Elephant
Bibliographic
Database

 

 

.

...

Return to Database Index
Click here if you need help searching


Gastrointestinal

(The following additional keywords have been used to categorize articles within this section and may assist your search.)

gastrointestinal, choke, colic, diarrhea, liver, peritonitis

Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org

References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent first.

Garner, M.M., Helmick, K., Ochsenreiter, J., Richman, L.K., Latimer, E., Wise, A.G., Maes, R.K., Kiupel, M., Nordhausen, R.W., Zong, J.C., Hayward, G.S., 2009. Clinico-pathologic features of fatal disease attributed to new variants of endotheliotropic herpesviruses in two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
119. Vet. Pathol. 46, 97-104.
Abstract: The first herpesviruses described in association with serious elephant disease were referred to as endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) because of their ability to infect capillary endothelial cells and cause potentially fatal disease. Two related viruses, EEHV1 and EEHV2, have been described based on genetic composition. This report describes the similarities and differences in clinicopathologic features of 2 cases of fatal endotheliotropic herpesvirus infections in Asian elephants caused by a previously unrecognized virus within the betaherpesvirus subfamily. EEHV3 is markedly divergent from the 2 previously studied fatal probosciviruses, based on polymerase chain reaction sequence analysis of 2 segments of the viral genome. In addition to ascites, widespread visceral edema, petechiae, and capillary damage previously reported, important findings with EEHV3 infection were the presence of grossly visible renal medullary hemorrhage, a tropism for larger veins and arteries in various tissues, relatively high density of renal herpetic inclusions, and involvement of the retinal vessels. These findings indicate a less selective organ tropism, and this may confer a higher degree of virulence for EEHV3

Bechert, U., Southern, S., Chase, M. Minimally invasive molecular health analysis in elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  88. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
This paper describes the application of a new assay platform called Stress Response Profiling (SRP) to the analysis of health status in elephants. SRP assays use a large biomarker panel as an indicator of chronically perturbed physiologic homeostasis ("chronic stress"),1,2 which is a known predictor of increased morbidity, infertility and mortality rates.3-8 SRP assays have a broad-based sensitivity to diverse types of stressors in multiple species of vertebrates.2 A minimally invasive SRP assay is based on skin microsamples obtained using routine biopsy procedures.9 The skin SRP assay was applied to captive African elephants with clinically diagnosed gastrointestinal infections and to healthy wild elephants.10 The elephant health status was classified using a reference database of SR biomarker profiles corresponding to eight species of normal and stressed animals. The biomarker profiles were converted into pathway profiles indicating that the molecular mechanism of the elephant gastrointestinal infections preferentially involved responses to misfolded proteins and DNA lesions. To rapidly and economically screen samples from 70 free-ranging African elephants sampled in Northern Botswana, we used a multiplexed SRP assay called multi-SRP.1,2 Statistical analysis of the multi-SRP scores showed correlations with population density, movements, and human-elephant conflict reports. In
summary, this paper documents that SRP and multi-SRP assays are suitable for the elephant skin and relevant to both symptomatic diseases and asymptomatic effects of environmental and anthropogenic stressors. We anticipate that the SRP technology might have a wide range of potential applications in veterinary medicine and ecosystem conservation.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Southern, S.O., A.C. Allen, and N. Kellar. 2002. Molecular signature of physiological stress in dolphins based on protein expression profiling of skin. Administrative Report LJ-02-27, National Marine Fisheries Service, SW Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, California.
2. Southern, S.O., and G.W. Lilienthal. 2008. New technology for early detection of health threats. Proc. SPIE 69450F.
3. Camougrand, N., and M. Rigoulet. 2001. Aging and oxidative stress: studies of some genes involved both in aging and in response to oxidative stress. Respir. Physiol. 128:393-40.
4. Epel, E.S., J. Lin, F.H. Wilhelm, O.M. Wolkowitz, R. Cawthon, N.E. Adler, C. Dolbier, W.B. Mendes, and E.H. Blackburn. 2006. Cell aging in relation to stress arousal and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 31:277-87.
5. Feder, M.E., and G.E. Hofmann. 1999. Heat-shock proteins, molecular chaperones, and the stress response: evolutionary and ecological physiology. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 61:243-82.
6. Kapahi, P., M.E. Boulton, and T.B.L. Kirkwood. 1999. Positive correlation between mammalian life span and cellular resistance to stress. Free Radical Biol. Med. 26:495-500.
7. Selye, H.A. 1936. Syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents. Nature 138:32.
8. Wilson, J.F., and E.J. Kopitzke 2002. Stress and infertility Curr. Womens Health Rep. 2: 194

Lotfy, W.M., Brant, S.V., DeJong, R.J., Le, T.H., Demiaszkiewicz, A., Rajapakse, R.P., Perera, V.B., Laursen, J.R., Loker, E.S., 2008. Evolutionary origins, diversification, and biogeography of liver flukes (Digenea, Fasciolidae). American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 248-255.
Abstract: Fasciolid flukes are among the largest and best known digenetic trematodes and have considerable historical and veterinary significance. Fasciola hepatica is commonly implicated in causing disease in humans. The origins, patterns of diversification, and biogeography of fasciolids are all poorly known. We have undertaken a molecular phylogenetic study using 28S, internal transcribed spacer 1 and 2 (ITS-1 and ITS-2) of nuclear ribosomal DNA, and mitochondrial nicotinamide dehydrogenase subunit 1 (nad1) that included seven of the nine recognized species in the family. The fasciolids examined comprise a monophyletic group with the most basal species recovered from African elephants. We hypothesize fasciolids migrated from Africa to Eurasia, with secondary colonization of Africa. Fasciolids have been conservative in maintaining relatively large adult body size, but anatomical features of their digestive and reproductive systems are available. These flukes have been opportunistic, with respect to switching to new snail (planorbid to lymnaeid) and mammalian hosts and from intestinal to hepatic habitats within mammals

Meyers, D.A., Isaza, R., MacNeill, A. Evaluation of acute phase proteins for diagnosis of inflammation in Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus). Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  128. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
In many domestic species, routine hematology assays are useful diagnostic tools to diagnose inflammatory conditions. Unlike other species, these hematologic tests apparently are insensitive indicators of inflammation in elephants.1 We studied a novel group of blood proteins, called acute phase proteins, which increase during inflammatory conditions, for their usefulness in diagnosing elephants with inflammatory diseases. Although these proteins currently are useful in humans and domestic animals, each species has a different set of important proteins that must be individually investigated.2 We tested several acute phase proteins (C-reactive protein, alpha-1 glycoprotein, alpha-1 antitrypsin, serum amyloid A, haptoglobin, fibrinogen, ceruloplasmin, and albumin) as well as complete blood counts, chemistry panels, serum protein electrophoresis, and 3-D gel electrophoresis to determine their usefulness for diagnosing different types of inflammatory conditions in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Animals with inflammatory conditions were classified as those individuals with known illnesses such as mycobacteriosis, arthritis, nail bed abscesses, and malignant tumors. Control animals were thoseanimals that were suspected to not have any inflammation and be healthy at the time of testing as determined by physical examination and obtaining a thorough medical history.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Lyashchenko, K., R. Greenwald, J. Esfandiari, J. Olsen, R. Ball, G. Dumonceaux, F. Dunker, C. Buckley, M.
Richard, S. Murray, J.B. Payeur, P. Anderson, J.M. Pollock, S. Mikota, M. Miller, D. Sofranko, and W.R.
Waters. 2006. Tuberculosis in Elephants: Antibody responses to defined antigens of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
, potential for early diagnosis, and monitoring of treatment. Clin. Vacc. Immunol. 13: 722-732.
2. Murata H., N. Shimada, M. Yoshioka. 2004. Current research on acute phase proteins in veterinary diagnosis:
an overview. Vet J. 168: 28-40.

Miller, J., McClean, M. Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) after a single rectal dose. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  224-225. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
Captive African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) are susceptible to many types of gram negative bacterial infections such as Escherichia coli, Mycoplasma  spp., Salmonella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. Enrofloxacin (Baytril®, Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee Mission, KS 66201) is a potentially effective antibiotic for
treatment of these bacterial infections in elephants. Very limited data exists on the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in elephants2 and most of the dosage regimes for gastrointestinal absorption are based on horse dosages since they share a similar  gastrointestinal tract. Three African elephants from Wildlife Safari in Winston, Oregon, two females both 37-yr-old and one male 26-yr-old, were used to determine whether therapeutic levels of enrofloxacin could be achieved thru rectal administration of liquid injectable enrofloxacin (Baytril 100®, 100 mg/ml, Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee Mission, KS 66201) at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg. A pretreatment baseline blood sample was collected. Following administration, blood samples were collected at 45 min, 1.5hr, 2.5hr, 5hr, 9hr, 23hr, 36hr to determine plasma enrofloxacin levels. Plasma enrofloxacin levels were measured at North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Plasma ciprofloxacin levels were measured concurrently. Results indicate plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin did not reach adequate bacteriocidal levels for any of the the following common bacterial isolates in captive elephants: Mycoplasma
spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. The study determined that a rectally administered dosage of 2.5 mg/kg of liquid injectable enrofloxacin was insufficient to obtain therapeutic levels in African elephants. The low plasma levels of enrofloxacin in all three elephants may be a result of poor absorption in the distal large intestine. A future study will determine if oral administration will provide a more efficient mode of drug delivery and absorption in African elephants. It is also possible that the current dosage of 2.5 mg/kg is too low to achieve adequate therapeutic levels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the elephant and veterinary staff at Wildlife Safari for their participation in conducting this study. Thanks to Doctors: Modesto McClean, Jason Bennett, Andi Chariffe, Tessa Lohe, Benji Alacantar. Also thanks to Dinah Wilson, Carol Matthews, Anthony Karels, Mary Iida, Shawn Finnell, Patches Stroud, Katie Alayan.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Haines, G.R., et. al. 2000. Serum concentrations and pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after intravenous and intragastric administration to mares. Can. J.Vet. Res. 64(3):171-177.
2. Sanchez, C.R., et. al. 2005. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of enrofloxacin administered orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Am. J. Vet. Res. 66:1948-1953.

Schmitt, D., Charmason, S., Wiedner, E. Use of luteinizing hormone ELISAs  in breeding elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  120-121. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Successful artificial insemination (AI) of elephants depends heavily on determining the unique luteinizing hormone (LH) surges that occur during the follicular phase of the elephant's estrous cycle. Natural breeding of elephants also can benefit from a rapid and accurate determination of the two LH surges found in elephants. There are three ELISAs available for determining the LH
surge; two are commercially-available assays and one is a laboratory in-house assay. Each vary in their cost, time to complete the assay, and ease of performing the procedures. Detection of the initial non-ovulatory peak in luteinizing hormone (LH1) is best accomplished by use of an in house LH assay, or use of the LH assay available from Dr. Nancy Dahl (UC-Davis, Davis, CA
95616 USA), both of which are quantitative assays for detection of LH. For cow-side use during estrus, the qualitative ELISA Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit (Symbiotics Corporation, Kansas City, MO 64163 USA) detects LH in elephants within 20 min. This assay requires a minimum of laboratory precision to detect the ovulatory LH peak (LH2).
Introduction
Elephants are the only species known to exhibit a double LH peak during a single estrous cycle.2,4 Increased success of artificial insemination in elephants occurred partly in response to the ability to detect the LH1 surge about 21 days prior to the ovulatory LH2 surge that occurs at the end of a two to three day estrus.1 The first reports regarding detection of the double LH
surges were performed in laboratories using custom ELISA technology that require exacting procedures and two days to complete the quantitative assays.2,4 A semi-quantitative elephant LH ELISA that can be performed in the field in about 2.5 hr was developed at UC-Davis.3 A qualitative LH assay was developed for use in dogs and cats that uses a latex strip ELISA. The time for development of the test is 20 min and detects a LH surge greater than 1 ng/ml using serum. Elephants have LH1 and LH2 surges in the 4-16 ng/ml range,2,4 well within the detectable range for all of the assays described. The detection of the LH1 peak usually is from daily samples submitted weekly; this allows some efficiency of assay resources and provides at least a two-wk notice of LH2. However, accurate and timely detection of LH2 is needed at least daily and at times twice daily during estrus. The use of an LH assay which can be performed 'cow-side' and accurately detect LH2 is essential for successful AI and can be helpful in determining estrus status for natural breeding. The Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit from Symbiotics was developed for use in dogs and cats, but is effective in other species, including elephants, and meets these requirements.
Discussion
Detection of LH1 provides information for predicting the LH2 surge and performance of assays that require more laboratory time and precision are useful since detection of LH1 is not as timesensitive as LH2 detection. Both of the quantitative assays have unique advantages. An inhouse assay can be set up, but requires greater preparation time, precision of laboratory procedures is more demanding, often takes two days to perform, and is more susceptible to environmental variables. The assay developed by UC-Davis costs about $5.00 per well, takes about 2.5 hr to perform and is more stable. However, for quantitative results the overhead costs of the standard curve requires about 16 wells ($90), plus two wells for each unknown sample. The UC-Davis assay can be set up as a qualitative test with high and low controls and no standard curve. This requires from three to six wells for a single sample. The Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit has a control built into each test strip and costs about $25.00 per sample. Because 'cow-side' testing possible using the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit, I recommend its use for detection of LH2, although the UC-Davis Elephant ELISA is competitively priced and can be performed in a nearby temporary laboratory. Because timing is
critical in detecting LH2 and performing subsequent AI, I recommend using the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit at the time of estrus, preceded by either one of the other assays for detecting LH1, depending on availability of laboratory labor and equipment.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Brown, J. L., F. Goritz, N. Pratt-Hawkes, R. Hermes, M. Galloway, L. H. Graham, C. Gray, S. L. Walker, A. Gomez, R. Moreland, S. Murray, D. L. Schmitt, J. G. Howard, J. Lehnhardt, B. Beck, A. Bellem, R. Montali, and T. B. Hildebrandt. 2004. Successful artificial insemination of an Asian elephant at the National Zoological Park. Zoo Biol. 23: 45-63.
2. Brown, J. L., D. L. Schmitt, A. Bellem, L. H. Graham, and J. Lehnhardt. 1999. Hormone secretion in the Asian elephant (
Elephas maximus): Characterization of ovulatory and anovulatory luteinizing hormone surges. Biol. Reprod. 61: 1294-1299.
3. Dahl, N. J., D. Olson, D. L. Schmitt, D. R. Blasko, R. S. Kristipati, and J. F. Roser. 2004. Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the elephant (
Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus). Zoo Biol. 23: 65-78.
4. Kapustin, N., J. K. Critser, D. Olson, and P. V. Malven. 1996. Nonluteal estrous cycles of 3-week duration are initiated by anovulatory luteinizing hormone peaks in African elephants. Biol. Reprod. 55:1147-1154.

Steinmetz, H.W., Eulenberger, U., Hatt, J.M. Daily clinical examinations in a herd of captive asian elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians.  124. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract:
The captive population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is not self-sustaining.2 Poor reproduction and high juvenile mortality are key factors in the decreasing population. Infection with endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV) is one of the major causes of death in the captive population, and has resulted in the loss of at least 40 captive animals.1 EEHV has been
responsible for the peracute death of two juvenile males at Zurich Zoo, Switzerland. Mortality due to peracute infection with EEHV mainly is seen in juveniles. Early detection of characteristic clinical signs of EEHV and immediate initiation of therapy are of crucial
importance due to its rapid progression. Based on past fatal EEHV experiences, Zurich Zoo modified its daily clinical health monitoring program to increase staff awareness of EEHV infection. Examinations have been incorporated into the daily routine and include daily evaluation of behaviour, appetite, colour of mucosal membranes and the measurement of body temperature; these examinations are performed by keepers. In our experiences, characteristic signs of acute EEHV infection are lethargy, anorexia, mild
colic, and cyanosis of the mucosal membranes. Results of temperature measurements have shown that best estimations of body temperature are done by measurement of the temperature in the centre of a fecal ball 5-9 min after defecation. Mean values of 36.5°C (± 0.2°C SD) are within published reference values, although adult elephants have shown significantly lower body temperature than juveniles. Establishment of individual reference values for each elephant is essential to detect unusual temperature peaks that may indicate possible EEHV viremia. The present study has shown that daily health examinations increase the awareness of keepers for
early signs of EEHV infection (e.g., peaks in body temperature and cyanotic mucosal membranes).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank B. Aeschbach and all elephant keepers for taking special care of our elephants. The work and organization of Ms. G. Hürlimann is gratefully appreciated.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S. 2007. Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV). http://www.elephantcare.org/herpes.htm. cited: 10.04.2008:
2. Wiese, R. J. 2000. Asian elephants are not self-sustaining in North America. Zoo Biol. 19: 299-309.

