurrent the above dose need to be repeated. Berenil (Hoechst) @ 800
mg/ 100 kg body weight by deep IM route, revealed synergistic effects.
Livferol 250 ml B.D. 15 days effectively managed anaemia and deranged
liver function. Sugar cane was supplemented to check hypoglycaemia. Six
elephants simultaneously affected were cured. Half dose of corridane has
chemoprophelectic effect. Rehydration was done with 3 kg of Gur, common
salt 510 gms, fresh water 60 liters for 4-5 days.
Pavlovic, I.,
Nesic, D., Savin, Z., Valter, D., Hudina, V., 1991. Endoparasites of
elephant and giraffe in the Belgrade Zoological Garden. Veterinarski
Glasnik 45, 749-751.
Abstract: During examinations for parasites of animals in the Belgrade
Zoo in summer 1990, species of Trichonema [Cyathostoma] and Strongylus
were found in an elephant and Oesophagostomum columbianum was found in a
male giraffe. The infections were subclinical.
Teunissen,
M.J., Op den Camp, H.J., Orpin, C.G., Huis in 't Veld, J.H., Vogels, G.D.,
1991. Comparison of growth characteristics of anaerobic fungi isolated
from ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores during cultivation in a
defined medium. J Gen Microbiol 137 (Pt 6), 1401-1408.
Abstract: Anaerobic fungi were isolated from rumen fluid of a domestic
sheep (Ovis aries; a ruminant) and from faeces of five non-ruminants:
African elephant (Loxodonta africana), black rhinoceros (Diceros
bicornis), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Indian elephant
(Elephas maximus) and mara (Dolichotis patagonum). The anaerobic fungus
isolated from the sheep was a Neocallimastix species and the isolates
from non-ruminants were all species similar to Piromyces spp. A defined
medium is described which supported growth of all the isolates, and was
used to examine growth characteristics of the different strains. For
each fungus the lipid phosphate content was determined after growth on
cellobiose and the resulting values were used to estimate fungal biomass
after growth on solid substrates. The ability of isolates from ruminants
and non-ruminants to digest both wheat straw and cellulose was
comparable. More than 90% and 60%, respectively, of filter paper
cellulose and wheat straw were digested by most strains within 60-78 h.
Growth of two fungi, isolated from rumen fluid of a sheep (Neocallimastix
strain N1) and from faeces of an Indian rhinoceros (Piromyces strain
R1), on cellobiose was studied in detail. Fungal growth yields on
cellobiose were 64.1 g (mol substrate)-1 for N1 and 34.2 g mol-1 for R1.
The major fermentation products of both strains were formate, lactate,
acetate, ethanol and hydrogen.
Teunissen,
M.J., Smits, A.A.M., Op den Camp, H.J.M., Huis in't Veld, J.H.J., Vogels,
G.D., 1991. Fermentation of cellulose and production of cellulolytic and
xylanolytic enzymes by anaerobic fungi from ruminant and non- ruminant
herbivores. Arch. Microbiol. 156, 290-296.
Abstract: Four anaerobic fungi were grown on filter paper cellulose and
monitored over a 7-8 days period for substrate utilization, fermentation
products, and secretion of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes. Two of
the fungi (N1 and N2) were Neocallimastix species isolated from a
ruminant (sheep) and the other two fungi were Piromyces species (E2 and
R1) isolated from an Indian Elephant and an Indian Rhinoceros,
respectively. The tested anaerobic fungi degraded the filter paper
cellulose almost completely and estimated cellulose digestion rates were
0.25, 0.13, 0.21 and 0.18 g.l-1.h-1 for strains E2, N1, N2, R1,
respectively. All strains secreted cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes,
including endoglucanase, exoglucanase, beta-glucosidase and xylanase.
Strain E2 secreted the highest levels of enzymes in a relatively short
time. The product formation on avicel by enzymes secreted by the four
fungi was studied. Both in the presence and absence of
glucurono-1,5-delta-lactone, a specific inhibitor of beta-glucosidase,
mainly glucose was formed but no cellobiose. Therefore the exoglucanase
secreted by the four fungi is probably a glucohydrolase
1990. The
story of Babe, the Asian elephant. Veterinary Viewpoints 2.
Li, J.,
Heath, I.B., Bauchop, T., 1990. Piromyces mae and Piromyces dumbonica,
two new species of uniflagellate anaerobic chytridiomycete fungi from
the hindgut of the horse and elephant. Can. J. Bot. 68,
1021-1033.
Maske, D.K.,
Sardey, M.R., Bhilegaonkar, N.G., 1990. Helminth parasites in zoo
animals of Maharaj Bag, Nagpur, Maharashtra State. Indian Journal of
Animal Science 60, 952.
Abstract: Faecal samples obtained from 28 animals during 1979 to 1981
were examined by direct smear, flotation and dilution count techniques.
17 animals were positive for parasitic infections. Toxascarids and
Ancylostoma were found in lions and tigers in rainy and winter seasons.
Isospora felis, Paragonimus westermani and Taenia pisiformis were also
found in winter. Ancylostoma sp. was found in leopard cubs, and ascarids
in lion cubs. More than 1 helminth species were not usually found
together. Strongyles were found in elephants and a cestode in a python.
A slothbear, Himalayan bear, Russian bear and white and black monkeys
were negative for helminth parasites.
Vasantha,
M.S., Yathiraj, S., 1990. Acute enteritis in a domestic elephant
(Elephas maximus). Indian Veterinary Journal 67, 63-64.
Caffee, H.H.,
1989. Reconstruction of the distal trunk of an African elephant. Plastic
and Reconstructive Surgery 83, 1049-1051.
Abstract: A 5-year-old African elephant was treated for an amputation
injury of the distal trunk. It was determined that replantation was
impractical and, therefore, an operation was designed and performed with
the intention of recreating the prehensile tip.
