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Neonatal and Handrearing

(The following additional keywords have been used to categorize articles within this section and may assist your search.)

handrearing, milk, milk replacer, neonatal

Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org

References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent first.

Hermes, R., Behr, B., Hildebrandt, T.B., Blottner, S., Sieg, B., Frenzel, A., Knieriem, A., Saragusty, J., Rath, D., 2009. Sperm sex-sorting in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Anim Reprod. Sci. 112, 390-396.
Abstract: In captive Asian elephants, there is a strong need for production of female offspring to enhance reproduction, counter premature aging processes in female animals and reduce challenging management situations derived from husbandry of several bulls in one institution. Artificial insemination of flow cytometrically sex-sorted spermatozoa offers the possibility to predetermine the sex of offspring with high accuracy. The aims of this study were to determine a suitable semen extender and basic parameters for flow cytometrical sex-sorting of Asian elephant spermatozoa. In total 18 semen samples were collected by manual rectal stimulation from one bull. Sperm quality parameters and sex sortability of spermatozoa were evaluated after dilution in three semen extenders (MES-HEPES-skim milk, MES-HEPES, TRIS-citric acid) and DNA staining. MES-HEPES-skim milk was the only semen extender found suitable to sex Asian elephant spermatozoa. From 18 ejaculates collected, 12 were successfully sorted with a purity of 94.5+/-0.7% at an average sort rate of 1945.5+/-187.5 spermatozoa per second. Sperm integrity, progressive and total motility were 42.6+/-3.9%, 48.1+/-3.3%, 59.4+/-3.8% after DNA labelling, and 64.8+/-3.2%, 58.0+/-5.0%, 70.8+/-4.4% after sorting, respectively. After liquid storage of sorted spermatozoa for 12h at 4 degrees C, sperm integrity, progressive and total motility were 46.4+/-5.2%, 32.2+/-4.2% and 58.2+/-3.9%, respectively. The obtained results provide a promising base to inseminate Asian elephants with sexed semen

Knauf, S., Blad-Stahl, J., Lawrenz, A., Schuerer, U., Wehrend, A., 2009. Plasma preparation and storage for African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40, 71-75.
Abstract:
The use of plasma as a life-saving tool for neonatal African elephants (Loxodonta africana) that failed passive transfer of immunoglobulins is proposed. The methodology of blood sampling, plasma extraction, and plasma storage is described. Values for cellular component sedimentation and biochemical parameters of extracted plasma that was collected from 2 female elephants is presented. The proposal for a central plasma bank for elephants in European zoos is suggested.

Knauf, S., Blad-Stahl, J., Lawrenz, A., Schuerer, U., Wehrend, A., 2009. Plasma preparation and storage for African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
74. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 40, 71-75.
Abstract: The use of plasma as a life-saving tool for neonatal African elephants (Loxodonta africana) that failed passive transfer of immunoglobulins is proposed. The methodology of blood sampling, plasma extraction, and plasma storage is described. Values for cellular component sedimentation and biochemical parameters of extracted plasma that was collected from 2 female elephants is presented. The proposal for a central plasma bank for elephants in European zoos is suggested

Saragusty, J., Hermes, R., Goritz, F., Schmitt, D.L., Hildebrandt, T.B., 2009. Skewed birth sex ratio and premature mortality in elephants. Anim Reprod. Sci. 115, 247-254.
Abstract: Sex allocation theories predict equal offspring number of both sexes unless differential investment is required or some competition exists. Left undisturbed, elephants reproduce well and in approximately even numbers in the wild. We report an excess of males are born and substantial juvenile mortality occurs, perinatally, in captivity. Studbook data on captive births (CB, n=487) and premature deaths (PD, <5 years of age; n=164) in Asian and African elephants in Europe and North America were compared with data on Myanmar timber (Asian) elephants (CB, n=3070; PD, n=738). Growth in CB was found in three of the captive populations. A significant excess of male births occurred in European Asian elephants (ratio: 0.61, P=0.044) and in births following artificial insemination (0.83, P=0.003), and a numerical inclination in North American African elephants (0.6). While juvenile mortality in European African and Myanmar populations was 21-23%, it was almost double (40-45%) in all other captive populations. In zoo populations, 68-91% of PD were within 1 month of birth with stillbirth and infanticide being major causes. In Myanmar, 62% of juvenile deaths were at >6 months with maternal insufficient milk production, natural hazards and accidents being the main causes. European Asian and Myanmar elephants PD was biased towards males (0.71, P=0.024 and 0.56, P<0.001, respectively). The skewed birth sex ratio and high juvenile mortality hinder efforts to help captive populations become self-sustaining. Efforts should be invested to identify the mechanism behind these trends and seek solutions for them.

Conesa, C., Sanchez, L., Rota, C., Perez, M.D., Calvo, M., Farnaud, S., Evans, R.W., 2008. Isolation of lactoferrin from milk of different species: calorimetric and antimicrobial studies. Comp Biochem. Physiol B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 150, 131-139.
Abstract: Lactoferrin (LF) is an iron-binding glycoprotein found in different biological fluids of mammals and in neutrophils. It has been proposed to be involved in many functions, including protection from pathogens. In this work, purification of lactoferrin using an ion-exchange chromatography (SP-Sepharose) was attempted for the milk of the following animals: sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus), camel (Camelus bactrianus), alpaca (Lama pacos), elephant (Elephas maximus) and grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), as well as human (Homo sapiens). Lactoferrin was identified in all the milks apart from that from grey seal. The thermal stability of the purified lactoferrins, in their native and iron-saturated forms, was studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Maximum temperature, onset temperature and enthalpy change of denaturation were higher when lactoferrins were saturated with iron than in their native form, indicating an increase in the stability of the protein structure upon iron-binding. Human lactoferrin was found to be the most heat-resistant and the other lactoferrins presented different degrees of thermoresistance, that of elephant being the least resistant. The antimicrobial activity of the different isolated lactoferrins was investigated against Escherichia coli 0157:H7. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined by measuring the absorbance at 620 nm. The minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) were also measured and it was found that camel lactoferrin was the most active lactoferrin against E. coli 0157:H7, whereas alpaca and human lactoferrins were the least active