Tshikae, B.P., Davis, A.L., Scholtz, C.H., 2008. Trophic associations of a dung beetle assemblage (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) in a woodland savanna of Botswana. Environ. Entomol. 37, 431-441.
Abstract: Species richness and abundance of dung beetles were assessed across a range of bait types that acted as surrogates for the food resources available in Chobe National Park, Botswana. These bait types were comprised of the dung of pig (omnivore), cattle (ruminant herbivore dropping fine-fiberd pads), sheep (pellet-dropping ruminant herbivore), and elephant (monogastric, nonruminant herbivore producing coarse-fibered droppings), and chicken livers (carrion). Species richness was similar between traps baited with pig, cattle, and elephant dung but was relatively lower in those baited with sheep dung and carrion. In traps baited with pig dung, abundance was relatively greater than in all other bait types. A cluster analysis of species abundance distributions for the 30 most abundant species identified four different patterns of bait type association at a 60% level of similarity. All but 1 of the 15 species in cluster A were attracted primarily to the dung of omnivores and pad-dropping ruminant herbivores (pig and cattle). All seven species of cluster B were attracted primarily to coarse-fibered, nonruminant herbivore dung (elephant). All four species of cluster C were primarily carrion and pig dung associated, whereas all four species of cluster D were carrion specialists. In conclusion, the most abundant species were attracted to all bait types, but most species were largely specialized to different dung types or carrion, with dung attracting the majority of the fauna in terms of both species richness and abundance

Clauss, M., Streich, W.J., Schwarm, A., Ortmann, S., Hummel, J., 2007. The relationship of food intake and ingesta passage predicts feeding ecology in two different megaherbivore groups. Oikos 116, 209-216.
Abstract: Digestion, especially of plant material, is a time-dependent process. In herbivores, an increase in food intake is usually correlated to an acceleration of ingesta passage through the gut, and could hence depress digestive efficiency. Therefore, the nature of the relationship between food intake and ingesta passage (i.e. whether the increase in ingesta passage due to the increase in food intake is mild or drastic) should determine the flexibility of the feeding strategy of herbivore and omnivore species. Using two megaherbivore groups, the elephants and the hippopotamuses, as examples from opposing ends of the range of potential adaptations to this problem, we demonstrate that the species-specific relationship of food intake and ingesta passage can precisely predict feeding ecology and activity budgets. In hippos, the distinct acceleration in ingesta passage due to increased intake limits the additional energy gained from eating more forage, and explains the comparatively low food intake and short feeding times generally observed in these animals. In elephants, increased food intake only leads to a very moderate increase of ingesta passage, thus theoretically allowing to optimize energy gain by eating more, which is in accord with the high food intake and long feeding times observed in these animals. We suggest that the characterization of the intake-passage relationship in herbi- and omnivorous species is of much higher ecological relevance than the determination of a supposedly species-specific "passage time/mean retention time.".

Clauss, M., Steinmetz, H., Eulenberger, U., Ossent, P., Zingg, R., Hummel, J., Hatt, J.M., 2007. Observations on the length of the intestinal tract of African Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach 1797) and Asian elephants Elephas maximus (Linne 1735). European Journal of Wildlife Research 53, 68-72.
Abstract: The digestive tract of elephants is surprisingly short compared to other herbivorous mammals. However, measurements relating the length of the intestine to the body mass of the respective individual are rare. In this study, we report such data for an African elephant and an Asian elephant. Our data support the hypothesis that Asian elephants have a longer intestinal tract than their African counterparts. These findings are in accord with the observation of longer retention times and higher digestion coefficients in Asian as compared to African elephants. This difference between the species could be the reflection of slightly different ecological niches, with Asian elephants adapted to a natural diet with a higher proportion of grass.

Pan, D., 2007. Hippo signaling in organ size control. Genes Dev. 21, 886-897.
Abstract: The control of organ (or organism) size is a fundamental aspect of life that has long captured human imagination. What makes an elephant grow a million times larger than a mouse? How do our two hands develop independently of each other yet reach very similar size? How does a liver precisely regenerate its original mass when two-thirds of it is removed? The recent discovery of a novel signaling network in Drosophila, known as the Hippo (Hpo) pathway, might provide an important entry point to these fascinating questions. The Hpo pathway consists of several negative growth regulators acting in a kinase cascade that ultimately phosphorylates and inactivates Yorkie (Yki), a transcriptional coactivator that positively regulates cell growth, survival, and proliferation. Components of the Hpo pathway are highly conserved throughout evolution, suggesting that this pathway may function as a global regulator of tissue homeostasis in all metazoan animals. Here, I provide a historical review of this potent growth-regulatory pathway and highlight outstanding questions that will likely be the focus of future investigation

Bojesen, A.M., Olsen, K.E., Bertelsen, M.F., 2006. Fatal enterocolitis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile. Vet Microbiol Epub ahead of print.
Abstract: Two cases of fatal enteritis caused by Clostridium difficile in captive Asian elephants are reported from an outbreak affecting five females in the same zoo. Post mortem examination including histopathology demonstrated fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis. C. difficile was isolated by selective cultivation from two dead and a third severely affected elephant. Four isolates were obtained and found positive for toxin A and B by PCR. All isolates were positive in a toxigenic culture assay and toxin was demonstrated in the intestinal content from one of the fatal cases and in a surviving but severely affected elephant. PCR ribotyping demonstrated that the C. difficile isolates shared an identical profile, which was different from an epidemiologically unrelated strain, indicating that the outbreak was caused by the same C. difficile clone. It is speculated that the feeding of large quantities of broccoli, a rich source of sulforaphane, which has been shown to inhibit the growth of many intestinal microorganisms may have triggered a subsequent overgrowth by C. difficile. This is the first report of C. difficile as the main cause of fatal enterocolitis in elephants. The findings emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially dangerous for elephants and caution is recommended concerning antibiotic treatment and feeding with diets containing antimicrobials, which may trigger an expansion of a C. difficile population in the gut.

Fidgett, A.L., Newman, E.C., Sanderson, S. Using faecal analysis as an indicator of dental condition: A case study at Chester Zoo. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  250. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Reid, C.E., Hildebrandt, T.B., Marx, N., Hunt, M., Thy, N., Reynes, J.M., Schaftenaar, W., Fickel, J., 2006. Endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV) infection. The first PCR-confirmed fatal case in Asia
436. Vet. Q. 28, 61-64.
Abstract: Since 1995, 4 suspected cases of Endotheliotropic Elephant Herpes Virus (EEHV) infection, i.e. based on clinical presentation, have occurred in Asia without resulting in epidemic outbreaks as expected. In order to confirm the presence of EEHV on the continent of Asia, viral DNA particles from liver samples of a wild-caught 3-year-old elephant found dead at a Cambodian elephant sanctuary and clinically diagnosed with EEHV, were PCR processed using known EEHV strain primers. The presence of EEHV viral nucleic acids was confirmed and the nucleic acids had a 99% sequence similarity to the U.S.A strain (gene bank locus: AF117265) and 97% sequence similarity to the European strain (gene bank locus: AF354746) assigning this case to the EEHV-1 cluster. More than the confirmation of EEHV on the continent of Asia, is the phylogenic relationship to the USA and European strains with no corresponding contact or transport of USA or European elephants to Asia. Thus, this brings many of the traditional theories into question. Although almost forgotten, this disease is still ramped in captive elephant populations worldwide and continues to devastate particularly the neonatal and weaning-age population. Special attention and continued research are needed specifically in the area of basic virology and epidemiology

Clauss, M., Robert, N., Walzer, C., Vitaud, C., Hummel, J., 2005. Testing predictions on body mass and gut contents: dissection of an African elephant Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1797. Eur J Wildl Res 51, 291-294.
Abstract: The values reported in the literature for the total gastrointestinal tract (GIT) content mass of elephants are lower than expected from interspeci.c mammalian regression. This .nding agrees with theoretical considerations that elephants should have less capacious GITs than other herbivorous mammals, resulting in short ingesta retention times. However, the data on elephants was so far derived from either diseased zoo specimens or free-ranging animals subjected to an unknown hunting stress. In this study, we weighed the wet contents of the GIT segments of a captive African elephant that was euthanased because of a positive serological tuberculosis test, but that was clinically healthy, did not show a reduced appetite, and ingested food up to the time of euthanasia. The animal weighed 3,140 kg and its total gut contents were 542 kg or 17% of body mass. This is in close accord with the published mammalian herbivore regression equation of Parra (Comparison of foregut and hindgut fermentation in herbivores. In: Montgomery GG (ed) The ecology of arboreal folivores. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, pp205-230, 1978) and contradicts the notion that elephants have comparatively less capacious gastrointestinal tracts. Data on the individual gut segments, however, do support earlier suspicions that elephants have a comparatively less capacious caecum and a disproportionally capacious colon.

Deem, S.L., Brown, J.L., Eggert, L., Wemmer, C., Htun, W., Nyunt, T., Murray, S., Leimgruber, P. Health and management of working elephants in Myanmar (Burma). Procedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  228-231. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Myanmar has approximately 6,000 working elephants.  Remaining wild elephants are declining, partly because of live-capture for captivity.  Through health and reproductive assessments, genetic analyses and GPS tracking of captive and wild elephants, we are exploring linkages between the two populations and conducting studies to reduce morbidity and mortality of captive elephants. Captive elephants live and work in Myanmar's forests in close proximity and contact to the remaining wild herds. We propose that reducing morbidity and mortality in the captive elephants will decrease the need for live-capture, and the risk of disease transmission, to wild elephants.
Introduction
There are an estimated 6,000 working elephants in Myanmar - half owned by the government operated Myanmar Timber Enterprise (MTE) and half owned privately.5 This may be one of the largest captive elephant populations in the world and its management will have a significant impact on remaining wild herds in Myanmar.4,6,8  With mortality rates higher than birth rates, the working population is probably maintained by supplementing it with elephants captured from the wild.5 There is evidence that continued harvest of wild elephants may have reduced the remaining wild populations of Myanmar.  Recent surveys of wild populations in two of Myanmar's protected elephant ranges revealed extremely low dung counts, indicative of small and declining herds. Constant contact with captive elephants in Myanmar's forests may exacerbate the threat to Myanmar wild elephants by increasing the transmission of disease between these two groups. For both the above reasons, we believe that the conservation of wild elephants in Myanmar will require significant improvements in the care and management of currently existing captive populations.  
Elephants owned by MTE receive veterinary care from the Burmese veterinarians that work for the timber company and travel extensively throughout the country to sites were the elephants are located.1 There is a dire need for veterinary supplies and laboratory capabilities in the country. Currently, veterinary practices are based on the extensive field experience of lead MTE veterinarians. However, MTE veterinarians frequently rely on older published work 3,7 and would benefit significantly from training that incorporates new insights into elephant health and new veterinary techniques. Similarly, because of their close-up experience of elephant health problems in the forests, MTE veterinarians may be able to make important new contributions to the care and management of elephants elsewhere.     
The overall objective of our study is to work jointly with MTE veterinarians to develop long-term captive population management strategies to reduce mortality and increase births in the working timber elephants and stop the continued off-take of animals from the wild to supplement captive herds.
Methods
The health component of this study has five major objectives.  These are to:
1              Conduct a training workshop, in conjunction with MTE veterinarians, on elephant management and veterinary care. 
2              Develop protocols so that the MTE veterinarians can collect samples for reproductive, genetic, and health status assessments.
3              Analyze samples and provide data to MTE veterinarians to improve husbandry, preventive care and disease treatment of working elephants.
4              Develop a comprehensive bibliography of all published information on the health and management of Myanmar elephants.
5              Perform an epidemiologic evaluation of records available on the historic and current working elephant population.
Specific steps to achieve these objectives include: 
1              Determine causes and rates of morbidity and mortality of captive MTE elephants.
2              Determine causes of low rates of reproduction in captivity.
3              Develop a genetic profile of the captive herds.
4              Develop a protocol to assess oozies-Burmese mahout-expertise in parallel with endocrine and health assessments to determine quality of care and potentially related stress.
5              Develop small population viability models to assess how current mortality effects long-term survival of the captive population and what supplementation from the wild is needed for short- and long-term sustainability.
6              Use population viability models to demonstrate how supplementation from the wild will negatively affect that population.
7              Get baseline health parameter data on free-ranging elephants.
8              Quantify habitat/space use using GPS and satellite tracking of captive and wild elephants. 
Results and Discussion
During an initial exploratory visit in November 2004, we learned that the annual mortality rate for MTE working elephants was 2.4% (66) in 2003.  Deaths occurred in all age groups (>18 yr, n = 40; 4 - 17 yr, n = 11; <4 yr, n = 15) and included preventable diseases (i.e., poor nutrition, heat stroke, diarrhea, dystocia, infectious and parasitic agents).  Additionally, we collected samples for performing health, genetic and endocrine analyses of 22 elephants maintained in one of the working camps (results to be presented). A relationship also was established with the veterinary staff at the Yangon Zoo, including follow up donations of veterinary literature and journals to the zoo. We provided medical advice for the care of an orphaned elephant calf and other animals housed at the zoo during our brief visit. We are seeking funds for a training course to be conducted in late 2005 and hope to perform health evaluations on a larger number of zoo and working elephants during that visit.
The National Zoo already has an extensive conservation program for wild elephants in Myanmar.4,6,8  This program has focused on assessing wild elephant populations in protected areas and satellite-tracking of four wild elephants to learn more about their conservation status and ecology in Myanmar.  Currently this work is being extended to a national elephant survey. Part of this work included collecting fecal samples for genetic and health assessments.
The Smithsonian team of researchers involved in this project includes a veterinarian, reproduction physiologist, geneticist, conservation biologist, and landscape ecologist.  All members of this multidisciplinary team have extensive experience working with elephants and together provide the necessary expertise to study and understand the numerous factors affecting Myanmar's captive elephants and the long-term survival of elephants in Myanmar.  These challenges range from human land use and elephant population fragmentation, human-elephant conflict, poor reproduction and health care of captive elephants and lack of information on the health status of the wild elephants.  A viable conservation initiative for the elephants of Myanmar requires that health issues be addressed as one component of a comprehensive program to address the anthropogenic pressures on both working and wild elephants.2
The elephants of Myanmar are an excellent example of the fine line that exists between captive and wild animals, especially as it relates to health.  Captive and wild elephants are regularly in direct and indirect contact.  The working elephants live with their oozies who may expose them to diseases, such as tuberculosis.  The working elephants in turn may encounter wild elephants at night in the forests where they forage and live during non-working hours. In fact, the majority of captive born calves are said to be sired by wild bulls.  Potentially, the use of working elephants in selectively extracting valuable timber provides new strategies for the conservation of elephants and forests. Most likely, "elephant-logging" is less damaging than machine-operated timbering projects that tend to clear-cut areas and also damage the soil and streams.  However, decreasing the negative impact of such practices (i.e., minimizing off-take of elephants from the wild, decreasing disease risks to the wild elephants) is imperative.  
LITERATURE CITED
1 Aung, T., and T. Nyunt.  2002.  The care and management of the domesticated Asian elephant in Myanmar.  In: Baker, I., and M. Kashio (eds.): Giants on our hands. Proc. Int. Workshop Domesticated Asian Elephant. Dharmasarn Co., Ltd. Bangkok, Thailand. Pp. 89 - 102.
2 Deem, S.L., W.B. Karesh, and W. Weisman.  2001.  Putting theory into practice: wildlife health in conservation.  Conserv. Biol. 5: 1224-1233.
3 Evans, G.H. 1910.  Elephants and Their Diseases.  Government Printing. Rangoon. 323 
4 Kelly, D.S. 2005.  Habitat selection in declining elephant populations of Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park. Masters Thesis.  George Mason University.
5 Lair, R.C. 1997.  Myanmar. In: Gone Astray: The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Thailand.  RAP Publication. Pp. 99-131
6 Leimgruber, P., and C. Wemmer.  2004.  National elephant symposium and workshop. Report to the USFWS and the Myanmar Forest Department.
7 Pfaff, G. 1930.  Reports on Diseases of Elephants.  Government Printing. Rangoon. 91
8 Wemmer, C., P. Leimgruber and D. S. Kelly.  2005.  Managing wild elephants in Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park and Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary.  Report to the USFWS and the Myanmar Forest Department.