Fujikura, T.,
Oura, R., Sekine, J., 1989. Comparative morphological studies on
digestion physiology of herbivores. 1. Digestibility and particle
distribution of digesta and feces of domestic and feral animals. Journal
of the Faculty of Agriculture -Tottori-University 25, 87-93.
Abstract: Digesta was collected from a Japanese Black steer 30 months
old and feed and faeces samples were collected from a sheep, goat,
camel, wallaby, elephant, horse and koala. The composition of feeds and
intakes for each animal is given in tables. Digestibilities of particle
distribution of DM and acid detergent fibre are discussed and compared
between animals.
Hegel, G.V.,
Hanichen, T., Mahnel, H., Wiesner, H., 1989. Warts (papilloma/sarcoid)
in elephant. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 31, 201-205.
Abstract: Warts ( Papilloma, Sarcoid) in Elephants ( Hegel,G.)1989;
translated from German by Gerda Martin. Papilloma virus - from the group
Papova virus - is considered an etiological agents of wart- like skin
changes in cattle, sheep, mountain goat, and rabbit. (ROSENBERGER,1970;
ROLLE and MAYR, 1984). Equine sarcoid (PALMER. 1985) found in horses is
most likely caused by bovine papilloma virus. The alternate name is
based on clinical and morphological differences in the actual papilloma.
In the initial stage, the sarcoid is similar to that of the papilloma;
however in later stages, tumorous decay on the surface of the epidermis,
and proliferation of the mesenchymal part of the tumor in the subcutis
dominate (DIET and WIESNER, 1982). Wart- like changes in the skin of
elephants as described by PILASKI et al (1987, 1988), proved to be
caused by Herpes virus. Such skin changes in elephants are not rare and
require treatment since size and volume of the excrescences may cause
functional disturbances in the patient. Even if the animal's general
well being is not impaired, the importance of esthetics and hygiene
should not be disregarded in a place where there are spectators and
visitors (zoo, circus). The following paper reports findings of wart-
like skin changes in elephants. Observations and Therapy In the
elephants kept in the Hellabrunn Zoo, no case of papilloma or similar
skin tumors had occurred since 1972. First case: In 5-28 - 1987, a ca.
18 month old female L.a. named " Sabi" arrived In Hellabrunn. This
animal had a wart- like thickening of 1 cm at the dorsal end of the
trunk. After 8 weeks, more of those such skin changes appeared on trunk
and lower lip without impairment in general well being. Treatment
consisted of one daily, subcutaneous injection of 1 amp. Chelidonium D7
(DHU Chelidonium majus L.), and application of fresh ??Schoellkraut
juice dabbed onto the warts but was unsuccessful. After a change of
treatment was made: 10 drops of Thuja D4 (DHU Thuja occidentalis L) and
20 drops Acidum nitricum D12 (DHU Acidum nitricum), orally, once a day,
at separate times of the day, there remained, after 2 weeks, a wart on
the lower lip the size of a cherry pit, and the before mentioned wart
on the dorsal end of the trunk had now grown to the size of a cherry.
Even the strength of Thuja LM 6 (DHU Thuja occidentalis L.) 20 drops,
oral, the growth of the wart on the dorsal end of the trunk, now with a
diameter of 5 cm, could not be stopped: Exstirpation had to be
performed. Frequent sucking had promoted strong ulceration. A
secondary infection had set in, the surface showed granular tissue
exuding blood and pus.
On 10 - 6 - 1987 the growth was exstirpated and tissue was sent for
virolog. and histolog. examination. In addition, tissue was removed from
a fresh small wart for vaccine. During the operation the animal was
immobilized (anesthetic: 0.3 ml Immobilon* (large animal Immobilon Rc* -
Vet. Ltd.), 10mg Xylacin, 150 IE Hyaluronidase i. m.). There were no
complications during recovery. Two weeks post op., the first
vaccination was given, followed by a second vacc. four weeks there
after, of 5.0 ml, subcut.., of an auto vaccine developed by the
Institute for Medical Microbiology, Dept. of Infectious and Epidemic
Medicine. In February 1988, there occurred another bout with wart- like
growth on the ventral part of the trunk, lower jaw, shoulders and feet,
some with a diameter of 15 mm. From the sedated young animal tissue was
taken from several newly grown warts for the manufacture of auto vaccine
(sedation: "Hellabrunner Mischung" / 150 IE Hyaluronidase). After 10
days, the first vaccination was given, and by the time of the second
vacc." Sabi" was free of externally visible skin changes.
On 6. 6. 1988, "Sabi" fell ill again. Over night she was covered with 48
warts, with diameters from 2mm - 15 mm on trunk and head, and 10 more
on the chest.The attempt to "ice" the warts with liquid nitrogen was
not successful. Instead, coagulation of ca. 20 of the larger warts was
used. The monopolar coagulation electrode of the Erbotom F 2 (Erbe
Elektromedizin) coagulates reaching deeply into the healthy zone of the
surrounding tissue. As before, tissue for the manufacture of the auto
vaccine was taken, as well as 0.5 ml of blood from the ear vein for the
manufacture of a "own- blood" nosode. (Large animal, premedication: 20
mg Xylazin i.m., 20 minutes later : 0.5 ml Immobilon R (large animal
Immobilon R c - Vet Ltd.) and 150 IE Hyaluronidase i.m. The following
day, "Sabi" was given the "own- blood" nosode at a strength of C5 (20
drops daily).In addition, she was vacc. once again. Since "Sabi" was
free of warts at the time of the second vaccination - given 4 weeks
after the first - the "own- blood" treatment was discontinued. Shortly
there after, however, several new warts cropped up (diameter ca. 1 cm),
so that the "own- blood" treatments were continued. Since that time "Sabi"
has had no recurrences.Second case : The Indian elephant cow (E.
maximus) , named "Dirndl" , age ca. 22 years, had been kept in the box
next to "Sabi" since "Sabi's" arrival. They kept trunk contact. On
5-2-1988, "Dirndl" showed on the distal trunk a substantially increased
raised area ca. 2 x 2 cm oozing blood. It seemed to be an injury from a
metal rope used in off limiting. The wound was disinfected and treated
twice a day with chloromycetin spray with Gentian violetR (Parke
Davis). After one week the growth had increased substantially and on
the surface, it had a cauliflower-like ulcerated appearance.Upon light
touch or movement of the dorsal trunk, blood appeard spontaneously.