Osthoff, G., Dickens, L., Urashima, T., Bonnet, S.L., Uemura, Y., van der Westhuizen, J.H., 2008. Structural characterization of oligosaccharides in the milk of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana). Comp Biochem. Physiol B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 150, 74-84.
Abstract: The oligosaccharides present in the milk of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana), collected 4 days post partum, were separated by size exclusion-, anion exchange- and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) before characterisation by (1)H NMR spectroscopy. Neutral and acidic oligosaccharides were identified. Neutral oligosaccharides characterised were isoglobotriose, Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNA c(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Gal(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc and a novel oligosaccharide that has not been reported in the milk or colostrum of any other mammal: Gal(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(al pha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc. Acidic oligosaccharides that are also found in the milk of Asian elephant were Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcN Ac(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc and Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3){Gal(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc( alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-6)}Gal(beta1-4)Glc, while Neu5Gc(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)[Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-6)]Ga l(beta1-4)Glc and Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3){Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc NAc(beta1-6)}Gal(beta1-4)Glc have not been found in Asian elephant milk. The oligosaccharides characterised contained both alpha(2-3)- and alpha(2-6)-linked Neu5Ac residues. They also contain only the type II chain, as found in most non-human, eutherian mammals

Stoeger-Horwath, A.S., Stoeger, S., Schwammer, H.M., Kratochvil, H., 2007. Call repertoire of infant African elephants: first insights into the early vocal ontogeny. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 121, 3922-3931.
Abstract: African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) have a complex acoustic communication system, but very little is known about their vocal ontogeny. A first approach in ontogenetic studies is to define the call repertoire of specific age groups. Twelve hundred calls of 11 infant elephants from neonatal to 18 months of age recorded at the Vienna Zoo in Austria and at the Daphne Sheldrick's orphanage at the Nairobi National Park, Kenya were analyzed. Six call types were structurally distinguished: the rumble, the bark, the grunt, the roar (subdivided into a noisy-, tonal-, and mixed-roar), the snort, and the trumpet. Generally, within-call-type variation was high in all individuals. In contrast to adult elephants, the infants showed no gender-dependent variation in the structure or in the number of call types produced. Male infants, however, were more vocally adamant in their suckle behavior than females. These results give a first insight to the early vocal ontogeny and should promote further ontogenetic studies on elephants. Due to their vocal learning ability in combination with the complex fission-fusion society, elephants could be an interesting model to study the role of imitation in the vocal ontogeny of a nonprimate terrestrial mammal

Dreisewerd, K., Kolbl, S., Peter-Katalinic, J., Berkenkamp, S., Pohlentz, G., 2006. Analysis of native milk oligosaccharides directly from thin-layer chromatography plates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization orthogonal-time-of-flight mass spectrometry with a glycerol matrix
517. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 17, 139-150.
Abstract: We have recently presented a new method for direct coupling of high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS), illustrated by the analysis of a complex ganglioside mixture. In the current communication, an adaptation of this procedure to mixtures of native oligosaccharides from human and from elephant milk is described. The key features in this method are (1) glycerol as a liquid matrix, to provide a homogeneous wetting of the silica gel and a simple and fast MALDI preparation protocol, (2) an infrared (IR) laser for volume material ablation and particular soft desorption/ionization conditions, and (3) an orthogonal time-of-flight mass spectrometer for a high mass accuracy, independent of any irregularity of the silica gel surface. Chromatographic "mobility profiles" were determined by scanning the laser beam across the analyte bands. The current limit of detection for the MS analysis was determined to approximately 10 pmol of individual oligosaccharides spotted for chromatography. A liquid composite matrix, containing glycerol and the ultraviolet (UV-)MALDI matrix alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid, allows a direct HPTLC-MALDI-MS analysis with a 337 nm-UV laser as well. Compared to the IR-MALDI mode, the analytical sensitivity in UV-MALDI was found to be lower by one order of magnitude, whereas unspecific analyte ion fragmentation as well as adduct formation was found to be more extensive

Graf, P., Weissenboeck, N., Schwammer, H.M. Hand-rearing of elephant calves: A comparison between common milk replacer regarding their physiological efficiency. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  252. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Reid, C.E., Hildebrandt, T.B., Marx, N., Hunt, M., Thy, N., Reynes, J.M., Schaftenaar, W., Fickel, J., 2006. Endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV) infection. The first PCR-confirmed fatal case in Asia
436. Vet. Q. 28, 61-64.
Abstract: Since 1995, 4 suspected cases of Endotheliotropic Elephant Herpes Virus (EEHV) infection, i.e. based on clinical presentation, have occurred in Asia without resulting in epidemic outbreaks as expected. In order to confirm the presence of EEHV on the continent of Asia, viral DNA particles from liver samples of a wild-caught 3-year-old elephant found dead at a Cambodian elephant sanctuary and clinically diagnosed with EEHV, were PCR processed using known EEHV strain primers. The presence of EEHV viral nucleic acids was confirmed and the nucleic acids had a 99% sequence similarity to the U.S.A strain (gene bank locus: AF117265) and 97% sequence similarity to the European strain (gene bank locus: AF354746) assigning this case to the EEHV-1 cluster. More than the confirmation of EEHV on the continent of Asia, is the phylogenic relationship to the USA and European strains with no corresponding contact or transport of USA or European elephants to Asia. Thus, this brings many of the traditional theories into question. Although almost forgotten, this disease is still ramped in captive elephant populations worldwide and continues to devastate particularly the neonatal and weaning-age population. Special attention and continued research are needed specifically in the area of basic virology and epidemiology

Uemura, Y., Asakuma, S., Yon, L., Saito, T., Fukuda, K., Arai, I., Urashima, T., 2006. Structural determination of the oligosaccharides in the milk of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
412. Comp Biochem. Physiol A Mol. Integr. Physiol 145, 468-478.
Abstract: Milk of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), collected at 11 days post partum, contained 91 g/L of hexose and 3 g/L of sialic acid. The dominant saccharide in this milk sample was lactose, but it also contained isoglobotriose (Glc(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc) as well as a variety of sialyl oligosaccharides. The sialyl oligosaccharides were separated from neutral saccharides by anion exchange chromatography on DEAE-Sephadex A-50 and successive gel chromatography on Bio Gel P-2. They were purified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using an Amide-80 column and characterized by 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Their structures were determined to be those of 3'-sialyllactose, 6'-sialyllactose, monofucosyl monosialyl lactose (Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc), sialyl lacto-N-neotetraose c (LST c), galactosyl monosialyl lacto-N-neohexaose, galactosyl monofucosyl monosialyl lacto-N-neohexaose and three novel oligosaccharides as follows: Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal( beta1-4)Glc, and Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc (alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc. The higher oligosaccharides contained only the type II chain (Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc); this finding differed from previously published data on Asian elephant milk oligosaccharides