Neiffer, D.L., Miller, M.A., Weber, M., Stetter, M., Fontenot, D.K., Robbins, P.K., Pye, G.W., 2005. Standing sedation in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) using detomidine-butorphanol combinations. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36, 250-256.
Abstract: Standing sedation was provided for 14 clinical procedures in three African elephants (Loxodonta africana) managed by combined protected and modified-protected contact and trained through operant conditioning. An initial hand-injection of detomidine hydrochloride and butorphanol tartrate at a ratio of 1:1 on a microg:microg basis was administered intramuscularly, with a dosage range of 50-70 mg (12.9-19.7 microg/kg) for each drug. The initial injection resulted in adequate sedation for initiation and completion of eight procedures, whereas supplemental doses were required for the remaining procedures. The dosage range for the supplemental injections of each drug was 4.0-7.3 microg/kg. Initial effect was noted within 3.0-25 min (mean = 11.6 min, SD +/- 5.9 min), with maximal effect occurring at 25-30 min for those procedures not requiring supplementation. In all but one procedure, this effect was maintained until the end of the procedure, which ranged from 47 to 98 min (mean = 74.7 min, SD +/- 18.8 min). No cardiac or respiratory depression was appreciated. Recovery after administration of reversal agents was rapid and complete, ranging from 2 to 20 min (mean = 9.0 min, SD +/- 7.0 min). On the basis of the authors' experience, recommended dosage ranges for reversal agents would be intravenous yohimbine (73.4-98.5 microg/kg), intravenous naltrexone (48.9-98.5 microg/kg), and intramuscular naltrexone (73.4-98.5 microg/kg). Approximately one-third to one-half of the total naltrexone dose should be administered intravenously. Mild adverse side effects limited to the gastrointestinal tract were observed in association with five procedures including abdominal distention with or without transient anorexia. Administration of reversal agents, encouraging exercise and water consumption, and administration of flunixin meglumine were helpful in the resolution of signs. In addition to gastrointestinal signs, slight ataxia was observed before initiation of surgical stimulation during one procedure in which 19.7 microg/kg of each drug was administered. On the basis of the procedures that did not require supplementation to initiate treatment and taking into consideration the potential for ataxia at higher doses, a starting dosage range of 14.7-16.2 microg/kg of both detomidine and butorphanol in a ratio of 1:1 on a microg:microg basis administered i.m. simultaneously is recommended

Pendlebury, C., Odongo, N.E., Renjifo, A., Naelitz, J., Valdez, E.V., McBride, B.W., 2005. Acid-insoluble ash as a measure of dry matter digestibility in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24, 261-265.
Abstract: There are limited data on the diet dry matter digestibility (DMD) of captive African elephants. Although the total fecal collection method is the standard for determining DMD, it is labor-intensive, time-consuming, and expensive. The acid-insoluble ash (AIA) marker technique has been used successfully to determine DMD in ruminants and monogastrics. The objective of this study was to assess how accurately the AIA marker technique could estimate the DMD of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana).  Three mature male African elephants at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida were used in this study. The animals were offered a Bermuda grass hay-based ration, and the total dry matter intake (DMI) and total fecal output were measured daily over a 7-day period to determine the total collection DMD.  The feed ingredients and fecal samples were also analyzed for AIA.  Although there were differences (P < 0.05) in total DMI and total fecal outputs, the DMD values did not (P > 0.05) differ (35.1 +/- 0.72 vs. 37.1 +/- 0.72 for total collection and AIA, respectively). There was a linear (y=0.9461x; R-2 = 0.74) relationship between the total collection and AIA marker technique DMD values. These results suggest that AIA can be used to accurately   estimate the DMD of captive African elephants.

Suarez, R.K., Darveau, C.A., Childress, J.J., 2004. Metabolic scaling: a many-splendoured thing
656. Comp Biochem. Physiol B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 139, 531-541.
Abstract: Animals at rest and during exercise display rates of aerobic metabolism, VO2, that represent mainly the sum of mitochondrial respiration rates in various organs. The relative contributions of these organs change with physiological state such that internal organs such as liver, kidney and brain account for most of the whole-body VO2 at rest, while locomotory muscles account for >90% of the maximum rate, VO2max, during maximal aerobic exercise. Mechanisms that regulate VO2 are complex and the relative importance of each step in a series, estimated by metabolic control analysis, depends upon the level of biological organization under consideration as well as physiological state. Despite this complexity, prominent single-cause models propose that metabolic rates are supply-limited and that the scaling of supply systems provides a sufficient explanation for the allometric scaling of metabolism. We argue that some assumptions, as well as current interpretations of the meaning (or consequences) of these constraints are flawed, i.e., elephants do not have lower mass-specific basal or maximal rates of aerobic metabolism because their mitochondria are more supply-limited than those of shrews. Animals do not violate the laws of physics, and the allometric scaling of supply systems would be expected, to some extent, to be matched by capacities for (and rates of) energy expenditure. But life is not so simple. Animals are so diverse that to do justice to metabolic scaling, it is also necessary to consider the scaling of energy expenditure. It is by doing so that models of metabolic scaling can be consistent with current paradigms in metabolic regulation and accommodate the range of inter- and intraspecific exponents found in nature. The "allometric cascade," a first attempt at such an accounting, was a source of great satisfaction to Peter Hochachka. It was the last door that he helped open to comparative physiologists before he said goodbye

Clauss, M., Frey, R., Kiefer, B., Lechner-Doll, M., Loehlein, W., Polster, C., Rossner, G.E., Streich, W.J., 2003. The maximum attainable body size of herbivorous mammals: morphophysiological constraints on foregut, and adaptations of hindgut fermenters. Oecologia 136, 14-27.
Abstract: An oft-cited nutritional advantage of large body size is that larger animals have lower relative energy requirements and that, due to their increased gastrointestinal tract (GIT) capacity, they achieve longer ingesta passage rates, which allows them to use forage of lower quality. However, the fermentation of plant material cannot be optimized endlessly; there is a time when plant fibre is totally fermented, and another when energy losses due to methanogenic bacteria become punitive. Therefore, very large herbivores would need to evolve adaptations for a comparative acceleration of ingesta passage. To our knowledge, this phenomenon has not been emphasized in the literature to date. We propose that, among the extant herbivores, elephants, with their comparatively fast passage rate and low digestibility coefficients, are indicators of a trend that allowed even larger hindgut fermenting mammals to exist. The limited existing anatomical data on large hindgut fermenters suggests that both a relative shortening of the GIT, an increase in GIT diameter, and a reduced caecum might contribute to relatively faster ingesta passage; however, more anatomical data is needed to verify these hypotheses. The digestive physiology of large foregut fermenters presents a unique problem: ruminant-and nonruminant-forestomachs were designed to delay ingesta passage, and they limit food intake as a side effect. Therefore, with increasing body size and increasing absolute energy requirements, their relative capacity has to increase in order to compensate for this intake limitation. It seems that the foregut fermenting ungulates did not evolve species in which the intake-limiting effect of the foregut could be reduced, e.g. by special bypass structures, and hence this digestive model imposed an intrinsic body size limit. This limit will be lower the more the natural diet enhances the ingesta retention and hence the intake-limiting effect. Therefore, due to the mechanical characteristics of grass, grazing ruminants cannot become as big as the largest browsing ruminant. Ruminants are not absent from the very large body size classes because their digestive physiology offers no particular advantage, but because their digestive physiology itself intrinsically imposes a body size limit. We suggest that the decreasing ability for colonic water absorption in large grazing ruminants and the largest extant foregut fermenter, the hippopotamus, are an indication of this limit, and are the outcome of the competition of organs for the available space within the abdominal cavity. Our hypotheses are supported by the fossil record on extinct ruminant/tylopod species which did not, with the possible exception of the Sivatheriinae, surpass extant species in maximum body size. In contrast to foregut fermentation, the GIT design of hindgut fermenters allows adaptations for relative passage acceleration, which explains why very large extinct mammalian herbivores are thought to have been hindgut fermenters.  Institute of Animal Physiology, Physiological Chemistry and Animal Nutrition, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Veterinaerstrasse 13, 80539, Munich, Germany. clauss@tiph.vetmed.uni-muenchen.de

Gage, L., Schmitt, D. Dystocia in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  88. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: A 24-yr-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was inseminated on 12/2/00 and again on 12/4/00.  Pregnancy was confirmed on 1/21/01 with an ultrasound evaluation, and elevated progesterone levels of over a twelve to sixteen week period supported the diagnosis. The pregnancy progressed without complication.  Ultrasounds confirmed calf growth and movement throughout the pregnancy.  On 10/5/02, 673 days post-insemination, the cow passed the mucous plug in the evening.  The chorio-allantois ruptured shortly after that.  There were a few modest contractions over a period of about three hours, which then ceased.  Fetal front feet could be palpated in the birth canal, just into the cranial pelvis. Fetal circulation was confirmed using color doppler ultrasound of the fetal extremities.  Oxytocin was administered on 10/6/02.  The first two doses resulted in a few good contractions.  Fetal feet entered further into the pelvis, and fetal viability was confirmed again with color doppler ultrasound. Oxytocin was administered three more times resulting in a few small contractions and some stretching.  One dose of 110 IU Oxytocin resulted in one large contraction, subsequent doses of oxytocin did not yield any appreciable additional efforts.  That evening while walking the elephant, the amniotic sac broke releasing several liters of fluid. Blood was drawn and serum chemistries were within normal range. On 10/7/02 the uterus did not respond to oxytocin. Color doppler ultrasound of the fetal legs revealed no discernable fetal circulation.  Antibiotics and supportive care were initiated.  For the next week the feet were easily palpated within the pelvis.  For the several days the elephant was stiff and moderately depressed. Her appetite was good and she was drinking water. The elephant was given another dose of oxytocin on 10/15/02, which resulted in a few moderate contractions, but no progress was made in delivering the calf.  The next day the elephant seemed more depressed and uncomfortable. Her appetite and water intake were markedly reduced and within two days she exhibited what appeared to be abdominal pain. The elephant was treated aggressively with antibiotics and fluids for several weeks.  Severe peritonitis was confirmed during a laparoscopic procedure and the elephant was euthanized. The post-mortem examination revealed a tear in the uterus and a normal-sized fetus in normal presentation in the birth canal. The fetus however was abnormal and had arthrogryposis affecting all four limbs to varying degrees.  Both rear limbs of the fetus were particularly affected and the joints of those limbs were bent in an abnormal way, anchoring the fetus inside the dam. The arthrogryposis of the calf was likely the cause of the dystocia, and was likely the contributing factor to the tear in the uterus.

Kashid, K.P., Shrikhande, G.B., Bhojne, G.R., 2003. Incidence of gastro-intestinal helminths in captive wild animals at different locations. Zoos' Print Journal 18, 1053-1054.
Abstract: The faecal samples of various species of wild and zoo animals in six different locations in India were analysed for the presence of gastrointestinal helminths. The percentages of infection for the tigers, leopards, elephants, monkeys, spotted deer, lions, peacocks, geese and ducks, kaka-kuas and other animals are given. The isolated worms included Amphistoma, strongyles, Trichuris spp., Moniezia spp., Ascaridia galli, Toxascaris leonina, Raillietina tetragona, Paragonimus westermani, Filaroides osleri [Oslerus osleri], F. hirthi, Ascaridia galli + R. tetragona, Taenia taeniaeformis, Trichuris + P. westermani and Ascaridia galli + Subulura spp.

Kongsila, A., Thongtip, N., Yatbantung, N. Oesophageal obstruction (choke) in Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus): case report. Proceedings of 41st Kasetsart University Annual Conference, 3-7 February, 2003.  678-683. 2003.  Kasetsart University; Bangkok; Thailand.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Manna, S., 2003. Enteritis and it's treatment in an Asian elephant. Zoos' Print Journal 18, 1130.

Steenkamp, G., 2003. Oral biology and disorders of tusked mammals. Veterinary Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 6, 689-725.
Abstract: Tusked mammals can be terrestrial or aquatic. Many of these magnificent animals are kept in captivity all over the world. Functions of tusks vary as much as the species in which they occur. Dental anomalies and disorders of tusks and the rest of the dentition in these mammals were discussed, with an emphasis on the elephant. The tusk anatomy, with its large, conically-shaped pulp, makes it an ideal tooth for partial pulpectomy treatment in trauma cases where the pulp is exposed. Surgical techniques for tusks have been developed and were discussed. Oral tumors occur, but are rare.Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0010, South Africa. steenkamp@op.up.ac.za

Yamada, M., Nakamura, K., Nozaki, H., Tanaka, H., 2003. Hepatocellular endoplasmic reticulum storage disease in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). J Comp Pathol 128, 192-194.
Abstract: Large intracytoplasmic inclusions were observed in hepatocytes of a 7-year-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana). The inclusions were oval to polyhedral with either a homogeneous glassy or a granular appearance. They were positive for the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) reaction. Electron microscopical examination revealed that the inclusions consisted of granular material with moderate electron-density and were membrane-bounded. The findings suggested that the inclusions were derived from endoplasmic reticulum. The light and electron microscopical features were similar to those of endoplasmic reticulum storage disease of the liver in man. Such inclusions have not previously been reported in animals. National Institute of Animal Health, Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan.

 2002. Large Animal Internal Medicine. Mosby, St.Louis.

Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Elephant - an overview. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 8-11.

Chandrasekharan, K., 2002. Specific diseases of Asian elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 31-34.
Abstract: The earliest writing describing the diseases of elephants in ancient literature said to be the works on "Gajasastra" (Elephantology) written in Sanskrit by authors like Gautama, Narada, Mrigacharma, Rajaputra and Vyasa. "Hasthyayurveda" a legendary book in Sanskrit written by a safe Palakapya deals with some diseases, treatment, desirable and undesirable points of selection, management practices and some mythological aspects on the origin of elephants. The earliest book in English dealing with diseases of elephants seems to be that of W. Gilchrist "A practical treatise on the treatment of diseases of elephants" published in 1848. Later Slym (1873), Sanderson (1878), Steel (1885), Evans (1910), Herpburn (1913), Milroy (1922), Ptaff (1940), Ferrier (1947), Utoke Gale (1974), Chandrasekharan (1979) and Panicker (1985) have documented their findings on the incidence, etiology and control of diseases of Asian elephants.

Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 2002. Tranquilization and translocation of elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 42-46.

Gracenea, M., Gomez, M.S., Torres, J., Carne, E., Fernandez-Moran, J., 2002. Transmission dynamics of Cryptosporidium in primates and herbivores at the Barcelona zoo: a long-term study. Vet Parasitol 104, 19-26.
Abstract: Factors influencing the transmission of Cryptosporidium in primates and herbivores housed at the Barcelona zoo have been analyzed. The relationship between continuous and discontinuous oocyst shedding, both animal housing conditions and abiotic factors (seasonality, humidity, temperature) was examined to explain the epizootiology of the protozoan. Thirty six fecal samples from each of 11 primates (Pongidae, Cebidae, Cercopithecidae and Lemuridae) and 22 herbivores (Elephantidae, Camelidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae and Bovidae) were examined over the period of 1 year. The parasite transmission was based on the chronic infection status of some animals serving as a source of successive  reinfection for other animals. The environmental temperature and humidity (seasonality), the physical features of the facilities, the vicinity of the animals and the physiological status induced by captivity contributed to transmission. The long-term character of this study was essential for obtaining these results and interpreting the complex relationships.

Naveen, P.K., 2002. Homeopathy in elephant practice. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 52.

Pearson, E.G., 2002. Diseases of the hepatobiliary system. In: Smith, B.P. (Ed.), Large Animal Internal Medicine. Mosby, St.Louis, pp. 790-795.

Sharma, K.K., Choudhury, B.D., Sarma, M., 2002. Lingual thrush in a hand reared elephant (E.maximus) calf. Wildlife Information Bulletin, vii, 53-54.

Bacciarini, L.N., Pagan, O., Frey, J., Grone, A., 2001. Clostridium perfringens beta2-toxin in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana)with ulcerative enteritis. Vet Rec 149, 618-620.
Abstract: A 22-year-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) developed diarrhea of unknown cause which lasted for two days. The animal was euthanized after it remained recumbent and refused to get up. Gross pathological changes were present mainly in the gastrointestinal tract. The intestinal contents were watery and dark brown. Several areas of the mucosa of the small intestine were covered minimally to moderately with fibrin and had a few 0.1 x 10 to 15 cm linear ulcerations. Microscopical lesions consisted of discrete areas of necrosis of the surface and crypt epithelium without overt inflammatory infiltrates. Culture of the small intestinal contents resulted in a moderate growth of Clostridium perfringens. No salmonella were found in the small or large intestine. PCR of the isolate of C. perfringens revealed the presence of the beta2-toxin gene cpb2 and the alpha-toxin gene cpa but no other known toxin genes. The expression of the beta2-toxin gene in vivo was demonstrated by the immunohistochemical localization of the beta2-toxin to the microscopical lesions in the small intestine.

Clauss, M. Tannins in the Nutrition of Wild Animals. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  251. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Loehlein, W., Kienzle, E., Wiesner, H., Clauss, M. Investigations on the Use of Chromium Oxide as an Inert, External Marker in Captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus): Passage and Recovery Rates. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  250. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Raman, M., Jayathangaraj, M.G., Malik, P.K., 2001. In vitro survivability of strongylid larvae of elephants. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 71, 1043-1044.
Abstract: Under laboratory conditions, larvae of Murshidia sp. revealed high motility until 4 months and maintained moderate motility until 7 months. In comparison, larvae of Quilonia sp. and Decrusia sp. displayed a high degree of motility during the first 2 months, but this subsequently declined. These observations suggest that, under in vitro conditions, strongylid larvae from captive Asiatic elephants of the Chennai region may survive for 4 to 7 months.