Four days later, the growth was exstirpated, while the animal was
standing. (Sedation: 2.2 ml Hellabrunn mixture / 150 Hyaluronidase i.
m.) . The attempt to close the skin of the trunk over the wound failed
because the tension in that area was too great. The surface of the
wound was cauterized and treated with ChloromycetinSpray with Gentian
violet R (Parke Davis). Tissue for pathological and histological
examination was sent out. One week after the operation, the area of
the wound was highly swollem and the wound was infected. Treatment:
Several times a day, an ablution with a 0.1 % Rivanol solutionnR (Asid
- 2 Aethoxy-6.9-diamin acridinlactat) and application of
Sulfonamid-Codliver oil salve (WDT = Sulfadimidin- Sodium- cod liver
oil). In addition, analogous to "Sabi" , once daily 20 drops of
"own-blood" nosode, potency C 5 given orally. Three weeks post. op.,
there could be clearly distinguished a limited relapse, an area of 6 x
9 cm rising ca. 2 cm above the healthy skin of the trunk. The surface
looked like the first growth. It was extirpated under general
anesthetic (Premed.:80 mg Xylazin i. m., 20 min. later: 1.8 ml
ImmobilionR and 150 IE Hyaluronidase). In addition, the whole wound was
coagulated by monopolar coagulation electrode as above. Daily for 4
weeks, the wound was brushed with a 1:5 wood tar -alcohol -
solution.There were no complications during recovery. After 5 weeks ,
all that could be seen was a ca. 1.5 cm long small scar on the skin of
the trunk.
Histomorphological Findings: Fixation with formalin, embedding in
paraffin; stain: Hemalaun-Eosin, connective tissue stain in the manner
of Masson. The histomorphological findings based on the tissue samples
of "Sabi" and "Dirndl" are the same, and agree with the findings of 3
other skin tumor tissue taken from elephants of different origin (tab.
1). The tumors consist mainly of fibroplastic cells with more or less
abundant collagen fibers and blood vessels. The boundaries from the
adjacent corium and lower skin is largely indistinct. In all larger
neoplasties , the covering epidermis has been preserved at margins only
due to superficial ulceration. Here the P. acuta aseptica diffusa
borders are irregular and strongly profiled, the epithelium is
acanthoid and hyperkeratotic. The nuclei of tumor cells are
considerably anisomorphic, some have gigantic nuclei. Mitosis is
frequent. Due to the ulcerated epidermis , there is deep infiltration
with infectious cells. Virological findings: From the extirpated tissue
taken from the African Elephant "Sabi" ca. 3 g was homogenated, in
addition, the cells were "opened" by defrosting and ultrasound, and the
"cleared" tissue suspension was analyzed for free virus particles after
concentration and negative-contrasting with electron microscopy . At
the same time, small tissue samples of 2 mm from deeper epidermis
layers were fixed as usual for the ultrahistological exam , embedded in
epoxy resin, and ultra thin slices were scanned by the electron
microscope. No papilloma virus was found in the concentrated, cell free
tissue extract or the ultrathin slices of tissue samples .No virus
particle of any kind was found.
Discussion
To show papilloma by culturing cannot be done since no species of this
genus can be propagated in cell cultures with the exception of its
original host. The failed attempt to prove their presence with the
electronmicroscope does not exclude a papilloma virus etiology in
tumors. When virus particles are viewed in higher concentrations, the
electron microscopic proof is successful. Using ultrahistologyical
methods the particles in cell nuclei can only be found when the few
cells of specific skin cells are in the virus propagation stage. In
the case of virally induced papilloma however, a true virus propagation
is not necessary. In the last few years, it was found that equine
sarcoid can be caused by bovine papilloma virus. But it was only the
genome of the virus which could be isolated by means of gene technology
(ALTMANN, 1980; HAUSEN, 1980); the virus itself could not. The
oncogenetic potency of the virus in heterologic hosts , without true
virus production, has been established. A broader spectrum of hosts
for , at least , the papilloma virus in cattle seems to be the case.
And a bovine papilloma induced skin fibromatose in (a) horse has been
reported (LANCASTER, 1979). This virus can also appear in wild 'cud
chewers, perhaps even carnivores. It is in part also related to the
human papilloma virus. The possibility of transfer to humans (LANCASTER
1982) as well as other mammals such as elephants has not been proved
but is probable. In comparing the histological findings of the 5 skin
growths with those of the viral fibropapilloma in cattle and horse
(called equine sarcoid here), the relative immaturity of the tumorous
tissue is evident. It compares to the so- called sarcoid in horses. The
sarcoid-like structure and the indistinct separation from healthy
tissue speaks for a virus etiology and morphologically a relapse can
be expected. This occurred in both of the clinically described cases.
A differential diagnosis excludes a Herpes virus infection, as described
by PILASKI et al. (1987, 1988) in elephants on the basis of different
histological findings. Inclusions could not be found in any of the
cases. The warts on the elephants were clinically similar to the well
known sarcoids in horses (DIETZ and WIESNER, 1982). The two sick animals
were in "trunk contact" occupying adjacent boxes. Almost one year after
the arrival of "Sabi" who had warts, "Dirndl" fell sick. That points to
the infectious nature of warts. The relapse after the first operation on
"Dirndl" suggests that the extirpation of the growths was not complete.