Andrews, J., Mecklenborg, A., Bercovitch, F.B., 2005. Milk intake and development in a newborn captive African elephant  (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24, 275-281.
Abstract: In August 2003 the San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park (WAP) and the Lowry Park Zoo, under the auspices of the AZA's Elephant SSP and a USFWS permit, imported 3.8 African elephants (Loxodonta africana ) from the Kingdom of Swaziland. When they were captured, transrectal ultrasound examinations revealed that one nulliparous cow was approximately 10 months pregnant.  At the time of their arrival (August 2003), all of the animals were estimated to be approximately 13 years old and were thought to be nulliparous.  Based on the ultrasound examination results and the average African elephant gestation period, parturition was predicted to be 20 February 2004. In this report, we provide the first detailed data about nursing activity around the clock and newborn calf development, describe maternal and neonatal nighttime activity budgets, and explore maternal weight changes during suckling and lactation. The newborn calf suckled significantly more at night than during the day, but suckled for only about 2 hr per 24-hr period. Regression analysis revealed that through the first 3 months of life the calf gained 0.385 kg/day while it suckled on a regular basis. We compare our findings with published information on wild elephants, and conclude that although the growth rate is reduced compared to hand-reared elephant calves, the suckling patterns are almost identical to those reported for wild calves.

Mobasheri, A., Gent, T.C., Womack, M.D., Carter, S.D., Clegg, P.D., Barrett-Jolley, R., 2005. Quantitative analysis of voltage-gated potassium currents from primary equine (Equus caballus) and elephant (Loxodonta africana) articular chondrocytes
618. Am. J. Physiol Regul. Integr. Comp Physiol 289, R172-R180.
Abstract: In this comparative study, we have established in vitro models of equine and elephant articular chondrocytes, examined their basic morphology, and characterized the biophysical properties of their primary voltage-gated potassium channel (Kv) currents. Using whole cell patch-clamp electrophysiological recording from first-expansion and first-passage cells, we measured a maximum Kv conductance of 0.15 +/- 0.04 pS/pF (n = 10) in equine chondrocytes, whereas that in elephant chondrocytes was significantly larger (0.8 +/- 0.4 pS/pF, n = 4, P </= 0.05). Steady-state activation parameters of elephant chondrocytes (V = -22 +/- 6 mV, k = 11.8 +/- 3 mV, n = 4) were not significantly different from those of horse chondrocytes (V = -12.5 +/- 4.3 mV, k = 12 +/- 2, n = 10). This suggests that there would be slightly more resting Kv activation in elephant chondrocytes than in their equine counterparts. Kinetic analysis revealed that both horse and elephant chondrocyte Kv currents had similar activation and inactivation parameters. Pharmacological investigation of equine chondrocyte Kv currents showed them to be powerfully inhibited by the potassium channel blockers tetraethylammonium and 4-aminopyridine but not by dendrotoxin-I. Immunohistochemical studies using polyclonal antibodies to Kv1.1-Kv1.5 provided evidence for expression of Kv1.4 in equine chondrocytes. This is the first electrophysiological study of equine or elephant chondrocytes. The data support the notion that voltage-gated potassium channels play an important role in regulating the membrane potential of articular chondrocytes and will prove useful in future modeling of electromechanotransduction of fully differentiated articular chondrocytes in these and other species

Osthoff, G., De Waal, H.O., Hugo, A., de, W.M., Botes, P., 2005. Milk composition of a free-ranging African elephant (Loxodonta africana) cow during early lactation
593. Comp Biochem. Physiol A Mol. Integr. Physiol 141, 223-229.
Abstract: Only one study previously reported comprehensively on the composition of African elephant's (Loxodonta africana) milk that was collected from 30 dead animals. In the current study milk was obtained from a tame but free-ranging African elephant cow without immobilization during the period when she was 4-47 days postpartum. At the respective collection times the nutrient content was 21.8 and 25.0 g protein; 56.0 and 76.0 g fat; 71.1 and 26.0 g sugars per kilogram of milk. The protein fraction, respectively, consisted of 10.0 and 14.0 g caseins/kg milk and of 11.8 and 11 g whey proteins/kg milk. During lactation the lactose content dropped from 52.5 to 11.8 g/kg milk, while the oligosaccharide content increased from 11.8 to 15.2 g/kg milk. The oligosaccharide was characterized as a galactosyllactose, which is digestible by cellulase. Electrophoresis and identification of protein bands showed a similar migrating sequence of proteins as seen in cow's milk, but some of the corresponding proteins were less negatively charged. The lipid fraction contains a high content of capric and lauric acids, approximately 60% of the total fatty acids, and low content of myristic, palmitic and oleic acids

 2003. Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Chakraborty, A., 2003. Nenatal mortality in elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 119-122.

Kajaysri, J., Huayjunteuk, S., Reunpech, S., Thammakarn, C., et, al. The condition of paper thin bone layer and fracture by metabolic bone disease in an orphan elephant. Proceedings of 41st Kasetsart University Annual Conference, 3-7 February, 2003.  508-515. 2003.  Kasetsart University; Bangkok; Thailand.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Roychoudhury, R., 2003. Feeding schedule for elephants of different age groups and jobs. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 83-93.

Sarma, N.K., 2003. Neonatal care, weaning and hand rearing of orphan elephant calves. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 67-69.

