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Elephant
Bibliographic
Database
www.elephantcare.org
References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent
first.
African
elephant proposed for reclassification to Endangered. 6-7. 1991.
Endangered-Species-Tech-Bull. Washington, D.C. : Dept. of the Interior,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Apr 1991. v. 16 (4).
Ref Type: Report
Asian
Elephant Conservation Act of 1997; report (to accompany S. 1287. United
States. Congress. Senate. Report ; 104-142; Committee on Environment
and Public Works. 1-7. 1997. Washinton, D.C., U.S. Govt. Print. Office.
Ref Type: Report
National
Symposium on Elephant Management and Conservation. 1-94. 1998. Sri
Lanka, Jayantha Jayewardene and Charles Santiapillai, Organizers. 1998.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Anonymous.
Asian Elephant Conservation Act of 1997 (United States). H.R. 1787.
1997.
Ref Type: Bill/Resolution
Bist, S.S.,
Cheeran, J.V., Choudhury, S., Barua, P., Misra, M.K., 2002. The
domesticated Asian elephant in India. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.),
Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the
Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO
Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp.
129-148.
Abstract: The history of domesticated elephants in India is briefly
discussed. Estimates of the numbers of domesticated elephants are given.
The laws pertaining to domestic elephants are discussed. The work done
by elephants is described. The veterinary care of elephants is discussed
. Recommendations for improving the domestic elephant situation in India
are given.
Bist, S.S.,
2002. The status of the domesticated elephants in India. Journal of
Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 4-7.
Bulte, E.H.,
Horan, H., Richard, D., Shogren, J.F., 2003. Elephants: Comment.
American Economic Review 93, 1437-1445.
Abstract: The article presents comments on a paper about the threat
posed by high prices in the international black markets to the
conservation of elephants and other species used for storable goods. The
paper combines exhaustible and renewable resource models to account for
wildlife commodity storage and derive several useful results including
the possibility of multiple equilibria and the role of endangered
species policy. The article focuses on the storage policy recommendation
of the paper and reveal its potential downside. The article shows that
stockpiling can be detrimental to wildlife conservation if sufficiently
large stocks trigger purposeful, strategic extinction by host
governments who gain more from selling their stores than by holding them
until a later date. The article also examines how the combination of
government preferences for revenues, the trade ban imposed by the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild fauna
and Flora, and a limited number of host countries affects a governments'
conservation efforts when it has built up stores of wildlife commodities
from endangered species. As a motivating example, the article considers
the case of the African elephant. See also Elephants: Reply. Kremer,
Michael and Morcom, Charles.
Cambre, R.C.,
Buick, W.W., 1996. Special challenges of maintaining wild animals in
captivity in North America. Rev Sci Tech 15, 251-266.
Abstract: The maintenance of wild animals in captivity in North America
is regulated by a number of different laws and government agencies in
each country. Member institutions of zoo and aquarium associations in
Canada, the United States of America and Mexico experience an extra tier
of regulation in the form of industry standards, which are sometimes
stricter than those imposed by government. Climate, natural disasters
and harmful pest species all contribute to the challenge of keeping
animals in certain locales. Vigilance against zoonotic disease
transmission is maintained through industry and government-mandated
sanitation standards, which are fortified by reporting regulations of
local, regional and Federal health agencies. Current controversies in
the keeping of particular taxa in North America include the threat to
non-human primate breeding programmes precipitated by strict new import
regulations, the fear of herpesvirus B infection, and commercial airline
transport bans. Successive human fatalities among elephant handlers have
prompted the industry and governments to re-examine the manner in which
these potentially dangerous creatures are maintained in captivity.
Cockrill,
W.R. World Association for Transport Animal Welfare and Studies.
Inaugural Meeting. Wolfson College Oxford, 12 December 1989. Working
animals international. World Association for Transport Animal Welfare
and Studies. Inaugural Meeting. Wolfson College Oxford, 12 December
1989. Working animals international. 1-78. 1990. Oxford, UK.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Daim, M.S.,
2002. The care and management of domesticated elephants in Malaysia. In:
Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the
International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok,
Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 149-155.
Abstract: The status of domesticated elephants in Malaysia is described.