Rasmussen, L.E.L., 2001. Source and cyclic release pattern of (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate, the pre-ovulatory pheromone of the female Asian elephant. Chemical Senses 26, 611-623.
Abstract: Female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) release a pre-ovulatory urinary pheromone, (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate (Z7-12:Ac), to signal males of their readiness to mate. Z7-12:Ac is quantitatively elevated during the follicular stage of oestrus, reaching maximum concentrations just prior to ovulation, as demonstrated by two complementary headspace techniques: (1) evacuated canister capture followed by cryogenic trapping and (2) solid phase microextraction (SPME) used prior to gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). These patterns were coincident with observed male behaviours and were consistent with biochemical and binding properties of the active ligand, including optimal binding pH. To release maximum amounts of Z7-12:Ac for quantitation, serum and urine samples from three mature female Asian elephants in their luteal and follicular stages of several oestrous cycles were subjected to heat and pH changes and were then treated with protease prior to SPME-GC/MS analyses. When the post-luteal serum progesterone concentrations declined to baseline levels, Z7-12:Ac became detectable in the female urine. Throughout the follicular stage, pheromone concentrations increased linearly with no apparent relationship to the two serum luteinizing hormone peaks. Pre-ovulatory urine also contained related compounds, including (Z)-7-12-dodecenol. The relative amount of this alcohol increased relative to acetate during long-term storage, with a proportional reduction in bioactivity. Z7-12:Ac was not detected in mucus samples from the urogenital tract. A potential precursor of Z7-12:Ac was identified in liver homogenates from female elephants in the follicular stage.  Erratum in: Chem Senses 2001 Sep;26(7):935

Urashima, T., Saito, T., Nakamura, T., Messer, M., 2001. Oligosaccharides of milk and colostrum in non-human mammals. Glycoconj J 18, 357-371.
Abstract: Mammalian milk or colostrum usually contains, in addition to lactose, a variety of neutral and acidic oligosaccharides. Although the oligosaccharides of human milk have been reviewed in several recent publications, those of non-human mammals have received much less attention. This paper reviews the chemical structures and the variety of milk oligosaccharides in species other than humans, including placental mammals (e.g. primates, domestic herbivores, bears and other carnivores, the rat and the elephant) as well as monotremes (platypus and echidna) and marsupials (e.g. wallaby). The gastrointestinal digestion and absorption and the possible biological functions of these oligosaccharides are
also discussed.

Kudo, S., Ishizaki, T., 1999. Pharmacokinetics of Haloperidol, An update. Clin. Pharmacokinet 37, 435-456.
Abstract: Haloperidol is commonly used in the therapy of patients with acute and chronic schizophrenia. The enzymes involved in the biotransformation of haloperidol include cytochrome P450 (CYP), carbonyl reductase and uridine diphosphoglucose glucuronosyltransferase. The greatest proportion of the intrinsic hepatic clearance of haloperidol is by glucuronidation, followed by the reduction of haloperidol to reduced haloperidol and by CYP-medicated oxidation. In studies of CYP-medicated disposition in vitro, CYP3A4 appears to be the major isoform responsible for the metabolism of haloperidol in humans. The intrinsic clearances of the back-oxidation of reduced haloperidol to the parent compound, oxidative N-dealkylation and pyridinium formation are of the same order of magnitude, suggesting that the same enzyme system is responsible for the 3 reactions. Large variation in the catalytic activity was observed in the CYP-medicated reactions, whereas there appeared to be only small variations in the glucuronidation and carbonyl reduction pathways. Haloperidol is a substrate of CYP3A4 and an inhibitor of CYP2D6. Pharmacokinectic interactions occur between haloperidol and various drugs given concomitantly, for example, carbamazepine, phenytoin, phenobarbital, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, nefazodone, venlafaxine, buspirone, alprazolam, rifampicin (rifampin), quinidine and carteolol. Overall, drug interaction studies have suggested that CYP3A4 is involved in the biotransformation of haloperidol in humans. Interactions of haloperidol with most drugs lead to only small changes in plasma haloperidol concentrations, suggesting that the interactions have little clinical significance. On the other hand, the coadministration of carbamazepine, phenytoin, Phenobarbital, rifampicin or quinidine affects the pharmacokinectics of haloperidol to an extent that alterations in clinical consequences would be expected. In vivo pharmacogenetic studies have indicated that the metabolism and disposition of haloperidol may be regulated by genetically determined polymorphic CYP2D6 activity. However, these findings appear to contradict those from studies in vitro with human liver microsomes and from studies of drug interactions in vivo. Interethnic and pharmacogenetic differences in haloperidol metabolism may explain these observations.

Savage, C.J., 1999. Diseases of the Liver. In: Colahan, P.T., Merritt, A.M., Moore, J.N., Mayhew, I.G. (Eds.), Equine Medicine and Surgery. Mosby, St. Louis MO USA, pp. 816-833.

Bhat, M.N., Manickam, R., 1998. Coproculture and demonstration of third stage larvae of Murshidia sp. in elephants (Elephas maximus). Indian Veterinary Journal 75, 1140-1142.

Matsuo, K., Hayashi, S., Kamiya, M., 1998. Parasitic infections of Sumatran elephant in the Way Kambas National Park, Indonesia. Japanese Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 3, 95-100.
Abstract: In 1995, 3 Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) died suddenly of clostridial infection in the Way Kambas National Park, Lampung province, Indonesia. Postmortem examination revealed that the gastrointestinal tracts of all 3 animals were also infected with Murshidia falcifera (Nematoda), Hawkesius hawkesi and Pfenderius papillatus (Digenea) and Cobboldia elephantis (Diptera). The elephant louse, Haematomyzus elephantis, was a common cause of dermatopathy in elephants kept in the national park.

Islam, S., 1997. Studies on some aspects of fascioliasis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Veterinary Parasitology 11, 109.
Abstract: Summary of abstract: The epidemiology of Fasciola jacksoni in wild and captive elephants (Elephas maximus) was studied in Assam, India. Wild elephants had an overall prevalence rate of 33.78%. Captive elephants showed prevalence rates of 42.50, 62.28 and 18.18% according to locality. The egg, miracidium and adult stages of F. jacksoni were studied by light and scanning electron microscopy, and their morphology is described. A diurnal fluctuation in faecal egg count was recorded, with average counts of 4.89, 2.47 and 2.76 during the morning, noon and evening, respectively. Young animals were most affected by the parasite and showed anorexia, constipation, diarrhea, anaemia and icterus, with death occurring in severe cases. Some old adults survived the disease with no apparent clinical manifestations. The adult parasites caused massive liver damage. Treatment with triclabendazole (9 mg/kg, not exceeding 7200 mg/animal) and oxyclozanide (7.5 mg/kg, not exceeding 6.8 g/animal) were 100 and 72.16% effective, respectively.

Krzywicki, Z., 1997. A case of indigestion in an elephant. Magazyn Weterynaryjny 6, 48-50.

Majewska, A.C., Kasprzak, W., Werner, A., 1997. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium in mammals housed in Poznan Zoological Garden, Poland. Acta Parasitologica 42, 195-198.
Abstract: At the Zoological Garden in Poznan, Poland, 66 stool specimens from animals belonging to 40 species of 4 orders (Primates, Proboscidea, Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla) were examined for Cryptosporidium oocysts. Cryptosporidium oocysts were observed in 7 of 66 (9.1%) faecal samples obtained from 6 different animal species. This is the first report of C. parvum in a lesser slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus), white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) and Thorold's deer (Cervus albirostris). The remaining Cryptosporidium-positive faecal specimens were collected from Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) and Eld's deer (Cervus eldi).

Matsuo, K., Suprahman, H., 1997. Some parasites from Sumatran elephants in Indonesia. Journal of the Helminthological Society of Washington 64, 298-299.
Abstract: Three Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) in Way Kambas National Park, Indonesia, that died of clostridiosis were infected with 1 species of nematode (Murshida falcifera), 2 trematodes (Hawkesius hawkesi and Pfenderius papillatus), and 1 larval botfly species (Cobboldia elephantis) in the gastrointestinal tract. This is the first report of H. hawkesi, P. papillatus and C. elephantis infection in Sumatran elephants in Indonesia.

Saidul, I., 1997. Studies on some aspects of fascioliasis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Veterinary Parasitology 11, 109.

Timoshenko, O., Imai, S., 1997. Three new intestinal protozoan species of the genus Latteuria n.g. (Ciliophora: Trichostomatia) from Asian and African elephants. Parasitology International 46, 297-303.
Abstract: Three new ciliate species presumed to belong to the family Paraisotrichidae were recovered from faecal samples from Asian and African elephants (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana) in Kiev, Moscow and Warsaw zoos. As all the ciliates have a unique but similar arrangement of somatic ciliature, a new genus Latteuria gen. nov. was erected. The genus is characterized by the presence of a tapered frontal "spout" at the anterior end of the body, posterior ciliary rows in narrow grooves encircling the posterior half of the body and an anterior arch of cilia. L. polyfaria sp. nov. (type species) from Loxodonta africana in Moscow Zoo is the largest species in the genus with 9-11 posterior ciliary rows. In L. media sp. nov. from E. maximus in Kiev Zoo, of medium body size, the number of rows varies from 4 to 6, and the smallest species, L. trifaria sp. nov. from Loxodonta africana in Moscow Zoo, has only 3-4 posterior ciliary rows.

Parrott, J.J. Analysis of African elephant mature milk in early lactation and formulation of an elephant calf milk replacer. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  102-111. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Mature milk samples (n=5) were collected from one African elephant (Loxodonta africana) during early lactation for analysis of nutrient composition. Total solids averaged 11.32% and were significantly lower than previously reported for African elephants. Lactose averaged 2.79% (24.6% dry matter basis), which was also significantly lower than previously reported and indicates African elephants are a low-to-moderate lactose species. Bovine milk contains 1.5-2 times this level, and human milk replacers contain 2.5 times this level of lactose on a dry matter basis. This could represent a significant cause of diarrhea when human milk replacers are used in African elephant calves. Milk fat averaged 4.38% (39% dry matter basis) and ranged from 3.51-5.32%. Protein levels averaged 2.3% (20% dry matter basis). Ash levels averaged 0.53% (4.7% dry matter basis). Vitamin A levels ranged from 28-171 IU/100 g (249-1361 IU/100 g dry matter basis) and vitamin D ranged from 22-69.8 IU/100 g (196-693 IU/100 g dry matter basis). Vitamin E ranged from 0.33-0.88 µg/ml, with the cow supplemented on a diet of 8,000 IU per day. Calcium levels averaged 37.8 mg/100 g (334 mg/100 g) and ranged from 28-43 mg/100 g (257-431 mg/100 g dry matter basis); phosphorus averaged 18.8 mg/100 g (166 mg/100 g dry matter basis) and ranged from 15.9-20.8 mg/100 g (143- 204 mg/100 g dry matter basis). The calcium:phosphorus ratio averaged approximately 2:1. An African elephant calf milk replacer was formulated based on the mature milk analysis of early lactation. The general makeup included: total solids (11.5%), fat (5%), lactose (2.5%), protein (3.3%), ash (0.52%), calcium (65 mg/100 g), phosphorus (42 mg/100 g), vitamin A (75 IU/100 g) and vitamin D (46 IU/100 g). Vitamin E is supplemented separately as 2 IU/kg body weight micellized natural tocopherol (Stuart Products) to insure bioavailability. The milk replacer is produced starting with bovine skim milk powder and bovine whey protein concentrate, mixed to provide the milk proteins necessary in the milk replacer. Fat is then added using a fat premix and coconut oil (coconut oil is approximately 25% of the total fat supplied). A mixture of mineral and vitamin premix completes the formula. The final formulation maintained lactose on the low end of the milk analysis range (20-26% dry matter basis), to minimize the risk of a lactose-induced diarrhea. Protein and fat were maintained at the high end or slightly above the range in the milk analysis to accommodate the lower lactose and still maintain a total solids of approximately 11.5%.

Van Aswegen, G., Van Noorden, S., Kotze, S.H., de Vos, V., Schoeman, J.H., 1996. The intestine and endocrine pancreas of the African elephant: a histological, immunocytochemical and immunofluorescence study. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 63, 335-340.
Abstract: Histological, immunocytochemical and immunofluorescence methods were employed to study the intestine and endocrine pancreas of the elephant. The histological findings were in line with those in monogastric animals. In the mucosa of intestine, endocrine cells were immunoreactive to somatostatin, gastrin, CCK, GIP, secretin, motilin, glucagon and NPY. Nerve cells immunoreactive to somatostatin, substance P, VIP, PHI, NPY, bombesin and CGRP were detected. No immunoreactivity to neurotensin was observed. Islets of the pancreas had insulin cells in their cores and glucagon and somatostatin cells in their mantles. The antisera employed failed to demonstrate PP cells in the pancreas, but NPY-immunoreactive cells were present.

Warren, K., Bolton, J., Swan, R., Gaynor, W., Pond, L., 1996. Treatment of gastrointestinal tract impaction of a 2-year-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Australian Veterinary Journal 73, 37-38.
Abstract: The case of a 2-year-old Asian elephant (E. maximus) with gastrointestinal impaction caused by ingesting sand and clay is reported. The sand was the basic substrate of the elephant's enclosure at Perth Zoo, Australia, and the clay had been added as a top-dressing. The behaviour was thought to have been the result of salt deficiency in the elephant's diet, and once this had been rectified and the impaction treated, she stopped ingesting sand. There were 3 other elephants in the enclosure and although they ingested sand, they did not suffer from impaction. Segments of Anaoplocephalus sp. [Anoplocephala sp.] were found in her faeces, and this infection had probably been picked up from a 36-year-old elephant in the enclosure which was known to be infected.

Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., Cheeran, J.V., Nair, K.N.M., Prabhakaran, T., 1995. Review of the Incidence, Etiology and Control of Common Diseases of Asian Elephants with Special Reference to Kerala. In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 439-449.
Abstract: Incidence, etiology, symptoms and control of specific and non-specific diseases of captive and wild elephants have been reviewed. Asian elephants have been observed to be susceptible to various parasitic diseases such as helminthiasis, trypanosomiasis and ectoparasitic infestations, bacterial diseases such as tetanus, tuberculosis, haemorrhagic septicemia, salmonellosis and anthrax, viral diseases such as foot and mouth disease, pox and rabies and non-specific diseases like impaction of colon, foot rot and corneal opacity. A detailed study extending over two decades on captive and wild elephants in Kerala, revealed high incidence of helminthiasis (285), ectoparasitic infestation (235), impaction of colon (169) and foot rot (125). Diseases such as trypanosomiasis (21), tetanus (8), tuberculosis (5) pox (2) and anthrax (1) were also encountered. The line of treatment against the diseases mentioned, have been discussed in detail.

Coetzee, H.L., Kotze, S.H., Lourens, N., 1995. Characterization of mucus glycoproteins in the intestinal mucosa of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) following lectin histochemistry. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 62, 187-192.
Abstract: The glycoproteins of the small intestines, caecum and colon of three adult elephants and one recently weaned elephant calf were examined by means of lectin histochemistry. Tissue sections were histochemically stained with peroxidase-labelled concanavalin A (Con A), asparagus-pea (TPA), peanut (PNA) and wheat-germ (WGA) lectins. Con A and TPA showed no binding activity in the intestinal tract of the adult elephants or the duodenum and ileum of the elephant calf, but did show a small amount of binding activity in the caecum and colon of the calf. WGA bound very intensely throughout the intestinal tracts of the adults and of the calf--especially with the goblet cells located in the crypts of Lieberkuhn and the glands of Brunner--decreasing in intensity towards the luminal surface of the intestinal tract. PNA stained the glands of Brunner of the duodenum faintly and the goblet cells of the ileum moderately, with no staining of the caecum and faint staining of the colon. These results show the distribution of Con A-, WGA-, PNA- and TPA-binding sites, and the changes that take place in the type of glycoprotein secreted after a change in the diet of the animal.

Krishnamurthy, V., Wemmer, C. Veterinary Care of Asian Timber Elephants in India: Historical Accounts and Current Observations.  534. 1995. Bombay, India, Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press.
Ref Type: Abstract

Modi, G.S., Prasad, B.N., Sinha, A.K., Sinha, B.K., 1995. Parasitic infections in herbivorous zoo animals. Indian Journal of Veterinary Research 4, 45-50.
Abstract: Parasites were detected in 49 of 105 faecal samples collected from zoo animals in India including elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, mithun, nilgai, sambar, black-buck, spotted deer, capped langoor, golden langur, common langur, and gibbon. The common parasites identified were Ascaris, Ancylostoma, Oesophagostomum, Trichuris, Strongyloides, Fasciola, Paramphistomum, Coccidia and Entamoeba. 11 of 19 faecal samples obtained from animal keepers/attendants were positive for either Ascaris lumbricoides, Ancylostoma duodenale, Trichuris trichiura, Hymenolepis nana, Entamoeba coli, E. histolytica or Giardia lamblia [G. duodenalis].