Wilson, J.D., Leihy, M.W., Shaw, G., Renfree, M.B., 2003. Androgen physiology: unsolved problems at the millennium. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 198, 1-5.
Abstract: Androgen physiology differs from that of other steroid hormones in two major regards. First, testosterone, the predominant circulating testicular androgen, is both an active hormone and a prohormone for the formation of a more active androgen, the 5alpha-reduced steroid dihydrotestosterone. Genetic evidence indicates that testosterone and dihydrotestosterone work via a common intracellular receptor, and studies involving in vitro reporter gene assays and intact mice in which both steroid 5alpha-reductase isoenzymes have been disrupted by homologous recombination indicate that dihydrotestosterone acts during embryonic life to amplify hormonal signals that can be mediated by testosterone at higher concentrations. However, in post-embryonic life dihydrotestosterone plays unique roles that have not been elucidated. Studies of other 5alpha-reduced steroids, including the plant hormone brassinolide, the hog pheromones androstanol and androstenol, and 5alpha-dihydroprogesterone (in horses and elephants) indicate that this reaction serves different functions in different systems. Second, during embryonic life androgen causes the formation of the male urogenital tract and hence is responsible for development of the tissues that serve as the major sites of androgen action in postnatal life. It has been generally assumed that androgens virilize the male fetus by the same mechanisms as in the adult, namely by the conversion of circulating testosterone to dihydrotestosterone in target tissues. However, in marsupial mammals there is no sexual dimorphism in the levels of testosterone or dihydrotestosterone at the time the male phenotype forms, and in the pouch young of one marsupial, the tammar wallaby, the testes secrete another 5alpha-reduced steroid, 5alpha-androstane-3alpha, 17beta-diol (5alpha-adiol), into plasma. The administration of 5alpha-adiol to female pouch young causes profound virilization of the urogenital sinus and external genitalia, but within target tissues 5alpha-adiol appears to work after oxidation to dihydrotestosterone. Thus, two separate mechanisms evolved for the formation of dihydrotestosterone in target tissues. 5alpha-adiol is the predominant androgen in neonatal testes in several placental mammals, but it is unclear whether it plays a similar role in other mammalian species.

Gage, L.J., 2002. Hand-rearing wild and domestic mammals. Iowa State Press, Ames, Iowa, USA.
Abstract: This book contains articles on hand-rearing wild and domestic animals. It is divided into the following topics: domestic animals (orphan rabbits, puppies, domestic kittens, critically ill and orphaned foals, pigs, goat kids and South American Camelids); and wildlife, zoo and marine animals (opossums, sugar gliders, macropods, hedgehogs, sloths, ground and tree squirrels, insectivorous bats, lemurs, tamarins, macaques species, great apes, harbour seals and Northern Elephant seals, sea lions and fur seals, walrus calves, fox kits, black bear cubs, polar bears, raccoons, ferret kits, exotic felids, elephants, nondomestic equids, rhinoceros, black-tailed and white-tailed deer exotic ungulates).

Johnson, E.W., Rasmussen, L., 2002. Morphological characteristics of the vomeronasal organ of the newborn Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Anatomical Record 267, 252-259.
Abstract: The 6-week-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) has a well-documented precocious flehmen response to pheromones, suggesting that the pheromone-detecting vomeronasal organ (VNO) is functional very early in the life of this species. To further document this, the VNOs of two newborn elephants were examined in situ and analyzed by light microscopy (LM) to ascertain their structural maturity at birth. A tubular, cartilage-encased VNO was located along the anterior base of each side of the nasal septum. Its rostral end was connected to a duct to the roof of the mouth; the caudal end was attached to a well-defined vomeronasal nerve projecting toward the brain. LM revealed distinctive differences in the mucosae bordering the horseshoe-shaped lumen: a concave, sensory mucosa, and a convex, nonsensory mucosa. Small groups of receptor neurons were observed among ciliated columnar cells in the sensory epithelium. Numerous unmyelinated nerve bundles and blood vessels filled the underlying lamina propria (LP) and a small section of the vomeronasal nerve was conspicuous at one edge. The nonsensory mucosa manifested a thinner epithelium that principally consisted of ciliated columnar cells, some of which showed a granular cytoplasm, and a conspicuous row of basal cells. The LP was replete with acinar glands and ducts that opened into the lumen. This study shows that the VNO of the newborn elephant has reached an advanced stage of structural maturity, closely resembling that of the adult. Its composition supports the view that flehmen at 6 weeks delivers pheromones to a functional VNO.

Sharma, K.K., Choudhury, B.D., Sarma, M., 2002. Lingual thrush in a hand reared elephant (E.maximus) calf. Wildlife Information Bulletin, vii, 53-54.

Horwath, A., Kratochvil, H., Schwammer, H. Sounds of a Newborn African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Captivity. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  265-267. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Urashima, T., Saito, T., Nakamura, T., Messer, M., 2001. Oligosaccharides of milk and colostrum in non-human mammals. Glycoconj J 18, 357-371.
Abstract: Mammalian milk or colostrum usually contains, in addition to lactose, a variety of neutral and acidic oligosaccharides. Although the oligosaccharides of human milk have been reviewed in several recent publications, those of non-human mammals have received much less attention. This paper reviews the chemical structures and the variety of milk oligosaccharides in species other than humans, including placental mammals (e.g. primates, domestic herbivores, bears and other carnivores, the rat and the elephant) as well as monotremes (platypus and echidna) and marsupials (e.g. wallaby). The gastrointestinal digestion and absorption and the possible biological functions of these oligosaccharides are
also discussed.

Wisser, J., Pilaski, J., Strauss, G., Meyer, H., Burck, G., Truyen, U., Rudolph, M., Frolich, K., 2001. Cowpox virus infection causing stillbirth in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 149, 244-246.

Schmitt, D.L., Pace, L.W. Multiple Congenital Cardiac Anomalies in a Newborn Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus). Proceedings of the Elephant Managers Association Conference, Oct 6-9,2000 Syracuse, NY.  13-14. 2000. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Cardiac anomalies in humans occur in about 1% of human births. Most are a developmental disorder of the vascular trunk and septum of the heart, which result in reduced blood circulation to periphery. This report of a cardiac anomaly in a neonatal elephant is first to the author's knowledge. A congenital defect known as tetrology of Fallot is described in a male Asian elephant who lived for 9 hours following birth.

Kunz, C., Rudloff, S., Schad, W., Braun, D., 1999. Lactose-derived oligosaccharides in the milk of elephants: comparison with human milk. Br J Nutr 82, 391-399.
Abstract: Human milk is commonly considered to be unique when compared with the milk of other species with regard to its high content of complex fucosylated and sialylated lactose-derived oligosaccharides. We describe the application of high-pH anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection and TLC to characterize and quantitate neutral and sialylated lactose-derived oligosaccharides in milk from three Asian elephants and human milk. The lactose contents of elephant and human milks were 25-30 g/l and about 66 g/l respectively, whereas total oligosaccharide concentration was about three times higher in elephant milk and comprised up to 40% (10% in human milk) of the carbohydrate content. The ratio neutral: acidic components was different in the milk of the two species; in elephant milk, the N-acetylneuraminic acid-containing oligosaccharides made up almost half of the total amount v. 30% in human milk. Most oligosaccharides in elephant milk were more fucosylated and/or sialylated compared with human milk components. By mild acid hydrolysis, fucose and N-acetylneuraminic acid were cleaved off from complex components, and this resulted in increased amounts of fucose, galactose, N-acetylneuraminic acid, lactose and lacto-N-neo-tetraose. Unique to elephant milk are the high levels of 3'-galactosyllactose (up to 4 g/l) and lacto-N-neo-tetraose which are present in human milk only in trace amounts. Elephant and human milks have high levels and unique patterns of oligosaccharides which may reflect the relative importance of these components in neonatal host defence, in endothelial leucocyte interactions or in brain development.