This may be related to the fact that the animal was standing and only
sedated. In contrast , the extirpation of the "relapse" was carried out
on a fully immobilized animal and with the use of the Erbotom F 2 for
coagulation including the adjacent tissue. We know of various 'wart
therapies' in human medicine with differing success. The various
treatments employed in the one and one half years of "Sabi's" illness
can be labled neither successful, nor unsuccessful. The use of auto
vaccine which is analogous to a "stable specific " vaccine in the
treatment of papilloma in cattle, could perhaps have triggered the
recurrence of warts at the conclusion of the vaccination treatments.
That would favor the etiology of a virus 'picture.' The influence of the
'burn' or extirpation of a single or more growths which returned, in the
surrounding growths cannot be determined. It remains inconclusive if the
use of the "own- blood" nosode C 5 aided the successful therapy , since
the necessity to fight a recurrence had not yet occurred.
Roehrs, J.M.,
Brockway, C.R., Ross, D.V., Reichard, T.A., Ullrey, D.E., 1989.
Digestibility of timothy hay by African elephants. Zoo Biology 8,
331-337.
Abstract: Two juvenile, female African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
were used in summer and winter trials to determine the apparent
digestibility of timothy (Phleum pratense) hay. After 12-14 days
of dietary adjustment, dry matter intake and fecal excretion were
quantitatively measured for 7 days. Dry matter of timothy hay contained
8.6 and 7.7% crude protein, 57.3 and 44.0% acid detergent fiber, and 6.5
and 6.4% ash during the summer and winter trials, respectively.
Estimates of apparent digestibility during summer and winter,
respectively, were 39 and 35% for dry matter, 43 and 32% for gross
energy (GE), 45 and 30% for crude protein (CP) and 36 and 24% for acid
detergent fiber (ADF). While GE and CP digestibility estimates tended
(P < .09) to be greater in the summer trial, only the digestibility of
ADF was different (P < .05) between summer and winter. Dry matter
intake was 1.4-1.6% of body weight (BW), providing an average of 144
kcal of digestible energy per kg BW0.75. This value is
similar to that (155 kcal per kg BW0.75) used for estimating
digestible energy requirements for maintenance of light-breed horses.
Heard, D.J.,
Kollias, G.V., Merritt, A.M., Jacobson, E.R., 1988. Idiopathic chronic
diarrhea and malabsorption in a juvenile African elephant (Loxodonta
africana africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 19,
132-136.
Abstract: A 4-5 yr old, 250 kg female African elephant (Loxodonta
africana africana) was examined because of chronic, intermittent
diarrhea and poor weight gain. Abnormal clinical findings were cachexia,
diarrhea, and ventral edema. Significant laboratory included low serum
alkaline phosphatase concentrations, sporadic hyperbilrubinemia,
hypoproteinemia/hypoalbuiminemia, intermittent hypoglycemia,
hypertriglyceridemia, sporadic leukocytosis, neutrophilia/neutropenia,
and lymphocytosis. The elephant had d-xylose malabsorption, and
lymphocyte aggregates were found in histological sections of rectal
biopsies. Recurrent dental disease might have accounted for some of the
clinical findings including cachexia. Although an extensive workup was
done, the cause or causes of the diarrhea were not determined and the
condition spontaneously resolved.
Lahkar, B.C.,
Das, M.R., 1988. A note on the successful treatment of trichostrongyle
infection of elephants (Elephas maximus) with Panacur (fenbendazole).
Indian Veterinary Journal 65, 538.
Matevski, S.,
Ippen, R.ed., Schroder, H.D. Helminths and helminthiasis of animals in
the Sofia Zoological Gardens. Erkrankungen der Zootiere.
Verhandlungsbericht des 30. internationalen Symposiums uber die
Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere vom 11. Mai bis 15. Mai 1988 in
Sofia. 173-175. 1988. Berlin; German Democratic Republic, Akademie
Verlag.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Information on the helminthological infections encountered in
primates, carnivores, ruminants, camels, elephants and birds in recent
years in the Sofia Zoo, Bulgaria, are summarized. Some anthelmintic
treatment results are also mentioned.
Raubenheimer,
E.J., Dauth, J., Dreyer, M.J., de Vos, V., 1988. Parotid salivary gland
of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana): structure and composition
of saliva. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association
59, 184-187.
Abstract: Specimens from parotid salivary glands of full-grown elephant
(Loxodonta africana) a (n=6) and saliva aspirated from their main
excretory ducts were examined macroscopically and microscopically and
analyzed biochemically. The composition of the saliva was compared to
that of the blood. The parotids (n=12; mean = 7.4 kg) are homocrine and
of a seromucous nature. Myoepithelial cells are well-developed along
intercalated ducts and their processes extend to proximal portions of
allied acini. The saliva is hypotonic and contains relatively low
concentrations of sodium and glucose and high concentrations of
potassium, urea, calcium and phosphorus. Absence of detectable levels of
alpha-amylase negates a digestive role and the voluminous secrete
evidently aids swallowing by moisturizing and lubricating the large mass
of ingested leaves, grass and bark.
Roy, S.,
Mazumdar, B.K., 1988. Anthelmintic activity of fenbendazole (Panacur)
against Murshidia murshida in zoo elephants. Indian Veterinary Journal
65, 531-532.
Hackenberger,
M.K. Diet digestibilities and ingesta transit times of captive Asian (Elephas
maximus) & African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. 1987.
Guelph, University of Guelph.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation
Hackenberger,
M.K., Burton, J.H., Atkinson, J.L., Dickson, K.M. Rate of ingesta
passage within captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana).
Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop. 7, 48-58. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Barile, M.F.,
Kapatais-Zoumbos, K., Grabowski, M.W., Snoy, P., Sneller, M., Plotz, P.,
Gill, V., Chandler, D.K.F. Mycoplasma hominis septic arthritis:
Naturally occurring in humans and experimentally induced in chimpanzees.
Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology
, 95. 1985.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: A recurrent septic arthritis developed in the wrist and
prosthetic knee of a patient and continues to persist after ten months.
Aspirations were negative for bacteria and viruses but consistently grew
out pure cultures of M. hominis. The first positive culture was
obtained 35 days after admission and four additional aspirations
contained 104 to 107 CCU/ml of M. hominis.
Oxytetracycline was initiated on Day 41 and by Day 65 the aspiration was
negative. Treatment was continued for 6 months and terminated because
of severe adverse gastrointestinal disturbances. After treatment was
discontinued the patient suffered a relapse, and M. hominis was
isolated again. Experimental arthritis was induced by inoculating
synovial fluids containing 10^4 CCU/ml of M. hominis into the
knee of a chimpanzee. Two additional chimpanzees inoculated with a pure
culture of M. hominis containing 10^6 and 10^7 CCU/ml also
developed arthritis. Sera and synovial fluids from the patient and
chimpanzee contained MI specific antibody to M. hominis. The
septic arthritis induced in the chimpanzee was remarkably similar to
disease in the patient.
Raphael, B.L.,
Clubb, F.J., 1985. Atypical salmonellosis in an African elephant.
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 57.
Crockett, E.C.,
Dipeolu, O.O., 1984. A survey of helminth parasites of game animals in
Kainji Lake National Park of Nigeria. Int. J. Zoonoses 11,
204-215.
Abstract: Between January and April 1983, the Borgu sector of the Kainji
Lake National Park was visited and faecal droppings of several game
animals belonging to the groups of Carnivora, Artiodactyla, Proboscidae
and Primates were collected and processed for the presence of helminth
ova and larvae. Faeces were also collected from the rectum of domestic
ruminants which had grazed on the periphery of the park. Post mortem
examinations were conducted on a baboon and an adult Monitor Lizard.
Most of the game animals possessed multiple helminth infection but the
egg-counts were generally low. Larvae of Haemonchus, Oesophagostomum and
Trichostrongylus were common to wild and domestic ruminants while larvae
of hook- and lungworms were mostly restricted to carnivores and
primates. Some of the helminths found in the stomach and intestine of
baboon during post-mortem were of public health interest
Janssen, D.L.,
Karesh, W.B., Cosgrove, G.E., Oosterhuis, J.E., 1984. Salmonellosis in a
herd of captive elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical
Association 185, 1450-1451.
Mikhailov,
M.I., Kuznetsov, S.V., Zhdanov, V.M., 1984. Electron microscopy of the
intestinal content of a mammoth. The Lancet 2, 111-112.
Scott, W.A.,
1984. Salmonellosis in an African elephant. Veterinary Record 115,
391.
Vitovec, J.,
Kotrla, B., Haji, H., Hayles, L.B., 1984. Fatal infection of an elephant
calf caused by the trematode Protofasciola robusta (Lorenz, 1881)
in Somaliland. Zentralbl. Veterinarmed. [B]. 31, 597-602.
Clemens, E.T.,
Maloiy, G.M.O., 1983. Nutrient digestibility and gastrointestinal
electrolyte flux in the elephant and rhinoceros. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology [A] 75, 653-658.
Abstract: 1. Nutrient digestibility and absorption-secretion were
studied in elephants and rhinoceros. 2. Prehension and diet selection
are discussed. 3. Rhinoceros select less fiber, which may account for
their greater digestive efficiency. 4. Foregut digestion and
fermentation are most evident in the rhinoceros, while elephants
possessed greated caecal-colonic digestion. 5. Relative to rhinoceros,
elephants demonstrated greater intestinal VFA absorption and less
sodium-potassium flux.
Hackenberger,
M.K. Diet digestibilities and ingesta transit times of captive Asian (Elephas
maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants.
Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 4. 1983.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Prokopic, J.,
Hulinska, D., Zahor, Z., 1983. Choniagnium algericum sp. n. (Nematoda:
Strongylidae) from the intestine of African elephant, Loxodonta africana
(Blumenbach, 1779). Folia Parasitologica 30, 309-311.
Abstract: Nematodes of the genus Choniagnium were found in African
elephant (Loxodonta africana) from Algerian Zoological Garden. On the
basis of studies in light and scanning electron microscope these
nematodes were identified as a new species, Choniagnium algericum sp. n.
Rees, P.S.,
1983. Synchronization of defaecation in the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). Journal of Zoology (Lond) 201, 581-585.
Abstract: The ecological significance of defaecation in African
elephants (Loxodonta africana) has been discussed from a number
of points of view. Dropping counts have been used to investigate
population size and movements (Wing and Buss, 1970; Law, Parker and
Johnstone, 1975); the chemical composition of dung has been examined (Dougall,
1963; Weir, 1972); and dung decomposition and its role in nutrient
cycles has been examined (Coe, 1972) and food consumption of wild
elephant herds has been calculated from data on gross assimilation
efficiency and drug production (Coe, 1972;Rees, 1982). This paper
presents evidence of a synchronization of defaecation in elephants and
discusses its possible ecological significance.
Schaller, K.,
1983. A case of rhododendron poisoning in circus elephants. Kleint.
Praxis 28, 53-56.
Schryver,
H.F., Foose, T.J., Williams, J., Hintz, H.F., 1983. Calcium excretion in
feces of ungulates. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology [A] 74,
375-380.
Abstract: 1. Fecal excretion of calcium was examined in 122 individual
ungulates representing 7 species of Equidae, 3 species of Tapiridae, 3
species of Rhinocerotidae, 2 species of Elephantidae, 2 species of
Hippopotamidae, 12 species of Bovidae, 2 species of Cervidae, 3 species
of Camelidae, and 1 species of Giraffidae. 2. Animals were fed timothy
hay, a low calcium diet, or alfalfa hay, a high calcium diet. 3. In a
few cases straw or prairie hay was used instead of timothy hay. 4.