Of the 36 domesticated elephants in the country 26 are zoo exhibits, 2
are used as draught animals and 8 are used to assist in the relocation
of wild elephants. The laws governing the treatment of elephants are
described.
Dutta, B.,
2003. Transportation of elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare,
Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of
India, New Delhi, pp. 164-173.
Frank, B.,
Maurseth, P.B., 2006. The spatial econometrics of elephant population
change - A note. Ecological Economics 60, 320-323.
Abstract: While previous research found no other variable than
corruption to have a negative impact on the growth rate of the elephant
populations of African countries, we show that one further significant
impact is exerted by 'neighbourhood effects'. Elephants travel long
distances, often crossing borders. Using spatial econometric tools, we
find that elephant population changes in one country have a positive
impact on population changes in neighbouring countries. Our results have
possible policy implications, as they suggest that spatial clustering of
funds and of conservation efforts makes sense if the endangered species
move across borders.
Heltberg, R.,
2001. Impact of the ivory trade ban on poaching incentives: a numerical
example. Ecological Economics 36, 189-195.
Abstract: The paper considers how the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species' trade ban on elephant ivory affect the incentives
to poach African elephants. The major effects of a trade ban on poaching
incentives are captured in a simple static model of world ivory supply
and demand. It is shown that a trade ban has ambiguous effects on
poaching incentives. Although the ban reduces international ivory
demand, official production as well as confiscations are withheld from
consumer markets, increasing black market prices paid to poachers. It is
found that a trade ban is likely to reduce poaching if it leads to a
reduction in demand, if it facilitates interception of smuggled goods,
if there is little official production piling up, and if it does not
negatively affect law enforcement efforts. A numerical example based on
the presented model indicates that the ivory trade ban is likely to
reduce poaching.
Hemley, G.,
1989. CITES 1989. The African elephant and more. Traffic USA 9,
1-7.
Hilborn, R.,
Arcese, P., Borner, M., Hando, J., Hopcraft, G., Loibooki, M., Mduma,
S., Sinclair, A.R., 2006. Effective enforcement in a conservation area
378. Science 314, 1266.
Abstract: Wildlife within protected areas is under increasing threat
from bushmeat and illegal trophy trades, and many argue that enforcement
within protected areas is not sufficient to protect wildlife. We
examined 50 years of records from Serengeti National Park in Tanzania
and calculated the history of illegal harvest and enforcement by park
authorities. We show that a precipitous decline in enforcement in 1977
resulted in a large increase in poaching and decline of many species.
Conversely, expanded budgets and antipoaching patrols since the
mid-1980s have greatly reduced poaching and allowed populations of
buffalo, elephants, and rhinoceros to rebuild
Islam, M.A.,
2002. The status of Bangladesh's captive elephants. In: Baker, I.,
Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International
Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10
February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA),
Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 67-77.
Abstract: The history of elephant domestication in Bangladesh is
described. The numbers of domesticated elephants in zoos, circuses and
logging operations are given. The regulations protecting elephants are
described. Recommendations for improving the welfare of domesticated
elephants are given. A table lists the owners of elephants, the sex, age
(if known), origin (if known), use and names of the animals, the names
of the mahouts and whether the animals are registered.
Kharel, F.R.,
2002. The challenge of managing domesticated Asian elephants in Nepal.
In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of
the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok,
Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 103-110.
Abstract: The numbers of wild and domesticated elephants in Nepal are
given. The legal status of domesticated elephants is discussed. Data on
domesticated elephants born between 1979 and 2000 is given. The uses of
elephants are discussed and recommendations for improving the husbandry
of elephants are given.
Koch, W.
Elephant Management Considerations from a Regulatory Perspective.
Elephants: Cultural, Behavioral, and Ecological Perspectives; Program
and Abstracts of the Workshop. 14. 2000. Davis, CA. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Kremer, M.,
Morcom, C., 2003. Elephants: Reply. American Economic Review 93,
1446-1448.
Abstract: The article presents a reply to comments on a paper on the
effect of ivory trading on the conservation of African elephants. The
comments note that the rules of the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ban trade in products from
endangered but not extinct species. The authors of the comments argue
that governments may therefore have incentives to strategically kill off
all their elephants so as to secure the end of the ban on ivory trading.
This incentive will be stronger if governments hold stockpiles of ivory.