Sarwar, G., Botting, H.G., Davis, T.A., Darling, P., Pencharz, P.B., 1998. Free amino acids in milks of human subjects, other primates and non-primates. Br J Nutr 79, 129-131.
Abstract: Preterm and term transitional milks of human subjects and mature milks of human subjects, non-human primates and non-primates were analysed for free amino acids (AA) using precolumn phenylisothiocyanate derivatization and liquid chromatography. Differences in free AA between three types of human milk were small. Milks of pinnipeds (seals and sea lions) contained the highest levels of total free AA (8634-20,862 mumol/l), while the milks of cows and sheep had the lowest levels of total free AA (1061-1357 mumol/l). The milks of human subjects, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), elephants (Elephas maximus), horses and pigs had intermediate levels of total free AA (3069-7381 mumol/l). Glutamic acid was the most abundant free AA in milks of human subjects (1339-2157 mumol/l), non-human primates (423-2528 mumol/l), elephants (1332 mumol/l), horses (1119 mumol/l), and cows (349 mumol/l). Taurine was the most abundant free AA in milks of pinnipeds (5776-13,643 mumol/l), pigs (1238 mumol/l), goats (1150 mumol/l) and sheep (341 mumol/l). Taurine was the second most abundant free AA in milks of human subjects and non-human primates, while histidine was the second most abundant free AA in milks of pinnipeds. Milks of each species had a distinctive free AA pattern which may reflect the relative importance of the free AA during early postnatal development.

Taylor, V.J., Poole, T.B., 1998. Captive breeding and infant mortality in Asian elephants:  a comparison between twenty Western zoos and three Eastern elephant centers. Zoo Biology 17, 311-332.
Abstract: A questionnaire was designed to assess the importance of reproductive behaviour and husbandry factors on breeding success in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). This was circulated to zoos in Europe and North America in 1996. Data from 20 zoos were analysed. Data were also obtained from 3 elephant centres in Asia (Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage in Sri Lanka, Myanma Timber Enterprise in Myanmar and the Tamilnadu Forest Department in India). The aims were to compare Asian elephant breeding success, establish possible causes for any differences, and make recommendations for improving the welfare and breeding success of the animals. Breeding success in most of the zoos was notably lower and the percentages of stillbirths and infant mortality were relatively higher when compared with those of the centres in Asia. Female elephants in zoos appeared to reach sexual maturity and reproduce earlier than those in the Asian establishments. However, zoo elephants produced fewer young per female. The different facilities and husbandry methods used are described. Recommendations are made for both short- and long-term changes that could be used to modify existing practices to improve the welfare and breeding success of captive Asian elephants.

Welsch, U., Feuerhake, F., van Aarde, R., Buchheim, W., Patton, S., 1998. Histo- and cytophysiology of the lactating mammary gland of the African elephant(Loxodonta africana). Cell Tissue Res 294, 485-501.
Abstract: The lactating mammary gland of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) has been studied with a panel of morphological techniques focusing on (1) the functional changes during the secretory process, (2) proliferative process [by application of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunohistochemistry] and apoptotic phenomena [by use of the TUNEL technique] in the individual lobules, and (3) components of milk and milk-fat-globule membrane. In the lactating gland, the lobules are variably differentiated; within a lobule, however, the alveoli are usually similarly differentiated. The morphology of their alveoli suggests a classification of the lobules into types 1-3. Lobules of type 1 are composed of immature tubular alveoli with mitotic figures and numerous PCNA-positive nuclei; advanced type 1 alveoli contain abundant glycogen and specific secretory granules. Lobules of type 2 are further subdivided. In type 2a lobules, the epithelial cells of the alveoli form tall apical protrusions, which in part are occupied by small lipid droplets and which are pinched off in an apocrine fashion. The number of lysosomes varies considerably. Type 2b is the most common type, with striking basal membrane foldings, abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum cisterns, large Golgi apparatus, numerous mitochondria, lipid droplets, and protein vesicles with 30- to 90-nm-wide casein micelles. The lipid droplets are pinched off with minimal amounts of cytoplasm. Type 2c is composed of alveoli with a cuboidal epithelium and few signs of secretory activity. Increasing expression of peanut-agglutinin-binding sites parallels the maturation and differentiation of the glandular cells. Type 3 lobules are marked by numerous TUNEL-positive nuclei and large lipid droplets and are apparently degenerating structures. Cytokeratin (CK) 14 is usually present in the myoepithelial cells; CK 19 and CK 7 mark ductal and immature alveolar epithelia. Milk protein content varies between 2.6% and 6.3%, and casein micelles range from 35 to 90 nm in diameter. The diameter of intra-alveolar milk fat globules ranges from 5 to 25 micrometer and the membranes bear a filamentous surface coat composed of membrane-anchored mucins; gel-electrophoretic analysis of these mucins from different individuals demonstrates the presence of mucin MUC 1, which is expressed with considerable genetic heterogeneity.

Mircean, M., Giurgiu, G., Oros, A., Kadar, L., Ghergariu, S., 1997. Complex osteodystrophy in an orphan Indian elephant. Revista Romana de Medicina Veterinara 7, 191-199.
Abstract: An Indian elephant calf, rejected by its mother, was fed at first with cow and buffalo milk, and subsequently with bread, bran, rice, barley and fruit. He was initially affected with rickets, leading to osteofibrosis. Forelegs and the mandible were curved, causing difficulty in mastication. Clinical pathology showed a fall in Ca:P ratio to 1.47, and radiology showed thinning of the bone cortex. Intensive treatment with vitamins (B, C, D3 and E), a testosterone compound and amoxicillin made it possible for the animal to stand and walk, but the deformities remained. The elephant was eventually killed.