Raubenheimer, E.J., van Heerden, W.F., van Niekerk, P.J., de Vos, V., Turner, M.J., 1995. Morphology of the deciduous tusk (tush) of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Arch Oral Biol 40, 571-576.
Abstract: The tusk of the African elephant is preceded by a deciduous tooth generally known as the tush. Tushes from nine elephant fetuses and six calves younger than 1 year were exposed by dissection and described morphologically. All tushes consisted of a crown, root and pulpal cavity, the formation of which is completed soon after birth. They reached a maximum length of 5 cm, appeared not to erupt through the skin and were pushed aside and resorbed during enlargement of the distally located primordium of the tusk. Dental enamel, which covered the crown, could easily be removed and consisted of rods with an interwoven arrangement; the dentine-enamel junction was flat. Cellular cementum extended for variable distances over the crown and the dentine was tubular in nature. Although the tush apparently has no function, it provides the anlage and orientation for the development of its permanent successor.

Timoshenko, O., Imai, S., 1995. Eleven new ciliate species of the genus Triplumaria (Ciliophora, Entodiniomorphida) from Asian elephant, Elephas maximus and African elephant, Loxodonta africana. Journal of Protozoology Research 5, 157-175.
Abstract: Intestinal ciliate compositions in faecal samples from 3 zoo-kept Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) (Kiev and Moscow zoo and Berlin Tierpark) and 1 African elephant (Loxodonta africana) (Moscow zoo) were examined. The elephants had all been born in the wild. Eleven new ciliate species belonging to the genus Triplumaria are described. Four of the new species possessed honeycomb-like thick skeletal plates and broad linear skeletons which were present in T. hamertonii (type species) and T. selenica. The anterior location of the micronuclei in T. selenica also occurred in these 4 new species. However, 2 species possessed long macronuclei with the posterior end either curved ventrally (T. longinucleata n. sp.), or straight and extended into the tail lobe (T. nucleocaudata n.sp.). T. asiatica n. sp. had 2 bulb-like and one cylindrical caudalia; hill-like caudalia of T. heterofasciculata n. sp. were clearly characteristic in size. Six new species possessed thin light skeletal plates and slender linear skeletons which showed vertebra-like structure; T. antis n. sp. was small in body size and had a micronucleus in the centre of the macronucleus, whereas the other species had micronuclei located anteriorly; T. doliiformis n. sp. was characterized by an anteriorly hooked macronucleus; T. acuticaudata n. sp. had a triangular tail lobe; T. dvoinosi n. sp. possessed antero-dorsal and ventral caudalia directed up and downward. The antero-dorsal caudalium of T. ovina n. sp. was shifted upwards and the ventral caudalium of T. irregularis n. sp. was shifted to the left. T. poljanskii n. sp. was characterized by a combination of heavy honeycomb-like skeletal plate, vertebra-like linear skeleton and the posterior location of the micronucleus. T. acuticaudata and T. nucleocaudata were identified in Loxodonta africana, whereas the remaining 9 species were identified in Elephas maximus.

 1994. Veterinary Laboratory Medicine. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.

Kotze, S.H., Coetzee, H.L., 1994. A histocytochemical study of mucus glycoproteins or mucins in the intestinal tract of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 61, 177-181.
Abstract: The distribution of neutral mucins, sialomucins and sulphomucins was determined histochemically in the duodenum, jejunum, ileum and colon of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). The techniques used were periodic acid-Schiff (PAS), alcian blue/periodic acid-Schiff (AB-PAS), high-iron-diamine/alcian blue (HID-AB), alcian blue at varying pH solutions and alcian blue at high temperature after methylation and saponification. Acid mucins appear to dominate neutral mucins, the latter decreasing toward the large intestine. Sulphomucins and sialomucins occurred in almost equal amounts throughout the intestinal tract, with a slight decrease of sialomucins toward the colon.

Shoshani, J., 1994. Skeletal and other basic anatomical features of elephants. In: Shoshani, J., Tassy, P. (Eds.), The proboscidea: evolution and paleoecology of elephants and their relatives. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 9-20.

Singh, K.P., Srivastava, V.K., Prasad, A., Pandey, A.P., 1994. Pathology due to Fasciola jacksoni in Indian elephants (Elephas indicus). Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 64, 802-804.
Abstract: F. jacksoni recovered from infected liver and lungs were almost round, pear-shaped measuring 10-16 mm in length and 8.5-14 mm in width with ill-defined cephalic end between indistinct shoulders. The intestine was extensively branched. The yellowish tinged ova were oval with an operculum at one end and measured 0.112-0.160 (mean 0.13) mm in length and 0.054-0.096 (mean 0.07) mm in width. Infected liver showed haemorrhagic tracts, thickening of bile ductules, cirrhotic changes and pseudolobulations. In the lungs, the bronchial lumen contained desquamated cells admixed with fibrinohaemorrhagic exudate.

Van-Aswegen, G., Schoeman, J.H., De-Vos, V., Van-Noorden, S., 1994. The oesophagus and stomach of the African elephant: a histological, immunocytochemical and immunofluorescence study. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 61, 223-229.
Abstract: Histological, immunocytochemical and immunofluorescence methods were employed to study the oesophagus and stomach of the elephant. The histological findings were similar to those in monogastric species like pigs and humans. In the mucosa of the stomach, endocrine cells were immunoreactive to gastrin, somatostatin, chromogranin A and serotonin. Nerve cells immunoreactive to somatostatin, bombesin, VIP, PHI and CGRP were detected in the submucosal and myenteric plexus of the stomach. In the stomach, the absence of glucagon cells and the presence of endocrine cells immunoreactive to PYY, are in contrast to the situation in other mammals and need further investigation. Small gastric ulcers were observed in some of the specimens.

Wallace, C., Byron, T.H., Foerner, J.J., Weston, H., Kilpatrick, J., Jastremski, M.S. Clinical case report: the medical management and treatment of a 36 year old premiparturient Asian elephant cow with a dystocia and following a Caesarian section.  1994.
Ref Type: Unpublished Work
Abstract: The medical history and management of a 36 year old premiparturient Asian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) with a dystocia requiring a caesarian section are discussed.  The examination and complete medical evaluation to determine the health of the cow and viability and position of the calf are described.  The medical management of the post-operative complications and the changes in complete blood counts, differential, serum biochemistry values and urinalysis prior to the elephant's death are described.  Complications included peritonitis with systemic sepsis, renal failure, and hepatic failure.  Pertinent necropsy findings on the cow included severe diffuse subacute peritonitis, uterine transmural necrosis, diffuse renal tubular nephrosis, and hepatic centrolobular degeneration.

Cheah, T.S., Rajamanickam, C., Ong, B.L., Lazarus, K., 1993. A first record in Malaysia of Quilonia travancra (Lane, 1914) and Bathmostomum sangeri (Cobbold, 1879) in Malaysian elephants (Elephas maximus hirsutus). Tropical Biomedicine 10, 41-43.
Abstract: Quilonia travancra (6 females and 5 males) and Bathmostomum sangeri (5 females, 9 males) are reported for the first time in Malaysia. Both were found in Elephas maximus hirsutus, the former species in an 8-year-old female in a zoo in Perak, and the latter in a one-year-old male belonging to the State Wildlife and National Parks Department in Pahang. The worms are described and figured. The elephant infected with Q. travancra had exhibited signs of anorexia but recovered after anthelmintic treatment. The carcass of the elephant infected with B. sangeri appeared generally pale and anaemic; on post-mortem examination the contents of the stomach and small intestine were loose and watery and filled with B. sangeri.

Houck, R., 1993. Veterinary care of performing elephants. In: Fowler, M.E. (Ed.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 453-454.

Li, C.X., Rong, Y.M., Xie, Q.P., 1993. A study of helminth parasites of elephants (Elephas maximus). Chinese Journal of Zoology 28, 43-44.
Abstract: Between 1985 and 1990, the following parasites were recovered from Elephas maximus in China: Choniangium epistomum, Murshidia falcifera, M. murshida, M. neveulemairei, Quilonia travancra, Chabertia erschovi, Gasterophilus pecorum, and G. intestinalis.

Okewole, P.A., Oyetunde, I.L., Irokanulo, E.A., Chima, J.C., Nwankpa, N., Laleye, Y., Bot, C., 1993. Anthrax and cowdriosis in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Veterinary Record 133, 168.
Abstract: In February 1992, a 15-year-old African elephant died; it was the second elephant that had died within 2 weeks at a wildlife park. Clinical signs in both elephants included frequent micturition, restlessness and weakness of the hindquarters with frequent falls. PM examination revealed ecchymosis of the epicardium, atrioventricular surfaces of the heart and serosal surfaces of the intestines and bladder with sloughing of intestinal mucosae. The liver was enlarged, ecchymotic and congested. A serosanguinous exudate with fibrin was present in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. The meninges were congested. Bacillus anthracis was cultured from tissue samples and from tissue samples from guineapigs inoculated with broth cultures of the tissue samples from the elephant. Cowdria ruminantium was identified in stained impression smears from the elephant brain. This appears to be the first report of the simultaneous occurrence of anthrax and cowdriosis in an African elephant.

Ananthasubramaniam, C.R., 1992. Some aspects of elephant nutrition. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 86-90.

Chakraborty, A., Chaudhury, B., Rahman, H., Hussain, A., Baruah, M.C., 1992. Intussusception and gangrene in elephants. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 164-165.

Chakraborty, A., Chaudhury, B., 1992. Pathology of Fasciola jacksoni infestation in elephants. Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology 16, 98-101.
Abstract: Fasciola jacksoni infection was discovered in 2 out of 3 elephants autopsied at Assam State Zoo, India, during 1985 to 1989. The parasites were attached to biliary epithelium. Microscopy demonstrated that the biliary epithelium was distorted by necrotic tissue which contained erythrocytes and ova of F. jacksoni. The epithelium was analyzed by X-ray microanalysis, which showed that the infected epithelium contained aluminum, silicon, calcium and iron, while non-infected, normal biliary epithelium contained only phosphorus and sulfur. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that both the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the parasite possessed spines.

Kharchenko, V.A., Marunchin, A.A., 1992. Helminths of mammals in the Kiev zoological park. Vestnik Zoologii 3, 61-63.
Abstract: Necropsy of 6 animals that died in the Kiev Zoo, Ukraine, revealed the presence of Trichuris trichiura and Subulura distans in Macaca nemestrina, Prosthenorchis elegans in Saimiri sciureus, Murschidia murchida and Hawkesius hawkesi in Elephas maximus and T. globulosa in Giraffa camelopardalis. No helminths were found in Equus hemionus and Felis lynx. The deaths of M. nemestrina and S. sciureus were attributed to the helminth infections. The results of the examination of faeces of other zoo animals for helminth ova are also presented.

Radhakrishnan, K., 1992. Non-specific disease of Asian elephant with particular reference to their prevalence in Kerala. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 168-170.

Teunissen, M.J., de Kort, G.V., Op den Camp, H.J., Huis in 't Veld, J.H., 1992. Production of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes during growth of the anaerobic fungus Piromyces sp. on different substrates. J Gen Microbiol 138 (Pt 8), 1657-1664.
Abstract: Piromyces sp. strain E2, an anaerobic fungus isolated from an Indian elephant (hindgut fermenter) was tested for its ability to ferment a range of substrates. The fungus was able to use bagasse, cellobiose, cellulose, fructose, glucose, lactose, mannose, starch, wheat bran, wheat straw, xylan and xylose. Formate and acetate were the main fermentation products after growth on these substrates. The amount of carbon found in the fermentation products of cultures, in which substrate digestion was complete averaged 88.5 mM, or 59% of the carbon offered as substrate. No growth was observed on other substrates tested. Lactose, starch, cellobiose and filter paper cellulose were good inducers of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes. Cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes were produced constitutively by Piromyces strain E2, although enzyme activities were generally lower after growth on glucose and other soluble sugars. Complex substrates (bagasse, wheat bran, and wheat straw) were good inducers for xylanolytic enzymes but not for cellulolytic enzymes. The extracellular protein banding pattern after SDS-PAGE was therefore only slightly affected by the growth substrate. Identical beta-glucosidase and endoglucanase activity patterns were found after growth on different substrates. This indicated that differences in enzyme activities were not the result of secretion of different sets of isoenzymes although it remains possible that the relative amount of each isoenzyme produced is influenced by the growth substrate.

Wood, D.T., 1992. Oesophageal choke in an African elephant. Veterinary Record 131, 536-537.
Abstract: A young African elephant suffered a fatal obstruction of the caudal oesophagus caused by an ingested apple. This report describes the attempts made to relieve the obstruction and the subsequent post mortem findings.

Chakraborty, A., Chaudhury, B. Fasciola jacksoni infection in elephants. International Seminar on Veterinary Medicine in Wild & Captive Animals, Bangalore, India, November 8 to 10, 1991.  28. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Pathology of Fasciola jacksoni infection in the bile duct of elephant have been reported by gross histopathology, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Energy dispersive X-ray micro-analysis (EDAX). SEM Study of the parasite was also attempted. Grossly, the parasites were found attached in the biliary epithelium and microscopically, the epithelial surface of the bile duct was covered by a necrotic homogeneous mass admixed with erythrocytes. The liver parenchyma adjacent to the bile duct, was replaced by fibrous tissue proliferation.  SEM showed distortion of biliary epithelium which turned into a homogeneous mass. The infected biliary epithelium was analysed through EDAX and the values were compared with biliary epithelium of unaffected animal. The infected epithelium contained aluminium, silicon, calcium and iron while in normal biliary epithelium only phosphorous and sulphur could be noticed.
On SEM study both the dorsal and ventral surface of the parasite contained spines.

Cheah, T.S., Rajamanickam, C., 1991. Scanning electron microscope study of the cephalic and tail region of Quilonia renniei Railliet, Henry and Joyeux, 1913 (Nematoda, Strongyloidea). Tropical Biomedicine 8, 187-189.
Abstract: Six male and 8 female specimens of Quilonia renniei recovered from a 20-year-old male Malaysian elephant were examined using a scanning electron microscope. Scanning electron micrographs of the cephalic region, bursa, genital cone and spicules are presented.

Kozaki, M., Oura, R., Sekine, J., 1991. Studies on digestion physiology of herbivorous feral animals. 2. The comparison of intake of total digestible nutrients among diverse sizes of ruminant and monogastric animals. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture -Tottori-University 27, 61-68.
Abstract: Digestion trials were carried out on elephant, zebra, giraffe, eland, blackbuck, zebu cattle, Japanese serow, sika deer, muntjac and Japanese Black steer during 3 different seasons of the year. Digestibility of organic matter was about 0.6 for all animals except elephant, muntjac and blackbuck. Crude protein (CP) digestibility correlated (P<0.01) with CP concentration in the feed ration. Acid detergent fibre digestibility ranged from 0.3 to 0.4 in ruminants compared with 0.1 to 0.2 in monogastric animals. No seasonal effects on digesta were observed.

Krivolutskii, D.A., Nguyen, T.K., Fan, T.V., 1991. The fauna of anoplocephalid tapeworms in domestic and wild animals of Vietnam. Parazitologiia 25, 468-469.
Abstract: 101 species of oribatid mites and 12 species of helminths--anoplocephalids, transmitted by these mites, were found out by Soviet-Vietnam studies in agroecosystems and tropical forests of northern and southern Vietnam. Helminths were recorded from graminivorous mammals as follows: horses, zebu, sheep, goats, buffaloes, deer, hares, elephant, 2 species of rates, 5 species of monkeys and 11 species of birds.

Mandlekar, B.D., Soni, J.L., Nema, S.K. Disintegrating trypanosomes in elephant; diagnosis and chemotherapy. International Seminar on Veterinary Medicine in Wild and Captive Animals, Nov. 8-10, Bangalore, India.  30. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Sudden change in behaviour of six elephants was observed violent in nature did not permit their use for tourist. They were losing their condition. Anorexia, pyrexia, and anemia vis-a-vis the infected elephants were lethargic,eyes shrunken with lacrimation and they became unresponsive to command. Disintegrating trypanosomes in elephants of Kanha National Park were diagnosed by blood sample. NSD findings were reported by other diagnostic laboratories. Chemotherapy with corridane (Hindustan antibiotic) was done. An elephant of average build was injected with 12.5 gms of corridane dissoved in 75 ml of dist. water subcutaneously. A single injection was effective for 3 months.  In recurrent the above dose need to be repeated. Berenil (Hoechst) @ 800 mg/ 100 kg body weight by deep IM route, revealed synergistic effects. Livferol 250 ml B.D. 15 days effectively managed anaemia and deranged liver function. Sugar cane was supplemented to check hypoglycaemia. Six elephants simultaneously affected were cured. Half dose of corridane has chemoprophelectic effect. Rehydration was done with 3 kg of Gur, common salt 510 gms, fresh water 60 liters for 4-5 days.