The article argues that strategic extinction is unlikely for several
reasons. First, twenty-five African countries have at least 1,000
elephants and many other countries preserve elephants in zoos, under the
authors' assumptions, any individual countries will be better off
preserving a small stock of elephants if it expects at least one other
country to preserve some elephants since in this case the ban on ivory
trade would be sustained. Second, while the model allows for tourism
benefits from wildlife, it does not allow for the possibility that aid
from rich countries would depend in part on the policies of African
countries toward their wildlife. See: Elephants: Comment. Bulte, Erwin
H., Horan, Richard D., and Shogren, Jason F.
American Economic Review; Sep2003, Vol. 93 Issue 4, p1437, 9p
Lair, R.,
2002. A regional overview of the need for registration of domesticated
Asian elephants. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands:
Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian
Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for
Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 8-13.
Abstract: The need for registration of domesticated elephants, in order
to improve welfare, prevent smuggling and assist in conservation, is
discussed. The tools required (tags, forms, databases etc.) are
described. The feasibility of registration programmes in 11 Asian
countries are discussed.
Loannidis,
J.P.A., 2005. Why most published research findings are false. PLoS Med 2,
e124.
Maple, T.L.,
2007. Toward a science of welfare for animals in the zoo. J Appl Anim
Welf Sci 10, 63-70.
Abstract: Although the accredited institutions of the Association of
Zoos and Aquariums have all committed to enhancing the welfare of
nonhuman animals, acceptable standards and best practices are still
under debate. Currently, experts from zoos and the field hold widely
divergent opinions about exhibition and management standards for
elephants. Standards and practices for managing nonhuman primates
provide a model for other nonhuman creatures exhibited in zoos and
aquariums. Examining the key issues for primates demonstrates the value
of applying scientific data before promulgating standards. The field of
applied behavior analysis provides a wealth of information to frame the
debate. Animal behaviorists have contributed to an emerging science of
animal welfare, which may provide a foundation for empirical zoo
management, standards, and practices.
Morrell, V.,
2007. Endangered species. Elephants take center ring at CITES. Science
316, 1678-1679.
National
Research Council, 1989. Nutrient requirements of horses. National
Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Norachack,
B., 2002. The care and management of domesticated Asian elephants in Lao
PDR. In: Baker, I., Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings
of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant,
Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10 February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and
the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 173-180.
Abstract: The numbers of domesticated elephants in various provinces of
Laos are given. Laws and regulations protecting elephants and the
organizations responsible for enforcing these are described. The uses of
elephants and the veterinary care available are discussed.
Page, C.D.
Recommended protocol for health screening elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant
Workshop 9. 26-30. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Prabhkaran,
L., 2002. Humane treatment of elephants and the legal perspective.
Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 49-51.
Rees, P.A.,
2009. The sizes of elephant groups in zoos: implications for elephant
welfare. J. Appl. Anim Welf. Sci. 12, 44-60.
Abstract: This study examined the distribution of 495 Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus) and 336 African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in 194
zoos, most of which were located in Europe (49.1%) and North America
(32.6%). Cows outnumbered bulls 4 to 1 (Loxodonta) and 3 to 1 (Elephas).
Groups contained 7 or fewer: mean, 4.28 (sigma = 5.73). One fifth of
elephants lived alone or with one conspecific. Forty-six elephants
(5.5%) had no conspecific. Many zoos ignore minimum group sizes of
regional zoo association guidelines. The American Zoo and Aquarium
Association recommends that breeding facilities keep herds of 6 to 12
elephants. The British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums
recommends keeping together at least 4 cows over 2 years old. Over 69%
Asian and 80% African cow groups-including those under 2 years-consisted
of fewer than 4 individuals. Recently, Europe and North America have
made progress with some zoos no longer keeping elephants and with others
investing in improved facilities and forming larger herds. The welfare
of individual elephants should outweigh all other considerations; zoos
should urgently seek to integrate small groups into larger herds
Schaftenaar,
W., Hildebrandt, T.B., Flugger, M., Goritz, F., Schmitt, D., West, G.