Roy, A., Krift, I.J.J. Milk replacer for Asian and African elephant calves. Proceedings of the 18th Annual EMA Workshop, Fort Worth Zoological Park.  43-49. 1997. Fort Worth, TX.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Kurt, F., Mar, D.K., 1996. Neonate mortality in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). International Journal of Mammalian Biology 61, 155-164.
Abstract: One third of Asian elephants born in European zoos and circuses are stillborn (16.0%) or killed or refused by their mothers (15.7%). Stillbirths and infanticides are rare in extensively kept and wild-living elephants. Infanticide could be related to life history of the mothers: Females which had grown up in the company of an older, motherly female adopted their offsprings without complications. Those having lacked such affection, tended to kill or at least not to adopt their neonates. Stillborn calves show higher neonate weights (124.6 +/- 20.8 kg) than surviving calves (92.0 +/-27.6 kg). Positive correlations were found between gestation period and neonate weight as well as between neonate weight and relative weight (body weight/shoulder height) of the mother. As female elephants in modern zoos and circuses are relatively heavier than those living in Asian camps, they produce calves after longer gestation periods (644.4 +/- 19.5 days) with larger neonate weights (105.6 +/- 26.6 kg) than extensively kept females in Asia (598.1 +/- 51.6 days; 74.0 +/- 21.6 kg). Chances to survive parturition are negatively correlated with length of gestation and neonate weight.

Mosley, J. Hand-Rearing a Captive-Born Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus): (I) A Study of Physical Development as a Response to the Rearing Regime, and (ii) Social Interactions. Spooner, N. G. and Sharp, K. The Ninth UK Elephant Workshop.  36-65. 1996. England, The North of England Zoological Society. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Murray, S., Bush, M., Tell, L.A., 1996. Medical management of postpartum problems in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) cow and calf. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 27, 255-258.
Abstract: An 18-yr old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) gave birth to a 120-kg female calf following 22 mo of gestation.  Immediately after parturition, the cow became agitated and aggressive towards the calf.  Before the keepers were able to safely intervene and remove the calf, the cow stepped on the calf's head and right front leg.  Within 30 min, the cow calmed down, allowing the calf's safe reintroduction under close keeper supervision and control.  The cow had a retained placenta, poor mammary development, and low milk production.  The calf's injuries, in combination with the cow's low milk production, impeded the calf's ability to nurse and gain weight.  Within 10 days, the calf lost 10% of its weight.  Serum protein electrophoresis indicated failure of passive transfer of maternal immunoglobulin.  On day 10, the calf received a transfusion of concentrated immunoglobulin extracted and concentrated from the cow's previously banked plasma.  On day 13, the calf developed a urinary tract infection, as diagnosed by white blood cells and bacteria in the urine.  Following immunoglobulin administration and antibiotic therapy, clinical signs slowly resolved and the calf gained weight.  The cow passed the fetal membranes during parturition, but the placenta was retained.  Despite prophylactic systemic antibiotics and vaginal flushing, the cow became depressed and developed a leukocytosis and anemia.  A mucopurulent vaginal discharge and ventral edema were noted on day 3, and milk production was minimal.  Because decreased milk production has been reported as a common sequel to retained placenta, efforts were focused on removing the placenta.  Intermittent oxytocin therapy on days 2-14 did not result in expulsion of the placenta and produced only transient abdominal contractions and minimal increases in milk letdown.  On day 15, 10 mg estradiol cypionate was administered i.m. followed by 200 IU oxytocin i.v.  An additional 10 IU oxytocin was administered i.v. on day 16.  The friable placenta was palpable within the vaginal vault on day 17.  The remaining placenta was removed by gentle traction applied by a modified weighted pressure cuff.  Once the placenta was removed, the cow's clinical problems slowly resolved and the calf continued to gain weight.

Parrott, J.J. Analysis of African elephant mature milk in early lactation and formulation of an elephant calf milk replacer. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  102-111. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Mature milk samples (n=5) were collected from one African elephant (Loxodonta africana) during early lactation for analysis of nutrient composition. Total solids averaged 11.32% and were significantly lower than previously reported for African elephants. Lactose averaged 2.79% (24.6% dry matter basis), which was also significantly lower than previously reported and indicates African elephants are a low-to-moderate lactose species. Bovine milk contains 1.5-2 times this level, and human milk replacers contain 2.5 times this level of lactose on a dry matter basis. This could represent a significant cause of diarrhea when human milk replacers are used in African elephant calves. Milk fat averaged 4.38% (39% dry matter basis) and ranged from 3.51-5.32%. Protein levels averaged 2.3% (20% dry matter basis). Ash levels averaged 0.53% (4.7% dry matter basis). Vitamin A levels ranged from 28-171 IU/100 g (249-1361 IU/100 g dry matter basis) and vitamin D ranged from 22-69.8 IU/100 g (196-693 IU/100 g dry matter basis). Vitamin E ranged from 0.33-0.88 µg/ml, with the cow supplemented on a diet of 8,000 IU per day. Calcium levels averaged 37.8 mg/100 g (334 mg/100 g) and ranged from 28-43 mg/100 g (257-431 mg/100 g dry matter basis); phosphorus averaged 18.8 mg/100 g (166 mg/100 g dry matter basis) and ranged from 15.9-20.8 mg/100 g (143- 204 mg/100 g dry matter basis). The calcium:phosphorus ratio averaged approximately 2:1. An African elephant calf milk replacer was formulated based on the mature milk analysis of early lactation. The general makeup included: total solids (11.5%), fat (5%), lactose (2.5%), protein (3.3%), ash (0.52%), calcium (65 mg/100 g), phosphorus (42 mg/100 g), vitamin A (75 IU/100 g) and vitamin D (46 IU/100 g). Vitamin E is supplemented separately as 2 IU/kg body weight micellized natural tocopherol (Stuart Products) to insure bioavailability. The milk replacer is produced starting with bovine skim milk powder and bovine whey protein concentrate, mixed to provide the milk proteins necessary in the milk replacer. Fat is then added using a fat premix and coconut oil (coconut oil is approximately 25% of the total fat supplied). A mixture of mineral and vitamin premix completes the formula. The final formulation maintained lactose on the low end of the milk analysis range (20-26% dry matter basis), to minimize the risk of a lactose-induced diarrhea. Protein and fat were maintained at the high end or slightly above the range in the milk analysis to accommodate the lower lactose and still maintain a total solids of approximately 11.5%.