Samples of feces were obtained from individuals daily for 4 days
following a 20 day dietary equilibration period. 5. Feces of equids,
tapirs, rhinoceros, and elephants had lower calcium concentration and a
lower Ca P ratio than feces of ruminants when the animals were fed diets
of equivalent calcium content. 6. The findings suggest that the
non-ruminant ungulate equids, tapirs, rhinoceros and elephants absorb a
larger proportion of dietary calcium than ruminants do. "'...the
non-ruminant ungulate equids, tapirs, rhinoceros and elephants absorb a
larger proportion of dietary Ca than ruminants do.'" (EIG annotation,
quoted from paper)
Boyce, L.,
Sayer, P., Inima, A.A., 1982. Fatal enteritis in a repatriated African
elephant. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 75-76.
Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., Cheeran, J.V., 1982. Efficacy of
Distodin in the treatment of amphistomiasis in Indian elephants. Kerala
Journal of Veterinary Science 13, 55-58.
Abstract: Hexachlorophene (Distodin 100 mg tablets) was given by mouth
at 5, 8 or 10 mg/kg body weight to ten elephants infected with
Pseudodiscus collinsi, P.
hawkesi and Gastrodiscus secundus. The lowest dose eliminated 65 to 84%
of trematode eggs from the faeces, the medium dose 86 to 100% and the
highest 100%. Symptoms of anorexia, diarrhoea and weakness cleared up
after treatment.
Chandrasekharan, K., Cheeran, J.V., Nair, K.N.M., Ramanujam, K.N.,
Radhakrishnan, K., 1982. Comparative efficacy of 6 anti-helminthics
against strongylosis in elephants. Kerala Journal of Veterinary Science
13, 15-20.
Abstract: Infections with Murshidia falcifer, Quilonia travancra and
Bathmostomum sangeri in 30 elephants were successfully treated by oral
administration (in bread) of mebendazole at 3-4 mg/kg body weight,
levamisole at 3 mg/kg and morantel tartrate at 5 mg/kg. Slightly less
effective (68-96% reduction in faecal egg counts) were mebendazole at 2
mg/kg, thiabendazole [tiabendazole] at 32 mg/kg, bephenium
hydroxynaphthoate at 25 mg/kg and disophenol at 3 mg/kg.
Clemens, E.T.,
Maloiy, G.M.O., 1982. The digestive physiology of three East African
herbivores: the elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus. Journal of
Zoology (Lond) 198, 141-156.
Abstract: Studies were conducted to compare structural and physiological
differences in the digestive functions of three 0. species of large
ungulates; the elephant (Loxodonta africana), the Black
rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) and the Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus
amphibius). Major differences were noted in the composition of
ingesta and the sites of bacterial fermentative activity. Comparisons
are also made as to the influence of feeding behaviour on digestive
functions, and as to the similarities of their digestive systems to that
of domestic animals.
Folwell, D.,
1982. Non-lethal poisoning of an elephant. Veterinary Record 110,
313.
Foose, T.J.
Trophic strategies of ruminant versus nonruminant ungulates. 1982.
Chicago, University of Chicago.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation
Hackenberger,
M.K., Atkinson, J.L. Digestibility studies with captive Asiatic and
African elephants. AAZPA Reg.Conf.Proc. 129-137. 1982.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Mohr, J.L.,
Jollie, K.G., Smith, T.P. Ciliates of elephant caecums. Journal of
Protozoology 29, 482. 1982.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: On the basis of limited sampling, African elephants,
Loxodonta, appear to have more complex ciliate assemblages than
other cellulose-eating mammals. In caecal samples of five Kenyan
Loxodonta at least ten families are represented of which the
Kofoidian elephantophilae and some others have been found only in
Loxodonta and Elephas. One paraisotrichid genus, found in
both elephants, may be related to ciliates of hyracoid mammals. Some
cycloposthiids have be identified with species in hoofed mammals, but
most appear to be restricted to elephants. Except for Kofoid's original
Mysore collection, all Elephas materials studied have been from
zoological gardens; their assemblages have been much less varied than
those in wild Loxodonta. In the Loxodonta assemblage we
have tried to determine roles of various ciliates. There are obvious
cellulose ingesters, carnivores and bacteriovores, "vampires" (suctorians)
and presumably osmiotrophs, however, much cannot be determined from such
fixed materials. Current ciliate taxonomy appears to need revision to
accomodate some of the species.
Rees, P.S.,
1982. Gross assimilation efficiency and food passage time in the African
elephant. African Journal of Ecology 20, 193-198.
Abstract: The amount of food consumed and dung voided by two captive
African elephants was measured over a period of 7 days. The mean gross
assimilation efficiency of the two elephants was calculated to be
22.4%. The food passage time was 21.4 and 46 h for one elephant.
Previous estimates of food consumption by wild elephants, based on an
earlier, higher estimate of assimilation efficiency, are considered to
be too high and have been recalculated.
Smith, T.P.,
Jollie, K.G., Mohr, J.L. Gut protozoans of zoo elephants. Journal of
Protozoology 29, 482. 1982.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: Latteur has studied gut ciliates from Elephas and
Loxodonta at Antwerp zoo and we have taken part in autopsies of
Elephas (San Francisco) and Loxodonta (Brookfield Zoo,
Chicago) and have sample manure of Cambodian Elephas (Los
Angeles). In general the gut microfaunas of captive elephants appear to
be less varied than those of wild elephants. A 19-year-old male
Loxodonta, previously medicated, had numerous small flagellates, but
only paraisotrichid ciliates of which six forms were recognized. Because
all the adult Kenyan microfaunas were more complex, we regard this as
reduced and selected by medication. If, as seems likely, the bacterial
flora was similarly affected, medication may have made significant
changes in the nutrition of a mammal dependent on microbial action on
cellulose.