Guidelines for veterinary assistance during the reproduction process in
female elephants. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians,
American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, Association of Reptilian
and Amphibian Veterinarians, and the National Association of Zoo and
Wildlife Veterinarians Joint Conference. 348-355. 2001. USA.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: In February 2000, a group of European zoo veterinarians met at
Tierpark Hagenbeck, Hamburg to evaluate a questionnaire about 31
parturitions in Asian elephants. The results were presented at the 40th
International Symposium on Diseases of Zoo and Wild Animals. The
results were combined with the experiences of some North-American zoo
veterinarians, which resulted in the protocol presented in this paper.
The protocol may serve as a guideline for institutions that wish to
breed elephants. The proper application of the recommendations given in
these guidelines should increase the reproductive success in elephants.
It is the moral obligation of everyone who is responsible for the
management and breeding of elephants to consider utilizing the
guidelines as they may apply to their situation and to collect data that
may help increase our knowledge. The breeding process in elephants
requires monitoring of several parameters in both males and females. The
most crucial parameters are the determination of the estrous cycle
through progesterone and, perhaps, LH assay, evaluation of the genital
tract in both sexes, determination of the number of fetuses and finally,
parturition. The first part of the paper will mention briefly the tools
that can be used in female elephants to achieve these goals. The second
part describes a protocol for veterinary intervention in elephant
parturition.
Schmid, J.,
Zeeb, K., 1994. The establishment of the paddocks for keeping elephants
in the circus. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 101, 50-52.
Abstract: The guidelines for keeping, training and using animals in
circuses and similar institutions, which are made in connection with the
law for prevention of cruelty to animals, claim to keep elephants daily
1 hour unshackled in a group in a paddock. The effect of the paddock on
social, play behaviour, and the stereotypic movements of circus
elephants is discussed. Parameters for housing and managing captured
elephants are based on observations of their normal behaviour in nature.
A pilot study with 29 elephants in 4 circuses showed that the paddock
enabled the elephants to carry out social and comfort behaviour more
frequently than when shackled. The stereotypic movements were nearly
absent by keeping the elephants in the paddock.
Schmitt, D.
Riddles's Elephant amd Wildlife Sanctuary Elephant Birth Protocol.
2001.
Ref Type: Internet Communication
Smith, T. Zoo
research guidelines: Monitoring stress in zoo animals. 2004. London,
Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland.
Ref Type: Report
Soto, B.,
Munthali, S.M., Breen, C., 2001. Perceptions of the forestry and
wildlife policy by the local communities living in the Maputo Elephant
Reserve, Mozambique. Biodiversity Conservation 10, 1723-1738.
Suprayogi,
B., Sugardjito, J., Lilley, R.P.H., 2002. Management of Sumatran
elephants in Indonesia: problems and challenges. In: Baker, I., Kashio,
M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International
Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10
February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA),
Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 183-194.
Abstract: The status of domestic elephants in Indonesia is described.
The development of elephant training centres and reasons for their
failure to encourage the use of elephants for logging operations are
discussed. Problems of stress and other health problems are described.
The availability of resources (feed, water and veterinary support) are
discussed. Recommendations for improvement are given.
Talukdar, B.N.,
2003. Practices on welfare and prevention of cruelty: legal provisions
related to elephant. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and
Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New
Delhi, pp. 180-190.
Tipprasert,
P., 2002. Elephants and ecotourism in Thailand. In: Baker, I., Kashio,
M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International
Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10
February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA),
Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 156-172.
Abstract: The numbers of elephants used at particular locations in
Thailand, the activities for which they are used and the conditions
under which they are kept are presented in tabular form. The Thai
Elephant New World Project, which aims to integrate elephant ecotourism
and conservation is described. Recommendations for the regulation and
support of the use of elephants in ecotourism are given.
Tremblay, Y.,
Shaffer, S.A., Fowler, S.L., Kuhn, C.E., McDonald, B.I., Weise, M.J.,
Bost, C.A., Weimerskirch, H., Crocker, D.E., Goebel, M.E., Costa, D.P.,
2006. Interpolation of animal tracking data in a fluid environment. J
Exp Biol. 209 (Pt 1), 128-140.
Abstract: Interpolation of geolocation or Argos tracking data is a
necessity for habitat use analyses of marine vertebrates. In a fluid
marine environment, characterized by curvilinear structures, linearly
interpolated track data are not realistic. Based on these two facts, we
interpolated tracking data from albatrosses, penguins, boobies, sea
lions, fur seals and elephant seals using six mathematical algorithms.