Davis, T.A., Davis, T.A., Garcia-Bravo, R., Fiorotto, M.L., Jackson, E.M., Lewis, D.S., Lee, D.R., Reeds, P.J., 1994. Amino acid composition of human milk is not unique. J Nutr 124, 1126-1132.
Abstract: To determine whether the amino acid pattern of human milk is unique, we compared the amino acid pattern of human milk with the amino acid patterns of the milks of great apes (chimpanzee and gorilla), lower primates (baboon and rhesus monkey) and nonprimates (cow, goat, sheep, llama, pig, horse, elephant, cat and rat). Amino acid pattern was defined as the relative proportion of each amino acid (protein-bound plus free) (in mg) to the total amino acids (in g). Total amino acid concentration was lower in primate milk than in nonprimate milk. There were commonalities in the overall amino acid pattern of the milks of all species sampled; the most abundant amino acids were glutamate (plus glutamine, 20%), proline (10%) and leucine (10%). Essential amino acids were 40%, branched-chain amino acids 20%, and sulfur amino acids 4% of the total amino acids. The amino acid pattern of human milk was more similar to those of great apes than to those of lower primates. For example, cystine was higher and methionine was lower in primate milks than in nonprimate milks, and in great ape and human milks than in lower primate milks. Because the milk amino acid patterns of the human and elephant, both slow-growing species, were dissimilar, the amino acid pattern of human milk seems unrelated to growth rate.

Ensley, P.K., Osborn, K., Bissonette, S., Deftos, L.J. Osteodystrophy in an orphan Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).  Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  142-143. 1994.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Mainka, S.A., Cooper, R.M., Black, S.R., Dierenfeld, E.S., 1994. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) milk composition during the first 280 days of lactation. Zoo Biology 13, 389-393.
Abstract: Milk samples (n=10) taken during the first 280 days of lactation from one Asian elephant were examined for nutrient composition including total solids, protein, fat, ash, alpha-tocopherol and retinol levels. Total solids averaged 19.7±2.7% s.d. (range 15.0-23.3%). Percent protein remained fairly stable throughout this portion of lactation and averaged 3.4±0.3 (range 3.0-4.0%). Ash content averaged 0.54±0.03%. Milk fat and fat-soluble vitamin levels varied considerably with a suggestion of a cyclic pattern. Fat content of milk averaged 7.6±2.6% (range 3.9-12.1%); alpha-tocopherol levels averaged 0.33±0.12 µg/ml and retinol levels averaged 0.46±0.1 µg/ml.

Nath, N.C., Hussain, A., Rahman, F., 1993. Milk characteristics of a captive Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24, 528-533.
Abstract: The physicochemical characteristics of the milk of a captive Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) were determined at 30, 37 and 44 days post partum. The milk was ivory white and aromatic. The mean value for pH was 6.49 and sp.gr. was 1.0296. The mean values of different components in whole milk in g/dl were as follows: TS, 9.81; fat, 1.40; SNF, 8.41; lactose (total reducing sugars), 7.60; total protein, 1.39; casein, 1.00; whey protein, 0.39; beta-lactoglobulin, 0.23; alpha-lactalbumin, 0.17; serum albumin, 0; immunoglobulin, 0; urea, 0.04; calcium, 0.08; sodium, 0.02; potassium, 0.09; inorganic phosphorus, 0.02; and chloride, 0.04. Values for total protein, casein, whey protein, sugar and minerals in this investigation were similar to values reported previously in Indian rhinoceros milk, but not in milk of the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) or black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Comparisons of these values with reported values in milk of domestic horses, elephants (Elephas maximus), cows, buffalo (Bubalis bubalis), goats and sheep revealed similarity only with milk of the horse.

Rasmussen, L.E.L., Johnson, E.W., Jafek, B.W. Preliminary observations on the morphology of the vomeronasal organ of a newborn Asian elephant. Chemical Senses 18, 618. 1993.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: Abstract.  Full-text.  Adult Asian elephants have an apparently typical mammalian vomeronasal organ (VNO). Presumably, flehmen responses aid in the presentation of bioactive molecules to vomeronasal neuroreceptors.  Young Asian elephants do not exhibit flehmen responses until 6-17 weeks after birth. Histological studies of VNO in newborn elephants have not been available.  Recently, at the light microscopic level, we have observed a structure that in gross appearance is similar to the VNO of other mammals; there is a lumen surrounded by a convex and a concave epithelial border, those borders join at both ends.  Based on previous studies, we presume that the concave border would be the neuroepithelium with the receptor cells. The epithelia of both surfaces are pseudostratified.  Within these epithelia are cells with different nuclear morphologies. Some of the nuclei are euchromatic and oval.  Other appear heterochromatic.  Round basal cells are also apparent.  At the surfaces of the epithelia some ciliated cells can be seen.  To our knowledge, ciliated cells have been identified in the VNO neuroepithelium of only one other mammalian species.  To further document the cell types found in the newborn elephant VNO and to attempt to identify receptor cells, we will do electron microscopy on representative regions.

Rietkerk, F.E., Hiddingh, H., Van Dijk, S., 1993. Hand-rearing an Asian elephant Elephas maximus at the Noorder Zoo, Emmen. Iowa State University Veterinarian 32, 244-252.

Tuchili, L.M., Pandey, G.S., Sinyangwe, P.G., Kaji, T., 1993. Anthrax in cattle, wildlife and humans in Zambia. Veterinary Record 132, 487.
Abstract: In Zambia, 265 specimens of various tissues from animals and of surface water (5 samples) submitted over the period from 1987 to 1991 were examined for anthrax. 35 of the 85 were positive; 35 were in domestic animals including 33 cattle, a sheep and a pig from the Western, Southern, Central, Lusaka and North Western Provinces, and 50 in wild animals including 13 hippos, 11 kudus, 5 buffaloes, 4 elephants, 4 pukus, 4 wild dogs, 4 zebras, 3 waterbucks and 2 giraffes from South Luangwa National Park in Eastern Province. One water sample from the park was positive. Of 17 long bones from infected cattle, 5 yielded virulent, pure cultures of Bacillus anthracis. All milk samples examined were negative. Over 100 human deaths from anthrax, usually associated with eating infected meat have been recorded, mainly since 1990 in the Western and North-Western Provinces. Control measured for anthrax in wild animals after environmental contamination, including carcass disposal and adding quaternary ammonium compounds to water-holes, are suggested.

Krishnamurth, V., 1992. Care and management of elephant calves in captivity. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 82-85.

Santha, B.K., 1990. Care and treatment of orphaned baby elephants. Sri Lanka Veterinary Journal 37, 33.

Sheldrick, D., 1990. Raising baby orphaned elephants: part II. Swara 13, 23-27.