Patton, S.,
McCracken, M.D., 1981. Hookworms from the liver of "Ole Diamond" (Loxodonta
africana). Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science 56,
54.
Schaller, K.,
1981. Delayed dentition of an Indian elephant causing obstipation and
colic. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 88, 439-440.
Sikarski, J.G.,
Riebold, T., Stick, J., Washburn, J. Management of esophagotomy in an
Asian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 106-108. 1981.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Van Hoven,
W., Prins, R.A., Lankhorst, A., 1981. Fermentative digestion in the
African elephant. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 11,
78-86.
Abstract: In an investigation into the nature of gastrointestinal
fermentation in adult African elephant ( Loxodonta africana L.),
the following parameters were determined in various intestinal
compartments: volume, pH, concentrations of sugars, bicarbonate,
volatile fatty acids (VFA), lactic acid and protozoa. The composition
of the digesta was determined by the proximate analysis and the
procedure of van Soest. Concentrations of minerals were analyzed in the
caecal and colonic fluids. Rates of gas production, composition of the
fermentation gas, rates of lactate breakdown, and cellulolytic and
amylolytic activity in the gut contents were measured using in vitro
incubations. The results show that there is microbial fermentation of
sugars, starch and protein from the food in different compartments of
the gastrointestinal tract, with most activity occurring in the caecum
and colon. Cellulose digestion, however, is surprisingly small. Despite
the low rate of fermentation in the gut the elephant is likely to cover
a large part of its energy requirement from the metabolism of VFA
arising from the hindgut fermentation. In English with Afrikaans
summary.
Eloff, A.K.,
Van Hoven, W., 1980. Intestinal protozoa of the African elephant
Loxodonta Africana. South African Journal of Zoology 15,
83-90.
1979. "Motty"
-- Birth of an African/Asian elephant at Chester Zoo. Elephant 1,
36-40.
Chandrasekharan, K., Sathianesan, V., Pythal, C., Sundaram, R.K., 1979.
Anthelmintic activity of thiophanate (Nemafax) in elephants and zoo
animals. Kerala Journal of Veterinary Science 1979, 167-170.
Abstract: Thiophanate orally at 14 mg/kg body weight was 100% effective
against gastrointestinal nematodes (mainly Murshidia falcifera but also
Amera pileata, Decrusia additicta and Choniangium epistomum) in 4
elephants, and at 50 mg/kg was 85 to 100% effective against Toxascaris
leonina in 5 lion cubs, and 100% effective against Oesophagostomum
dentatum in 2 wild boars.
Garlt, C.,
Kiupel, H., Ehrentraut, W., 1979. Botulism in elephants. Erkrankungen
der Zootiere 13, 207-211.
Kuntze, A.,
1979. Treatment of colic in elephants (Elephas maximus).
Erkrankungen der Zootiere 13, 281-284.
Monfort, A.,
Monfort, N., 1979. Efficiency of assimilation and energy budget of the
young African elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach). Mammalia
43, 543-557.
Abstract: In the present article, the experiments on the digestive
efficiencies of young African elephants are described. Two tame
elephants, 27 and 31 months old, were confined in paddocks and were fed
with rations consisting of the same plant species that they would select
if they were free. During the study period, the amount of food and
energy ingested and rejected was determined. On the average, the gross
assimilation rate was 42.1% for the two animals: 38.3 +/- 4.4% and 45.6
+/- 2.8% respectively. Under estimate of the gross assimilation rate
and of dung production in natural conditions, it should be possible to
estimate the feeding pressure on the home range. On the basis of the
results, we have established an energy budget for the young African
elephant in full growth.
Caple, I.W.,
Jainudeen, M.R., Buick, T.D., Song, C.Y., 1978. Some clinicopathologic
findings in elephants (Elephas maximus) infected with Fasciola
jacksoni. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 14, 110-115.
Abstract: Severe submandidular and ventral abdominal edema was observed
in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in which liver flukes (
Fasciola jacksoni) were recovered from the bile ducts at post-mortem
examination. Clinico-pathologic examination of blood samples and serum
from this elephant and another 8 elephants showed that most had anemia
and hypoproteinemia. Fecal samples from 6 of the elephants contained
from 6 to 83 eggs per gram. Treatment of elephants with nitroxynil (10
mg/kg) by subcutaneous injection produced severe local reactions at the
injection site. Feces collected 2 and 4 months after treatment were
free of trematode eggs. Hematologic values measured 4 months after
treatment showed that the hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume,
erythrocyte count and plasma protein concentration had increased to
within the normal range.
Setasuban,
P., 1976. Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy of
Bathmostomum sangeri Cobbold, 1879, of elephants. Southeast Asian J Trop
Med Public Health 7, 390-394.
Abstract: Bathmostomum sangeri is an intestinal parasite of the
elephant. Males measured 12.15-14.25 mm in length; females measured
14.98-17.68 mm in length. Buccal capsule is well-developed and
funnel-shaped. There is a raised and transverse fissure ridge around the
oral margin. The internal wall of the buccal capsule is raised into a
series of circular ridges or lamellae. Teeth or cutting plates could not
be seen. Spicules are stout, wing-like structures. The telamon is
pear-shaped, but a gibernaculum is not present. There are two pairs of
papillae on the either side of the cloacal opening. The female tail is
gradually tapering.
Windsor, R.S.,
Scott, W.A., 1976. Fascioliasis and salmonellosis in African elephants
in captivity. British Veterinary Journal 132, 313-317.
Riemann, G.P.,
Burridge, M.J., Behymer, D.E., Franti, C.E., 1975. Toxoplasma gondii
antibodies in free-living African mammals. J Wildl Dis 11,
529-533.