Pavlovic, I., Nesic, D., Savin, Z., Valter, D., Hudina, V., 1991. Endoparasites of elephant and giraffe in the Belgrade Zoological Garden. Veterinarski Glasnik 45, 749-751.
Abstract: During examinations for parasites of animals in the Belgrade Zoo in summer 1990, species of Trichonema [Cyathostoma] and Strongylus were found in an elephant and Oesophagostomum columbianum was found in a male giraffe. The infections were subclinical.

Teunissen, M.J., Op den Camp, H.J., Orpin, C.G., Huis in 't Veld, J.H., Vogels, G.D., 1991. Comparison of growth characteristics of anaerobic fungi isolated from ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores during cultivation in a defined medium. J Gen Microbiol 137 (Pt 6), 1401-1408.
Abstract: Anaerobic fungi were isolated from rumen fluid of a domestic sheep (Ovis aries; a ruminant) and from faeces of five non-ruminants: African elephant (Loxodonta africana), black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) and mara (Dolichotis patagonum). The anaerobic fungus isolated from the sheep was a Neocallimastix species and the isolates from non-ruminants were all species similar to Piromyces spp. A defined medium is described which supported growth of all the isolates, and was used to examine growth characteristics of the different strains. For each fungus the lipid phosphate content was determined after growth on cellobiose and the resulting values were used to estimate fungal biomass after growth on solid substrates. The ability of isolates from ruminants and non-ruminants to digest both wheat straw and cellulose was comparable. More than 90% and 60%, respectively, of filter paper cellulose and wheat straw were digested by most strains within 60-78 h. Growth of two fungi, isolated from rumen fluid of a sheep (Neocallimastix strain N1) and from faeces of an Indian rhinoceros (Piromyces strain R1), on cellobiose was studied in detail. Fungal growth yields on cellobiose were 64.1 g (mol substrate)-1 for N1 and 34.2 g mol-1 for R1. The major fermentation products of both strains were formate, lactate, acetate, ethanol and hydrogen.

Teunissen, M.J., Smits, A.A.M., Op den Camp, H.J.M., Huis in't Veld, J.H.J., Vogels, G.D., 1991. Fermentation of cellulose and production of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes by anaerobic fungi from ruminant and non- ruminant herbivores. Arch. Microbiol. 156, 290-296.
Abstract: Four anaerobic fungi were grown on filter paper cellulose and monitored over a 7-8 days period for substrate utilization, fermentation products, and secretion of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes. Two of the fungi (N1 and N2) were Neocallimastix species isolated from a ruminant (sheep) and the other two fungi were Piromyces species (E2 and R1) isolated from an Indian Elephant and an Indian Rhinoceros, respectively. The tested anaerobic fungi degraded the filter paper cellulose almost completely and estimated cellulose digestion rates were 0.25, 0.13, 0.21 and 0.18 g.l-1.h-1 for strains E2, N1, N2, R1, respectively. All strains secreted cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes, including endoglucanase, exoglucanase, beta-glucosidase and xylanase. Strain E2 secreted the highest levels of enzymes in a relatively short time. The product formation on avicel by enzymes secreted by the four fungi was studied. Both in the presence and absence of glucurono-1,5-delta-lactone, a specific inhibitor of beta-glucosidase, mainly glucose was formed but no cellobiose. Therefore the exoglucanase secreted by the four fungi is probably a glucohydrolase

 1990. The story of Babe, the Asian elephant. Veterinary Viewpoints 2.

Li, J., Heath, I.B., Bauchop, T., 1990. Piromyces mae and Piromyces dumbonica, two new species of uniflagellate anaerobic chytridiomycete fungi from the hindgut of the horse and elephant. Can. J. Bot. 68, 1021-1033.

Maske, D.K., Sardey, M.R., Bhilegaonkar, N.G., 1990. Helminth parasites in zoo animals of Maharaj Bag, Nagpur, Maharashtra State. Indian Journal of Animal Science 60, 952.
Abstract: Faecal samples obtained from 28 animals during 1979 to 1981 were examined by direct smear, flotation and dilution count techniques. 17 animals were positive for parasitic infections. Toxascarids and Ancylostoma were found in lions and tigers in rainy and winter seasons. Isospora felis, Paragonimus westermani and Taenia pisiformis were also found in winter. Ancylostoma sp. was found in leopard cubs, and ascarids in lion cubs. More than 1 helminth species were not usually found together. Strongyles were found in elephants and a cestode in a python. A slothbear, Himalayan bear, Russian bear and white and black monkeys were negative for helminth parasites.

Vasantha, M.S., Yathiraj, S., 1990. Acute enteritis in a domestic elephant (Elephas maximus). Indian Veterinary Journal 67, 63-64.

Caffee, H.H., 1989. Reconstruction of the distal trunk of an African elephant. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 83, 1049-1051.
Abstract: A 5-year-old African elephant was treated for an amputation injury of the distal trunk.  It was determined that replantation was impractical and, therefore, an operation was designed and performed with the intention of recreating the prehensile tip.

Fujikura, T., Oura, R., Sekine, J., 1989. Comparative morphological studies on digestion physiology of herbivores. 1. Digestibility and particle distribution of digesta and feces of domestic and feral animals. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture -Tottori-University 25, 87-93.
Abstract: Digesta was collected from a Japanese Black steer 30 months old and feed and faeces samples were collected from a sheep, goat, camel, wallaby, elephant, horse and koala. The composition of feeds and intakes for each animal is given in tables. Digestibilities of particle distribution of DM and acid detergent fibre are discussed and compared between animals.

Hegel, G.V., Hanichen, T., Mahnel, H., Wiesner, H., 1989. Warts (papilloma/sarcoid) in elephant. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 31, 201-205.
Abstract: Warts ( Papilloma, Sarcoid) in  Elephants  ( Hegel,G.)1989; translated from German by Gerda Martin. Papilloma virus - from the group Papova virus - is considered  an etiological agents of wart- like skin changes in cattle, sheep, mountain goat, and rabbit. (ROSENBERGER,1970; ROLLE and MAYR, 1984). Equine sarcoid (PALMER. 1985) found in horses is most likely caused by bovine papilloma virus. The alternate name is based on clinical and morphological differences in the actual papilloma. In the initial stage, the sarcoid is similar to that of the papilloma; however in later stages, tumorous decay on the surface of the epidermis, and proliferation of the mesenchymal part of the tumor in the subcutis dominate (DIET and WIESNER, 1982). Wart- like changes in the skin of elephants as described by PILASKI et al (1987, 1988), proved to be caused by Herpes virus.  Such skin changes in elephants are not rare and require treatment since size and volume of the excrescences  may cause functional disturbances in the patient. Even if the animal's  general   well being  is not impaired, the importance of esthetics and hygiene should not be disregarded in a place where there are spectators and visitors (zoo, circus). The following paper reports findings of wart- like skin changes in elephants. Observations and Therapy In the elephants  kept in the Hellabrunn  Zoo, no case of papilloma or similar skin tumors had occurred since 1972. First case: In 5-28 - 1987, a ca. 18 month old female L.a. named " Sabi" arrived In Hellabrunn. This animal had a wart- like thickening of 1 cm at the dorsal end of the trunk. After 8 weeks, more of those such skin changes appeared on trunk and lower lip without  impairment in general well being. Treatment consisted of  one daily, subcutaneous injection of 1 amp. Chelidonium D7 (DHU Chelidonium majus L.), and application of fresh ??Schoellkraut  juice dabbed onto the warts but was unsuccessful.  After a change of treatment was made: 10 drops of Thuja D4 (DHU Thuja occidentalis L) and 20 drops Acidum nitricum D12 (DHU Acidum nitricum), orally, once a day, at separate times of the day, there remained, after 2 weeks, a wart on the lower lip the size of a cherry pit, and the before mentioned  wart on the dorsal end of  the trunk had now grown to the size of a cherry. Even the strength of Thuja LM 6 (DHU Thuja occidentalis L.)  20 drops, oral, the growth of the wart on the dorsal end of the trunk, now with a diameter of 5 cm, could not be stopped: Exstirpation had to be performed. Frequent  sucking had promoted strong ulceration.  A secondary infection  had set in,  the surface showed granular  tissue exuding blood and pus.

On 10 -  6 -  1987 the growth was exstirpated and tissue was sent for virolog. and histolog. examination. In addition, tissue was removed from a fresh small wart for vaccine. During the operation the animal was immobilized (anesthetic: 0.3 ml Immobilon* (large animal Immobilon Rc* - Vet. Ltd.),  10mg Xylacin, 150 IE Hyaluronidase i. m.). There were no complications during recovery. Two  weeks post op., the first vaccination was given, followed by a second vacc. four weeks there after, of 5.0 ml, subcut.., of an auto vaccine developed by the Institute for Medical Microbiology, Dept. of Infectious and Epidemic Medicine. In February 1988, there occurred another bout with wart- like growth on the ventral part of the trunk, lower jaw, shoulders and feet, some with a diameter of 15 mm.  From the sedated young animal tissue was taken from several newly grown warts for the manufacture of auto vaccine (sedation: "Hellabrunner Mischung" / 150 IE Hyaluronidase). After 10 days, the first vaccination was given, and by the time of the second vacc." Sabi" was free of externally visible skin changes.

On 6. 6. 1988, "Sabi" fell ill again. Over night she was covered with 48 warts,  with  diameters from 2mm - 15 mm on trunk and head, and 10 more on the chest.The attempt to "ice"  the warts with liquid nitrogen was not successful. Instead, coagulation of ca. 20 of the larger warts was used. The monopolar coagulation electrode of the Erbotom F 2 (Erbe Elektromedizin) coagulates reaching deeply  into the healthy zone of the surrounding tissue. As before, tissue for the manufacture of the auto vaccine was taken, as well as  0.5 ml of blood from the ear vein for the manufacture of a "own- blood"  nosode. (Large animal, premedication: 20 mg Xylazin i.m., 20 minutes later : 0.5 ml Immobilon R (large animal Immobilon R c - Vet Ltd.) and 150 IE Hyaluronidase i.m. The following day, "Sabi" was given the "own- blood" nosode at a strength of C5 (20 drops daily).In addition, she was vacc. once again. Since "Sabi" was free of warts at the time of the second vaccination -   given 4 weeks after the first - the "own- blood" treatment was discontinued. Shortly there after, however, several new warts cropped up (diameter ca. 1 cm), so that the "own- blood"  treatments were continued. Since that time "Sabi" has had no recurrences.Second case : The Indian elephant cow (E. maximus) , named "Dirndl" , age ca. 22 years, had been kept in the box next to "Sabi" since "Sabi's" arrival. They kept trunk contact. On 5-2-1988, "Dirndl" showed on the distal trunk a substantially increased raised area ca. 2 x 2 cm oozing blood. It seemed to be an injury from a metal rope used in off limiting. The wound was disinfected and treated twice a day with chloromycetin spray with Gentian violetR (Parke Davis).  After  one week  the growth had increased substantially  and on the surface,  it had a cauliflower-like ulcerated  appearance.Upon light touch or movement of the dorsal  trunk, blood appeard spontaneously.   Four days later, the growth was exstirpated, while the animal was standing. (Sedation: 2.2 ml Hellabrunn mixture / 150 Hyaluronidase i. m.) . The attempt to close the skin of the trunk over the wound failed because the tension in that area was too great.  The surface of the wound was cauterized and treated with ChloromycetinSpray with Gentian violet R (Parke Davis). Tissue for pathological and histological examination was sent out.  One week after the operation,  the area of the wound was  highly swollem and the wound was infected. Treatment: Several times a day, an  ablution with a 0.1 % Rivanol solutionnR (Asid - 2 Aethoxy-6.9-diamin  acridinlactat)  and application of Sulfonamid-Codliver oil salve (WDT = Sulfadimidin- Sodium- cod liver oil).  In addition, analogous to "Sabi" , once daily 20 drops of "own-blood" nosode,  potency C 5  given orally. Three weeks post. op., there could be clearly distinguished a limited relapse, an area of  6 x 9 cm rising  ca. 2 cm  above the healthy skin of the trunk. The surface looked like the first growth.  It was extirpated under general anesthetic  (Premed.:80 mg Xylazin i. m., 20 min. later: 1.8 ml ImmobilionR and 150 IE Hyaluronidase). In addition, the whole wound was coagulated  by monopolar coagulation electrode as above. Daily for 4 weeks, the wound  was brushed with a 1:5 wood tar -alcohol - solution.There were no complications during recovery. After 5 weeks , all that could be seen was a ca. 1.5 cm long small scar on the skin of the trunk.

Histomorphological Findings:  Fixation with formalin, embedding in paraffin; stain: Hemalaun-Eosin, connective tissue stain  in the manner of Masson. The histomorphological  findings based on the tissue samples of "Sabi" and "Dirndl"  are the  same, and agree  with the findings of 3 other skin tumor tissue taken from elephants of different origin (tab. 1). The tumors  consist mainly of fibroplastic cells  with more or less  abundant collagen fibers and blood vessels. The boundaries from the adjacent corium and lower skin is largely indistinct.  In all larger neoplasties , the covering epidermis has been preserved  at margins only due to superficial ulceration.  Here the P. acuta aseptica diffusa borders  are irregular and strongly profiled, the epithelium is acanthoid and hyperkeratotic. The nuclei of tumor cells  are considerably anisomorphic, some have gigantic nuclei. Mitosis is frequent. Due to the ulcerated epidermis , there is deep infiltration with infectious cells. Virological findings: From the extirpated tissue taken from the African Elephant "Sabi" ca. 3 g was homogenated, in addition, the cells were "opened" by defrosting and ultrasound, and the "cleared" tissue suspension was analyzed  for free virus particles after concentration and negative-contrasting with  electron microscopy .  At the same time, small tissue samples of 2 mm  from deeper epidermis layers  were fixed as usual for the ultrahistological exam , embedded in epoxy  resin, and ultra thin slices were scanned by the electron microscope. No papilloma virus was found  in the concentrated, cell free tissue extract or  the ultrathin slices of tissue samples .No virus particle of  any kind was found.

Discussion
To  show papilloma by culturing cannot be done since  no species of this genus can  be propagated  in cell cultures  with the exception of its original host. The failed  attempt to prove their presence with the electronmicroscope does not exclude a papilloma virus etiology in tumors. When virus particles are viewed in higher concentrations, the electron microscopic  proof is successful. Using ultrahistologyical methods the particles in cell nuclei can only be found when the few cells  of specific skin cells  are in the virus propagation stage. In the case of virally induced papilloma however, a true virus propagation is not necessary. In the last few years, it was found that equine sarcoid  can be caused  by bovine papilloma virus. But it was only the genome of the virus which could be isolated by means of gene technology (ALTMANN, 1980; HAUSEN, 1980); the virus itself could not.  The oncogenetic potency of the virus in heterologic hosts , without true virus production, has been established.  A broader spectrum of hosts  for , at least , the papilloma virus in cattle seems to be the case.  And a bovine papilloma induced skin fibromatose in  (a) horse has been reported (LANCASTER, 1979). This virus can also appear in wild 'cud chewers, perhaps even carnivores. It is in part also related to the human papilloma virus. The possibility of transfer to humans (LANCASTER 1982) as well as other mammals such as elephants  has not been proved but is probable. In comparing the histological findings of the 5 skin growths with those of the viral fibropapilloma in cattle and horse (called equine sarcoid here), the relative immaturity of the tumorous tissue is evident. It compares to the so- called sarcoid in horses. The sarcoid-like structure and the indistinct  separation from healthy tissue  speaks for a virus etiology and  morphologically a relapse can be expected. This occurred in both of the clinically described cases.

A differential diagnosis excludes a Herpes virus infection, as described by PILASKI et al. (1987, 1988) in elephants on the basis of different histological findings. Inclusions could not be found in any of the cases. The warts on the elephants were clinically similar to the well known sarcoids in horses (DIETZ and WIESNER, 1982). The two sick animals were in "trunk contact" occupying adjacent boxes. Almost one year after the arrival of  "Sabi" who had warts, "Dirndl" fell sick. That points to the infectious nature of warts. The relapse after the first operation on "Dirndl" suggests that the extirpation of the growths was not complete. This may be related to the fact that the animal was standing  and only sedated. In contrast , the extirpation of the "relapse" was carried out on a fully immobilized animal and with the use of the Erbotom F 2  for coagulation including the adjacent tissue.  We know of various 'wart therapies' in human medicine with differing success. The various treatments employed in the one and one half years of "Sabi's" illness can be labled neither successful, nor unsuccessful. The use of auto vaccine which is analogous  to a "stable specific " vaccine in the treatment of papilloma in cattle, could  perhaps have triggered the recurrence of warts at the  conclusion of the vaccination treatments. That would favor the etiology of a virus 'picture.' The influence of the 'burn' or extirpation of a single or more growths which returned, in the surrounding growths cannot be determined. It remains inconclusive if the use of the "own- blood" nosode C 5 aided the successful therapy , since the necessity  to fight a recurrence had not yet occurred.