Given their popularity in mathematical computing, we chose Bézier,
hermite and cubic splines, in addition to a commonly used linear
algorithm to interpolate data. Performance of interpolation methods was
compared with different temporal resolutions representative of the
less-precise geolocation and the more-precise Argos tracking techniques.
Parameters from interpolated sub-sampled tracks were compared with those
obtained from intact tracks. Average accuracy of the interpolated
location was not affected by the interpolation method and was always
within the precision of the tracking technique used. However, depending
on the species tested, some curvilinear interpolation algorithms
produced greater occurrences of more accurate locations, compared with
the linear interpolation method. Total track lengths were consistently
underestimated but were always more accurate using curvilinear
interpolation than linear interpolation. Curvilinear algorithms are safe
to use because accuracy, shape and length of the tracks are either not
different or are slightly enhanced and because analyses always remain
conservative. The choice of the curvilinear algorithm does not affect
the resulting track dramatically so it should not preclude their use. We
thus recommend using curvilinear interpolation techniques because of the
more realistic fluid movements of animals. We also provide some
guidelines for choosing an algorithm that is most likely to maximize
track quality for different types of marine vertebrates. University of
California, Santa Cruz, Long Marine Laboratory, Center for Ocean Health,
100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA. tremblay@biology.ucsc.edu
U
Tan, A., U Thoung, N., 2002.
The care and
management of the domesticated Asian elephant in Myanmar. In: Baker, I.,
Kashio, M. (Eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International
Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-10
February 2001. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA),
Bangkok; Thailand, pp. 89-102.
Abstract: he numbers of domesticated elephants employed in the logging
industry and kept in zoos are given. The laws and regulations governing
domestic elephants are described. Research projects relating to the
reproduction of domesticated elephants are discussed. The work domestic
elephants are used for is described and the veterinary care available is
discussed. For copies write to: Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional
Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,
Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Email: masakazukashio@fao.org
Wasser, S.K.,
Mailand, C., Booth, R., Mutayoba, B., Kisamo, E., Clark, B., Stephens,
M., 2007. Using DNA to track the origin of the largest ivory seizure
since the 1989 trade ban. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 104 ,
4228-4233.
Abstract: The illegal ivory trade recently intensified to the highest
levels ever reported. Policing this trafficking has been hampered by the
inability to reliably determine geographic origin of contraband ivory.
Ivory can be smuggled across multiple international borders and along
numerous trade routes, making poaching hotspots and potential trade
routes difficult to identify. This fluidity also makes it difficult to
refute a country's denial of poaching problems. We extend an innovative
DNA assignment method to determine the geographic origin(s) of large
elephant ivory seizures. A Voronoi tessellation method is used that
utilizes genetic similarities across tusks to simultaneously infer the
origin of multiple samples that could have one or more common origin(s).
We show that this joint analysis performs better than sample-by-sample
methods in assigning sample clusters of known origin. The joint method
is then used to infer the geographic origin of the largest ivory seizure
since the 1989 ivory trade ban. Wildlife authorities initially suspected
that this ivory came from multiple locations across forest and savanna
Africa. However, we show that the ivory was entirely from savanna
elephants, most probably originating from a narrow east-to-west band of
southern Africa, centered on Zambia. These findings enabled law
enforcement to focus their investigation to a smaller area and fewer
trade routes and led to changes within the Zambian government to improve
antipoaching efforts. Such outcomes demonstrate the potential of genetic
analyses to help combat the expanding wildlife trade by identifying
origin(s) of large seizures of contraband ivory. Broader applications to
wildlife trade are discussed
West, D.L.,
1990. Wrap-up of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species. Bio. Sci. (Am. Inst. Biol. Sci. ) 40, 90.
Ye Htut, U.,
1995. Management of Wild Elephants in Myanmar. In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A
Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian
Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press,
Bombay, India, pp. 236-241.
Young, J.K.,
Gerber, L.R., D'Agrosa, C., 2007. Wildlife population increases in
Serengeti National Park. Science 315, 1790-1791.
Ziccardi, M.,
Mikota, S.K., Barbiers, R.B., Norton, T.M. Tuberculosis in zoo
ungulates:Survey results and surveillance plan. Proc. AAZV and IAAAM
Joint Conf. 438-441. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
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