Abstract: Twelve species of free-living African mammals from Kenya,
Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia were tested for antibodies to Toxoplasma
gondii using the indirect hemagglutination test. Of 157 animals sampled,
20 (13%) were seropositive. T. gondii antibodies were detected in
Burchell's zebra, (Equus burchelli), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus
amphibius), African elephant (Loxodonta africana), defassa waterbuck (Kobus
defassa), lion (Panthera leo), and rock hyrax (Procavia capensis), The
highest titers were found in elephants, two having titers of 1:4096 and
one of 1:8192. These results are discussed in relation to the
maintenance of T. gondii among African wildlife.
Young, E.,
1975. Echinococcosis (hydatidosis) in wild animals of the Kruger
National Park. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical
Association 46, 285-286.
Abstract: Echinococcosis has been diagnosed in the following wild
species in the Kruger National Park: lion, Panthera leo, spotted
hyena, Crocuta crocuta, Cape hunting dog, Lycaon pictus,
Burchell's zebra, Equus burchelli antiquorum, buffalo,
Syncerus caffer, hippopotamus, Hippopotamus amphibius, and
impala, Aepyceros melampus. Infestation rates in the herbivores
vary from 60% in zebra to less than 1% in impala. Species like
elephant, Loxodonta africana, and blue wildebeest,
Connochaetes taurinus, do not seem to be susceptible. The
successful artificial transmission of Echinococcus granulosis felidis
from Bruchell's zebra to the lion is reported for the first time.
Allen, K.B.,
Follis, T.N., Kistner, T.P., 1974. Occurrence of Grammocephalus
clathratus (Baird, 1868) Pailliet and Henry, 1910 (Nematoda:
Ancyclostomatidae), in an African elephant imported into the United
States. Journal of Parasitology 60, 952.
Decker, R.A.,
Krohn, A.F., 1973. Cholelithiasis in an Indian elephant. Journal of the
American Veterinary Medical Association 163, 546-547.
Abstract: Cholelithiasis with accompanying dilation of the bile ducts
was found on necropsy on a young Indian elephant ( Elephas maximus).
Salmonella london was isolated from a composite of minced
intestine, liver, spleen and heart.
Chandrasekharan, K., Pythal, C., Sundaram, R.K., 1972. A clinical note
on the use of thiabendazole (thibendole) against murshidiasis in Indian
elephants Elephas maximus. Kerala Journal of Veterinary Science 3,
56.
Coe, M.,
1972. Defaecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana africana
(Blumenbach)). East African Wildlife Journal 10, 165-174.
Abstract: A study of defaecation in the African elephant was carried out
at the Voi headquarters of the Tsavo (East) National Park. Four
orphaned animals aged between 1 and 10 years were observed for 4 days
and 3 nights. During the day the time and weight of each individual's
defaecation was recorded while at night only the time of defaecation.
Details of all records are presented. Analysis has shown that the
amount of dung produced with each defaecation bears a similar
characteristic to that of the growth curves of these animals. The rate
of defaecation does not vary significantly with age. Records of
defaecation arranged by time demonstrate an apparent periodicity with a
low peak mid-morning and a high peak mid-afternoon. The potential use
of this information in feeding and population studies is discussed.
Windsor, R.S.,
Ashford, W.A., 1972. Salmonella infection in the African elephant and
black rhinoceros. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 4, 214-219.
Abstract: Salmonellosis in two captive African elephants and a black
rhinoceros is described. Necropsy findings and characteristics of the
salmonellae isolated are outlined. Possible sources of infection are
discussed and on the basis of their findings, the authors make
recommendations for the care of newly captured wild animals.
Basson, P.A.,
McCully, R.M., de Vos, V., Young, E., Kruger, S.P., 1971. Some parasitic
and other natural diseases of the African elephant in the Kruger
National Park. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 38 ,
239-254.
Greve, J.H.,
1969. Strongyloides elephantis sp.from an Indian elephant,
Elephas indicus. Journal of Parasitology 55, 498-499.
Abstract: Strongyloides elephantis sp.parasitic females were
recovered from the small intestine of a captive Indian elephant
suffering from multiple parasitism. Principal features of S.
elephantis are its size (2.6 to 3.6 mm), the presence of nontwisted
ovaries, salient vaginal musculature and vulvar lips, and the posterior
position (73% of the body length from anterior end) of the vulva.
Intrauterine eggs measured 23 by 49 microns. The form passed in the
feces and free-living forms were not observed.
Anderson, I.L.,
1968. Tutu poisoning in two circus elephants. New Zealand Veterinary
Journal 16, 146-147.
Werle, E.,
Haendle, H., Schmal, A., 1968. A case of carcinoid in an elephant.
Pathologica Veterinaria 5, 81-83.
Kubota, K.,
1967. Comparative anatomical and neurohistological observations on the
tongues of elephants (Elephas indicus and Loxodonta africana).
Anatomical Record 157, 505-515.
Abstract: Frozen sections from Indian and African elephant tongues were
investigated neurohistologically. On the dorsum there are 3 to 5
vallate papillae. Foliate papillae consisting of 18 to 27 clefts are
observed in the posterolateral region of the tongue. Wart-like papillae
are distributed along the lateral border of the tongue from the foliate
papillae region to the apex. Vallate and foliate papillae contain
serous glands but have no taste buds. They are supplied with abundant
lamellated corpuscles of Pacinian type in their upper mucosa. The
wart-like papillae are composed of two or more papillae, each of which
has many secondary papillae supplied with plexiform thin and thick
nerves. They bear a few taste buds and contain lamellated corpuscles of
Pacinian type. From these neurohistologic characteristics wart-like
papillae should be regarded as a receptive organ for secretion of the
lingual glands. Lamellated corpuscles of Pacinian type are widely
distributed over the whole surface of the tongue. The histologic
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