Roehrs, J.M., Brockway, C.R., Ross, D.V., Reichard, T.A., Ullrey, D.E., 1989. Digestibility of timothy hay by African elephants. Zoo Biology 8, 331-337.
Abstract: Two juvenile, female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were used in summer and winter trials to determine the apparent digestibility of timothy (Phleum pratense) hay. After 12-14 days of dietary adjustment, dry matter intake and fecal excretion were quantitatively measured for 7 days.  Dry matter of timothy hay contained 8.6 and 7.7% crude protein, 57.3 and 44.0% acid detergent fiber, and 6.5 and 6.4% ash during the summer and winter trials, respectively.  Estimates of apparent digestibility during summer and winter, respectively, were 39 and 35% for dry matter, 43 and 32% for gross energy (GE), 45 and 30% for crude protein (CP) and 36 and 24% for acid detergent fiber (ADF).  While GE and CP digestibility estimates tended (P < .09) to be greater in the summer trial, only the digestibility of ADF was different (P < .05) between summer and winter.  Dry matter intake was 1.4-1.6% of body weight (BW), providing an average of 144 kcal of digestible energy per kg BW0.75.  This value is similar to that (155 kcal per kg BW0.75) used for estimating digestible energy requirements for maintenance of light-breed horses.

Heard, D.J., Kollias, G.V., Merritt, A.M., Jacobson, E.R., 1988. Idiopathic chronic diarrhea and malabsorption in a juvenile African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 19, 132-136.
Abstract: A 4-5 yr old, 250 kg female African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana) was examined because of chronic, intermittent diarrhea and poor weight gain.  Abnormal clinical findings were cachexia, diarrhea, and ventral edema. Significant laboratory included low serum alkaline phosphatase concentrations, sporadic hyperbilrubinemia, hypoproteinemia/hypoalbuiminemia, intermittent hypoglycemia, hypertriglyceridemia, sporadic leukocytosis, neutrophilia/neutropenia, and lymphocytosis. The elephant had d-xylose malabsorption, and lymphocyte aggregates were found in histological sections of rectal biopsies.  Recurrent dental disease might have accounted for some of the clinical findings including cachexia.  Although an extensive workup was done, the cause or causes of the diarrhea were not determined and the condition spontaneously resolved.

Lahkar, B.C., Das, M.R., 1988. A note on the successful treatment of trichostrongyle infection of elephants (Elephas maximus) with Panacur (fenbendazole). Indian Veterinary Journal 65, 538.

Matevski, S., Ippen, R.ed., Schroder, H.D. Helminths and helminthiasis of animals in the Sofia Zoological Gardens. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 30. internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere vom 11. Mai bis 15. Mai 1988 in Sofia.  173-175. 1988. Berlin; German Democratic Republic, Akademie Verlag.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Information on the helminthological infections encountered in primates, carnivores, ruminants, camels, elephants and birds in recent years in the Sofia Zoo, Bulgaria, are summarized. Some anthelmintic treatment results are also mentioned.

Raubenheimer, E.J., Dauth, J., Dreyer, M.J., de Vos, V., 1988. Parotid salivary gland of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana): structure and composition of saliva. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 59, 184-187.
Abstract: Specimens from parotid salivary glands of full-grown elephant (Loxodonta africana) a (n=6) and saliva aspirated from their main excretory ducts were examined macroscopically and microscopically and analyzed biochemically. The composition of the saliva was compared to that of the blood. The parotids (n=12; mean = 7.4 kg) are homocrine and of a seromucous nature. Myoepithelial cells are well-developed along intercalated ducts and their processes extend to proximal portions of allied acini. The saliva is hypotonic and contains relatively low concentrations of sodium and glucose and high concentrations of potassium, urea, calcium and phosphorus. Absence of detectable levels of alpha-amylase negates a digestive role and the voluminous secrete evidently aids swallowing by moisturizing and lubricating the large mass of ingested leaves, grass and bark.

Roy, S., Mazumdar, B.K., 1988. Anthelmintic activity of fenbendazole (Panacur) against Murshidia murshida in zoo elephants. Indian Veterinary Journal 65, 531-532.

Hackenberger, M.K. Diet digestibilities and ingesta transit times of captive Asian (Elephas maximus) & African (Loxodonta africana) elephants.  1987. Guelph, University of Guelph.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation

Hackenberger, M.K., Burton, J.H., Atkinson, J.L., Dickson, K.M. Rate of ingesta passage within captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop. 7, 48-58. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Barile, M.F., Kapatais-Zoumbos, K., Grabowski, M.W., Snoy, P., Sneller, M., Plotz, P., Gill, V., Chandler, D.K.F. Mycoplasma hominis septic arthritis: Naturally occurring in humans and experimentally induced in chimpanzees. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology , 95. 1985.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: A recurrent septic arthritis developed in the wrist and prosthetic knee of a patient and continues to persist after ten months.  Aspirations were negative for bacteria and viruses but consistently grew out pure cultures of M. hominis.  The first positive culture was obtained 35 days after admission and four additional aspirations contained 104 to 107 CCU/ml of M. hominis.  Oxytetracycline was initiated on Day 41 and by Day 65 the aspiration was negative.  Treatment was continued for 6 months and terminated because of severe adverse gastrointestinal disturbances.  After treatment was discontinued the patient suffered a relapse, and M. hominis was isolated again. Experimental arthritis was induced by inoculating synovial fluids containing 10^4 CCU/ml of M. hominis into the knee of a chimpanzee.  Two additional chimpanzees inoculated with a pure culture of M. hominis containing 10^6 and 10^7 CCU/ml also developed arthritis.  Sera and synovial fluids from the patient and chimpanzee contained MI specific antibody to M. hominis. The septic arthritis induced in the chimpanzee was remarkably similar to disease in the patient.

Raphael, B.L., Clubb, F.J., 1985. Atypical salmonellosis in an African elephant. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 57.

Crockett, E.C., Dipeolu, O.O., 1984. A survey of helminth parasites of game animals in Kainji Lake National Park of Nigeria. Int. J. Zoonoses 11, 204-215.
Abstract: Between January and April 1983, the Borgu sector of the Kainji Lake National Park was visited and faecal droppings of several game animals belonging to the groups of Carnivora, Artiodactyla, Proboscidae and Primates were collected and processed for the presence of helminth ova and larvae. Faeces were also collected from the rectum of domestic ruminants which had grazed on the periphery of the park. Post mortem examinations were conducted on a baboon and an adult Monitor Lizard. Most of the game animals possessed multiple helminth infection but the egg-counts were generally low. Larvae of Haemonchus, Oesophagostomum and Trichostrongylus were common to wild and domestic ruminants while larvae of hook- and lungworms were mostly restricted to carnivores and primates. Some of the helminths found in the stomach and intestine of baboon during post-mortem were of public health interest

Janssen, D.L., Karesh, W.B., Cosgrove, G.E., Oosterhuis, J.E., 1984. Salmonellosis in a herd of captive elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 185, 1450-1451.

Mikhailov, M.I., Kuznetsov, S.V., Zhdanov, V.M., 1984. Electron microscopy of the intestinal content of a mammoth. The Lancet 2, 111-112.

Scott, W.A., 1984. Salmonellosis in an African elephant. Veterinary Record 115, 391.

Vitovec, J., Kotrla, B., Haji, H., Hayles, L.B., 1984. Fatal infection of an elephant calf caused by the trematode Protofasciola robusta (Lorenz, 1881) in Somaliland. Zentralbl. Veterinarmed. [B]. 31, 597-602.

Clemens, E.T., Maloiy, G.M.O., 1983. Nutrient digestibility and gastrointestinal electrolyte flux in the elephant and rhinoceros. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology [A] 75, 653-658.
Abstract: 1.  Nutrient digestibility and absorption-secretion were studied in elephants and rhinoceros.  2.  Prehension and diet selection are discussed.  3.  Rhinoceros select less fiber, which may account for their greater digestive efficiency.  4. Foregut digestion and fermentation are most evident in the rhinoceros, while elephants possessed greated caecal-colonic digestion.  5.  Relative to rhinoceros, elephants demonstrated greater intestinal VFA absorption and less sodium-potassium flux.

Hackenberger, M.K. Diet digestibilities and ingesta transit times of captive Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 4.  1983.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Prokopic, J., Hulinska, D., Zahor, Z., 1983. Choniagnium algericum sp. n. (Nematoda: Strongylidae) from the intestine of African elephant, Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach, 1779). Folia Parasitologica 30, 309-311.
Abstract: Nematodes of the genus Choniagnium were found in African elephant (Loxodonta africana) from Algerian Zoological Garden. On the basis of studies in light and scanning electron microscope these nematodes were identified as a new species, Choniagnium algericum sp. n.

Rees, P.S., 1983. Synchronization of defaecation in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Zoology (Lond) 201, 581-585.
Abstract: The ecological significance of defaecation in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) has been discussed from a number of points of view.  Dropping counts have been used to investigate population size and movements (Wing and Buss, 1970; Law, Parker and Johnstone, 1975); the chemical composition of dung has been examined (Dougall, 1963; Weir, 1972);  and dung decomposition and its role in nutrient cycles has been examined (Coe, 1972) and food consumption of wild elephant herds has been calculated from data on gross assimilation efficiency and drug production (Coe, 1972;Rees, 1982).  This paper presents evidence of a synchronization of defaecation in elephants and discusses its possible ecological significance.

Schaller, K., 1983. A case of rhododendron poisoning in circus elephants. Kleint. Praxis 28, 53-56.

Schryver, H.F., Foose, T.J., Williams, J., Hintz, H.F., 1983. Calcium excretion in feces of ungulates. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology [A] 74, 375-380.
Abstract: 1. Fecal excretion of calcium was examined in 122 individual ungulates representing 7 species of Equidae, 3 species of Tapiridae, 3 species of Rhinocerotidae, 2 species of Elephantidae, 2 species of Hippopotamidae, 12 species of Bovidae, 2 species of Cervidae, 3 species of Camelidae, and 1 species of Giraffidae.  2.  Animals were fed timothy hay, a low calcium diet, or alfalfa hay, a high calcium diet.  3.  In a few cases straw or prairie hay was used instead of timothy hay.  4. Samples of feces were obtained from individuals daily for 4 days following a 20 day dietary equilibration period.  5.  Feces of equids, tapirs, rhinoceros, and elephants had lower calcium concentration and a lower Ca P ratio than feces of ruminants when the animals were fed diets of equivalent calcium content. 6.  The findings suggest that the non-ruminant ungulate equids, tapirs, rhinoceros and elephants absorb a larger proportion of dietary calcium than ruminants do. "'...the non-ruminant ungulate equids, tapirs, rhinoceros and elephants absorb a larger proportion of dietary Ca than ruminants do.'" (EIG annotation, quoted from paper)

Boyce, L., Sayer, P., Inima, A.A., 1982. Fatal enteritis in a repatriated African elephant. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 75-76.

Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., Cheeran, J.V., 1982. Efficacy of Distodin in the treatment of amphistomiasis in Indian elephants. Kerala Journal of Veterinary Science 13, 55-58.
Abstract: Hexachlorophene (Distodin 100 mg tablets) was given by mouth at 5, 8 or 10 mg/kg body weight to ten elephants infected with Pseudodiscus collinsi, P.
hawkesi and Gastrodiscus secundus. The lowest dose eliminated 65 to 84% of  trematode eggs from the faeces, the medium dose 86 to 100% and the
highest 100%. Symptoms of anorexia, diarrhoea and weakness cleared up after treatment.

Chandrasekharan, K., Cheeran, J.V., Nair, K.N.M., Ramanujam, K.N., Radhakrishnan, K., 1982. Comparative efficacy of 6 anti-helminthics against strongylosis in elephants. Kerala Journal of Veterinary Science 13, 15-20.
Abstract: Infections with Murshidia falcifer, Quilonia travancra and Bathmostomum sangeri in 30 elephants were successfully treated by oral administration (in bread) of mebendazole at 3-4 mg/kg body weight, levamisole at 3 mg/kg and morantel tartrate at 5 mg/kg. Slightly less effective (68-96%  reduction in faecal egg counts) were mebendazole at 2 mg/kg, thiabendazole   [tiabendazole] at 32 mg/kg, bephenium hydroxynaphthoate at 25 mg/kg and  disophenol at 3 mg/kg.

Clemens, E.T., Maloiy, G.M.O., 1982. The digestive physiology of three East African herbivores: the elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus. Journal of Zoology (Lond) 198, 141-156.
Abstract: Studies were conducted to compare structural and physiological differences in the digestive functions of three 0. species of large ungulates; the elephant (Loxodonta africana), the Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) and the Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius).  Major differences were noted in the composition of ingesta and the sites of bacterial fermentative activity.  Comparisons are also made as to the influence of feeding behaviour on digestive functions, and as to the similarities of their digestive systems to that of domestic animals.

Folwell, D., 1982. Non-lethal poisoning of an elephant. Veterinary Record 110, 313.

Foose, T.J. Trophic strategies of ruminant versus nonruminant ungulates.  1982. Chicago, University of Chicago.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation

Hackenberger, M.K., Atkinson, J.L. Digestibility studies with captive Asiatic and African elephants. AAZPA Reg.Conf.Proc.  129-137. 1982.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Mohr, J.L., Jollie, K.G., Smith, T.P. Ciliates of elephant caecums. Journal of Protozoology 29, 482. 1982.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: On the basis of limited sampling, African elephants, Loxodonta, appear to have more complex ciliate assemblages than other cellulose-eating mammals.  In caecal samples of five Kenyan Loxodonta at least ten families are represented of which the Kofoidian elephantophilae and some others have been found only in Loxodonta and Elephas.  One paraisotrichid genus, found in both elephants, may be related to ciliates of hyracoid mammals.  Some cycloposthiids have be identified with species in hoofed mammals, but most appear to be restricted to elephants.  Except for Kofoid's original Mysore collection, all Elephas materials studied have been from zoological gardens; their assemblages have been much less varied than those in wild Loxodonta.  In the Loxodonta assemblage we have tried to determine roles of various ciliates.  There are obvious cellulose ingesters, carnivores and bacteriovores, "vampires" (suctorians) and presumably osmiotrophs, however, much cannot be determined from such fixed materials.  Current ciliate taxonomy appears to need revision to accomodate some of the species.

Rees, P.S., 1982. Gross assimilation efficiency and food passage time in the African elephant. African Journal of Ecology 20, 193-198.
Abstract: The amount of food consumed and dung voided by two captive African elephants was measured over a period of 7 days.  The mean gross assimilation efficiency of the two elephants was calculated to be 22.4%.  The food passage time was 21.4 and 46 h for one elephant.  Previous estimates of food consumption by wild elephants, based on an earlier, higher estimate of assimilation efficiency, are considered to be too high and have been recalculated.

Smith, T.P., Jollie, K.G., Mohr, J.L. Gut protozoans of zoo elephants. Journal of Protozoology 29, 482. 1982.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: Latteur has studied gut ciliates from Elephas and Loxodonta at Antwerp zoo and we have taken part in autopsies of Elephas (San Francisco) and Loxodonta (Brookfield Zoo, Chicago) and have sample manure of Cambodian Elephas (Los Angeles).  In general the gut microfaunas of captive elephants appear to be less varied than those of wild elephants.  A 19-year-old male Loxodonta, previously medicated, had numerous small flagellates, but only paraisotrichid ciliates of which six forms were recognized. Because all the adult Kenyan microfaunas were more complex, we regard this as reduced and selected by medication.  If, as seems likely, the bacterial flora was similarly affected, medication may have made significant changes in the nutrition of a mammal dependent on microbial action on cellulose.

Patton, S., McCracken, M.D., 1981. Hookworms from the liver of "Ole Diamond" (Loxodonta africana). Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science 56, 54.

Schaller, K., 1981. Delayed dentition of an Indian elephant causing obstipation and colic. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 88, 439-440.

Sikarski, J.G., Riebold, T., Stick, J., Washburn, J. Management of esophagotomy in an Asian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  106-108. 1981.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Van Hoven, W., Prins, R.A., Lankhorst, A., 1981. Fermentative digestion in the African elephant. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 11, 78-86.
Abstract: In an investigation into the nature of gastrointestinal fermentation in adult African elephant ( Loxodonta africana L.), the following parameters were determined in various intestinal compartments: volume, pH, concentrations of sugars, bicarbonate, volatile fatty acids (VFA), lactic acid and protozoa.  The composition of the digesta was determined by the proximate analysis and the procedure of van Soest.  Concentrations of minerals were analyzed in the caecal and colonic fluids.  Rates of gas production, composition of the fermentation gas, rates of lactate breakdown, and cellulolytic and amylolytic activity in the gut contents were measured using in vitro incubations.  The results show that there is microbial fermentation of sugars, starch and protein from the food in different compartments of the gastrointestinal tract, with most activity occurring in the caecum and colon. Cellulose digestion, however, is surprisingly small.  Despite the low rate of fermentation in the gut the elephant is likely to cover a large part of its energy requirement from the metabolism of VFA arising from the hindgut fermentation.  In English with Afrikaans summary.

Eloff, A.K., Van Hoven, W., 1980. Intestinal protozoa of the African elephant Loxodonta Africana. South African Journal of Zoology 15, 83-90.

 1979. "Motty" -- Birth of an African/Asian elephant at Chester Zoo. Elephant 1, 36-40.

Chandrasekharan, K., Sathianesan, V., Pythal, C., Sundaram, R.K., 1979. Anthelmintic activity of thiophanate (Nemafax) in elephants and zoo animals. Kerala Journal of Veterinary Science 1979, 167-170.
Abstract: Thiophanate orally at 14 mg/kg body weight was 100% effective against gastrointestinal nematodes (mainly Murshidia falcifera but also Amera pileata, Decrusia additicta and Choniangium epistomum) in 4 elephants, and at 50 mg/kg was 85 to 100% effective against Toxascaris leonina in 5 lion cubs, and 100% effective against Oesophagostomum dentatum in 2 wild boars.

Garlt, C., Kiupel, H., Ehrentraut, W., 1979. Botulism in elephants. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 13, 207-211.

Kuntze, A., 1979. Treatment of colic in elephants (Elephas maximus). Erkrankungen der Zootiere 13, 281-284.

Monfort, A., Monfort, N., 1979. Efficiency of assimilation and energy budget of the young African elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach). Mammalia 43, 543-557.
Abstract: In the present article, the experiments on the digestive efficiencies of young African elephants are described.  Two tame elephants, 27 and 31 months old, were confined in paddocks and were fed with rations consisting of the same plant species that they would select if they were free.  During the study period, the amount of food and energy ingested and rejected was determined.  On the average, the gross assimilation rate was 42.1% for the two animals: 38.3 +/- 4.4% and 45.6 +/- 2.8%  respectively.  Under estimate of the gross assimilation rate and of dung production in natural conditions, it should be possible to estimate the feeding pressure on the home range.  On the basis of the results, we have established an energy budget for the young African elephant in full growth.

Caple, I.W., Jainudeen, M.R., Buick, T.D., Song, C.Y., 1978. Some clinicopathologic findings in elephants (Elephas maximus) infected with Fasciola jacksoni. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 14, 110-115.
Abstract: Severe submandidular and ventral abdominal edema was observed in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in which liver flukes ( Fasciola jacksoni) were recovered from the bile ducts at post-mortem examination.  Clinico-pathologic examination of blood samples and serum from this elephant and another 8 elephants showed that most had anemia and hypoproteinemia. Fecal samples from 6 of the elephants contained from 6 to 83 eggs per gram.  Treatment of elephants with nitroxynil (10 mg/kg) by subcutaneous injection produced severe local reactions at the injection site.  Feces collected 2 and 4 months after treatment were free of trematode eggs.  Hematologic values measured 4 months after treatment showed that the hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, erythrocyte count and plasma protein concentration had increased to within the normal range.

Setasuban, P., 1976. Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy of Bathmostomum sangeri Cobbold, 1879, of elephants. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 7, 390-394.
Abstract: Bathmostomum sangeri is an intestinal parasite of the elephant. Males measured 12.15-14.25 mm in length; females measured 14.98-17.68 mm in length. Buccal capsule is well-developed and funnel-shaped. There is a raised and transverse fissure ridge around the oral margin. The internal wall of the buccal capsule is raised into a series of circular ridges or lamellae. Teeth or cutting plates could not be seen. Spicules are stout, wing-like structures. The telamon is pear-shaped, but a gibernaculum is not present. There are two pairs of papillae on the either side of the cloacal opening. The female tail is gradually tapering.

Windsor, R.S., Scott, W.A., 1976. Fascioliasis and salmonellosis in African elephants in captivity. British Veterinary Journal 132, 313-317.

Riemann, G.P., Burridge, M.J., Behymer, D.E., Franti, C.E., 1975. Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in free-living African mammals. J Wildl Dis 11, 529-533.
Abstract: Twelve species of free-living African mammals from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia were tested for antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii using the indirect hemagglutination test. Of 157 animals sampled, 20 (13%) were seropositive. T. gondii antibodies were detected in Burchell's zebra, (Equus burchelli), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), African elephant (Loxodonta africana), defassa waterbuck (Kobus defassa), lion (Panthera leo), and rock hyrax (Procavia capensis), The highest titers were found in elephants, two having titers of 1:4096 and one of 1:8192. These results are discussed in relation to the maintenance of T. gondii among African wildlife.

Young, E., 1975. Echinococcosis (hydatidosis) in wild animals of the Kruger National Park. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 46, 285-286.
Abstract: Echinococcosis has been diagnosed in the following wild species in the Kruger National Park: lion, Panthera leo, spotted hyena, Crocuta crocuta, Cape hunting dog, Lycaon pictus, Burchell's zebra, Equus burchelli antiquorum, buffalo, Syncerus caffer, hippopotamus, Hippopotamus amphibius, and impala, Aepyceros melampus.  Infestation rates in the herbivores vary from 60% in zebra to less than 1% in impala.  Species like elephant, Loxodonta africana, and blue wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus, do not seem to be susceptible.  The successful artificial transmission of Echinococcus granulosis felidis from Bruchell's zebra to the lion is reported for the first time.

Allen, K.B., Follis, T.N., Kistner, T.P., 1974. Occurrence of Grammocephalus clathratus (Baird, 1868) Pailliet and Henry, 1910 (Nematoda: Ancyclostomatidae), in an African elephant imported into the United States. Journal of Parasitology 60, 952.

Decker, R.A., Krohn, A.F., 1973. Cholelithiasis in an Indian elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 163, 546-547.
Abstract: Cholelithiasis with accompanying dilation of the bile ducts was found on necropsy on a young Indian elephant ( Elephas maximus).  Salmonella london was isolated from a composite of minced intestine, liver, spleen and heart.

Chandrasekharan, K., Pythal, C., Sundaram, R.K., 1972. A clinical note on the use of thiabendazole (thibendole) against murshidiasis in Indian elephants Elephas maximus. Kerala Journal of Veterinary Science 3, 56.

Coe, M., 1972. Defaecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana africana (Blumenbach)). East African Wildlife Journal 10, 165-174.
Abstract: A study of defaecation in the African elephant was carried out at the Voi headquarters of the Tsavo (East) National Park.  Four orphaned animals aged between 1 and 10 years were observed for 4 days and 3 nights.  During the day the time and weight of each individual's defaecation was recorded while at night only the time of defaecation.  Details of all records are presented.  Analysis has shown that the amount of dung produced with each defaecation bears a similar characteristic to that of the growth curves of these animals.  The rate of defaecation does not vary significantly with age. Records of defaecation arranged by time demonstrate an apparent periodicity with a low peak mid-morning and a high peak mid-afternoon.  The potential use of this information in feeding and population studies is discussed.

Windsor, R.S., Ashford, W.A., 1972. Salmonella infection in the African elephant and black rhinoceros. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 4, 214-219.
Abstract: Salmonellosis in two captive African elephants and a black rhinoceros is described.  Necropsy findings and characteristics of the salmonellae isolated are outlined. Possible sources of infection are discussed and on the basis of their findings, the authors make recommendations for the care of newly captured wild animals.

Basson, P.A., McCully, R.M., de Vos, V., Young, E., Kruger, S.P., 1971. Some parasitic and other natural diseases of the African elephant in the Kruger National Park. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 38 , 239-254.

Greve, J.H., 1969. Strongyloides elephantis sp.from an Indian elephant, Elephas indicus. Journal of Parasitology 55, 498-499.
Abstract: Strongyloides elephantis sp.parasitic females were recovered from the small intestine of a captive Indian elephant suffering from multiple parasitism.  Principal features of S. elephantis are its size (2.6 to 3.6 mm), the presence of nontwisted ovaries, salient vaginal musculature and vulvar lips, and the posterior position (73% of the body length from anterior end) of the vulva.  Intrauterine eggs measured 23 by 49 microns.  The form passed in the feces and free-living forms were not observed.

Anderson, I.L., 1968. Tutu poisoning in two circus elephants. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 16, 146-147.

Werle, E., Haendle, H., Schmal, A., 1968.  A case of carcinoid in an elephant. Pathologica Veterinaria 5, 81-83.

Kubota, K., 1967. Comparative anatomical and neurohistological observations on the tongues of elephants (Elephas indicus and Loxodonta africana). Anatomical Record 157, 505-515.
Abstract: Frozen sections from Indian and African elephant tongues were investigated neurohistologically.  On the dorsum there are 3 to 5 vallate papillae.  Foliate papillae consisting of 18 to 27 clefts are observed in the posterolateral region of the tongue.  Wart-like papillae are distributed along the lateral border of the tongue from the foliate papillae region to the apex.  Vallate and foliate papillae contain serous glands but have no taste buds.  They are supplied with abundant lamellated corpuscles of Pacinian type in their upper mucosa. The wart-like papillae are composed of two or more papillae, each of which has many secondary papillae supplied with plexiform thin and thick nerves.  They bear a few taste buds and contain lamellated corpuscles of Pacinian type.  From these neurohistologic characteristics wart-like papillae should be regarded as a receptive organ for secretion of the lingual glands.  Lamellated corpuscles of Pacinian type are widely distributed over the whole surface of the tongue.  The histologic location of these two structures is of interest in suggesting than they together play important roles as receptors of taste and tactile sensations during mastication of food. Double motor end plates are fround on single muscle fibers.  The mixed glands which are plentiful in the inferolateral area of the tongue are in close topographic relation with the wart-like papillae.

Kamiya, T., Fujita, T., 1966. The intramural pouch in the duodenum of the Indian elephant: a macro- and microscopic study of six cases. Okajimas Folia Anatomica Japonica 42, 281-294.

Villasenor, C., 1964. A new cellular type found in the liver of Elephas maximus. Gaceta Medica de Mexico 94, 403-405.

Dougall, H.W., 1963. On the chemical composition of elephant faeces. East African Wildlife Journal 1, 123.

Irwin, T.E., 1963. Elephants' stomach rumbles. African Wild Life 17, 112.

Evans, G.H., 1961. Elephants and Their Diseases: A Treatise on Elephants. Government Printing, Rangoon, Burma.

McGaughey, C.A., 1961. Diseases of elephants.  Part 3. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 9, 94-98.

Gill, J., 1960. Rate of passage through the digestive tract of Indian elephants (Elephas maximus) under zoo conditions. Acta Physiologica Polonica 11, 272-289.

Taylor, J.I., 1955. The rearing of an African elephant in captivity. Veterinary Record 67, 301-302.

McGaughey, C.A., Schmid, E.E., St.George, C., Velaudapillai, T., 1954. Salmonella infections of domesticated and wild animals in Ceylon. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 2, 86-88.

Goss, L.J., 1950. Animal hospital. 55th Annaul Report,New York Zoological Society 20-23.

Sutherland, A.K., O'Sullivan, P.J., Ohman, A.F.S., 1950. Helminthiasis in an elephant. Australian Veterinary Journal 26, 88-90.

Buttiauz, R., Gaumont, R., 1948. Infection mortelle d'un elephant par Salmonella oslo. Bull. Acad. Vet. Fr. 21, 399-342.

Ferrier, A.J., 1947. The care and management of elephants in Burma. Steel Brothers, London.

Brito-Babapulle, S.A.P., 1946. Phenothiazine and the elephant cecal worm. Vet. J. 102, 11.

Goss, L.J., 1946. Hospital and laboratory. 51st Annual Report,New York Zoological Society 22-25.

Matzke, M., 1940. Enteritis (Breslau) infektion dei elefanten. Tierarztl. Rdsch. 46, 521-522.

Berghe, V.D.L., Gillain, G., 1939. Sur un genre nouveau de filaroidae chez l'elephant au Congo Belge. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 32, 388-393.

Berghe, V.D.L., 1937. Une microfilaire de l'elephant au Congo Belge. Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparee 15, 225-226.

Dobberstein, J., 1936. Ueber die haufigsten Todesurachen der in zoologischen Garten gehaltenen Tiere. Med. Klinik. 32, 311-315.

Dobberstein, J., 1936. Ueber Sektionsbfunde bei den in zoologischen Garten gehaltenen Tieren. Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 52, 389-392.

Bhalerao, G., 1935. Helminth parasites of the Indian elephant from the Andamans and Burma. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry 5, 35-48.

Morris, R.C., 1935. Death of 14 elephants (Elephas maximus Linn.) by food poisoning. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 37, 722-723.

Bhalerao, G., 1933. The trematode parasites of the Indian elephant, Elephas indicus. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry 3, 103-115.

Eales, N., 1929. The anatomy of a foetal African elephant, Elephas africanas (Loxodonta africana). Part III.  The contents of the thorax and abdomen, and the skeleton. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 56, part I, 203-246.

Singh, V.P., 1924. Dropsy in elephants. Indian Veterinary Journal 1, 35-59.

Alessandri, G., 1922. Complete bibliography of parasites of elephants. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 1922, 227.

Gedoelst, L., 1922. Quelques nematodes parasites de l'elephant africain. Bull. Soc. Pat. Exot. 15, 122.

Khalil, M., 1922. A revision of the nematode parasites of elephants, with a description of four new species. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 1922, 205-279.

Baylis, H.A., 1921. A new genus of nematodes parasitic in elephants. Parasitology 13, 57-66.

Gupta, M.C., 1921. Internal parasites in elephants. Vet. J. 77, 25-28.

Bequaert, J.C., 1916. Parasitic muscid larvae collected from the African elephant and the white rhinocerous by the Congo expedition. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 35, 377-387.

Evans, G.H., 1910. Elephants and Their Diseases: A Treatise on Elephants. Government Printing, Rangoon, Burma.

Evans, G.H., 1910. Notes on some parasites in Burma.III. A few common parasites of elephants. J. Trop. Vet. Sci. 5, 240-250.

Evans, G.H., Rennie, T., 1909. Notes on some parasites in Burma.II. J. Trop. Vet. Sci. 4, 134-143.

Mitchell, W.D., 1903. Some notes upon the dentition of the elephant and injuries thereto. Dent. Rev. ,London 17, 83-110.

Freeman, H.E., 1886. Parasites of elephant. J. Micr. and Nat. Sci. 5, 187.

Cobbold, T.S., 1882. The parasites of the elephants. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Zool. ) 2, 223-258.

Miall, L.C., Greenwood, F., 1879. The anatomy of the Indian elephant. Part III alimentary canal and its appendages. Journal of Anatomy and Physiology 13, 17-50.

Cobbold, T.S., 1876. Entozoa of the elephant. The Lancet 2, 415.

Fritz, R.H., 1876. The elephant's fluke, Fasciola jacksoni Cobbold. Veterinarian (Lond) 22, 854.

Cobbold, T.S., 1875. On the destruction of elephants by parasites; with two new species of entozoa and on the so-called earth-eating habits of elephants and horses in India. Veterinarian (Lond) 21, 756-757.

Cobbold, T.S., 1875. Further remarks on parasites from the horse and the elephant, with a notice of new amphistomes from the ox. Veterinarian (Lond) 21, 817-821.

Cobbold, T.S., 1869. Description of a species of trematode from the Indian elephant, with remarks on its affinities. Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science 9, 48-49.

Baird, W., 1868. Description of a new species of sclerostoma from the stomach of the African elephant (Loxodonta africanaa). Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 1868, 262.

Tennent, J.E., 1867. The wild elephant and the method of capturing and taming it in Ceylon. Longmans, Green and Co., London.

Baird, W., 1859. Description of a new species of entozoan (Sclerostoma sipunculiforme) from the intestine of the elephant. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 1859, 425-427.

Harrison, R., 1850. On the larynx, trachea, and oesophagus of the elephant. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 4, 132-135.

 

 

Return to Database Index

Return to Top

.

 HOME   Who We Are   What We Do   What You Can Do  Database   Bulletin Board 
 Vet Formulary   Protocols   Conservation   Image Gallery   Links   
Contact Us   Sitemap

 

Website created, designed, and  copyright © 2002-06 by Hank Hammatt.  Images copyright © 2002-06 by Hank Hammatt - Click here to get information on image use.   All other rights reserved.   Contact Webmaster