Sheldrick, D., 1990. Raising baby orphaned elephants. Swara 13, 13-17.

Nair, P.V., 1989. Development of nonsocial behaviour in the Asiatic elephant. Ethology 82, 46-60.
Abstract: The elephant calf, a defended follower is completely dependent on adults till the age of 3 months.  It begins to explore and attempts to feed at 3 to 6  months, and then becomes partially independent with some feeding on its own.  The characteristics of behavior in adults are examined and the development of this pattern in the calf is traced by analysis of duration, transition and clustering of the behavioral elements. Essential activities like suckling, locomotion, and lying down for rest appear soon after birth whereas elements of feeding, grooming, and play appear only at a later stage.  The calf takes the initiative in suckling and its termination, drinking directly by mouth til the age of 6 months.  The first element of feeding appears at about one week in attempts to pick up and hold objects in the trunk.  Co-ordination of limb, trunk, and mouth movement is achieved by about 1 month.  The calf is strong enough to pull out plants by 6 months when independent feeding begins.  In about a year feeding, drinking and dusting patterns are well developed.

Schmidt, M.J. The role of the veterinarian in a captive elephant breeding program. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  44-53. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Renewed interest in breeding elephants has led to the creation of new captive elephant breeding programs.  The veterinarian has a key role to play in the elephant breeding program.  The role of the veterinarian in an elephant breeding program is outlined; followed by brief discussion of specific elephant breeding problems which the veterinarian will be called upon to manage.

Sreekumar, K.P., Nirmalan, G., 1989. Mineral status in the blood of Indian elephants. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 59, 1253-1258.
Abstract: Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper and zinc have been estimated in the sera of Indian elephants (babies, tuskers and adult females) and the iron:copper ratio calculated. But for the higher level of calcium in baby elephants compared to that in adult females, no influence of age or sex could be detected in the distribution pattern of major elements. Baby elephants had a lower level of copper than adult females. The iron:copper ratio was higher in baby elephants than in tuskers.

Heard, D.J. Nutritional disorders of neonatal and juvenile elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 9.  128-132. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

 1987. Elephant history in the making. Swara 10, 25.

Berg, J.K., 1987. Developmental behavior of three African elephant calves (Loxodonta africana) in captivity. Zoologische Garten 57, 171-196.

Berg, J.K., 1986. Report on the behavioral development of three captive born African elephant calves. Elephant 2, 39-41.
Abstract: The San Diego Wild Animal Park in San Pasqual, California, had three successful African elephant (Loxodonta africana) births in 1982; "Tavi" (female) born 29 January, "Margo" (female) born 24 May and "Tsavo" (male) born 22 June (Lash, 1982).  The gestation period for the calves was estimated to be from 21 to 21 3/4 months.  By the end of their first year, each calf had grown over one foot in height to approximately 49 inches.  Although they eat solid foods, the calves continue to nurse regularly at about 1 hour intervals for a duration of 1.5 minutes over the 8-hour period of observation.

Lee, P.C., 1986. Early social development among African elephant calves. National Geographic Research 2, 388-401.

Niemuller, C. Energy metabolism and nitrogen retention in captive infant Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop. 7, 43-47. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Jones, D.K., 1985. New life at the Ark. Swara 8, 29-31.

Jones, D.K., 1985. Horizons: Kenya: Aberdares Salient. Swara 8, 20.

Ullrey, D.E., Jacobson, E.R., Kollias, G.V., Ku, P.K., Whetter, P.A., 1985. Kwashiorkor and marasmus in baby elephants. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 84-85.

 1984. Some recorded elephant births. Loris Dec., 308-310.

Sharma, R., Krishnamurthy, K.V., 1984. Behavior of a neonate elephant (Elephas maximus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 13, 157-161.
Abstract: Observations of behavior of one calf from birth to 5 h post partum, born to an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), show that such calves are born precocious.  It urinated, defecated and stood unassisted by the mother, walked and attempted suckling within an hour of birth.  The precocity in development appears to have an indirect impact on the nature of its approach to humans.  Thus, calves acquiring an "aunt" at birth seldom approach humans voluntarily, in contrast to those developing such associations later on.  It is suggested that gravid cows be kept as isolated as possible, particularly close to term, if the calves are to be used for commercial purposes.

Hromadka, J., 1982. Birth and rearing of Elephas maximus. Animal Keepers' Forum 9, 294-299.

Styles, T.E., 1982. Birth and early development of an African elephant Loxodonta africana at the Metro Toronto Zoo, Canada. International Zoo Yearbook 22, 215-217.

 1981. Annual Projects Report:  Amboseli elephant research project. Wildlife News 16, 9.

Nambiar, M.O.R., 1981. Leptaden (vet) as a galactagogue in an elephant with deficient lactation. Indian Veterinary Journal 58, 667-668.

Oftedal, O.T., 1980. Milk composition and formula selection for hand-rearing young mammals. Proc. 1st. Dr. Scholl Conf. Nutr. Captive Wild Animals 67-83.

Strazielle, L., 1980. Birth of an Asian elephant at the Paris Zoo. Mammalia 44, 592-594.

 1979. "Motty" -- Birth of an African/Asian elephant at Chester Zoo. Elephant 1, 36-40.

Nirmalan, G. Physiological peculiarties of elephants. State Level Workshop on Elephants.  21-24. 1979. India, College of Veterinary and Animal Sicences, Kerala Agricultural University.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Eriksen, E., 1978. The birth of an Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus in the Copenhagen Zoo. Zoologische Garten 45, 421-432.

Douglas-Hamilton, O., 1977. Twins are light relief for Manyara's elephant - perhaps! Africana 6, 10-11.

Bronzini, E., 1975. On the teeth, temperature, and growth in Asiatic elephants Elephas maximus born in captivity. Zoologische Garten 45, 97-128.

Lockhart, M., 1972. Birth of an elephant. Loris 12, 259-262.

Peters, J.M., Maier, R., Hawthorne, B.E., Storvik, C.A., 1972. Composition and nutrient content of elephant (Elephas maximus) milk. Journal of Mammalogy 53, 717-724.
Abstract: Gross composition and nutrient content were determined for milk samples from four cows of a captive family of Indian elephants during the course of eight calvings at the Portland Zoo in Oregon.  The milk had a lower concentration of fat than that frequently reported for this species and showed a unique fatty acid composition with respect to the large amounts of capric acid (10:0) present.  Data for amino acid analyses are given as well as values for ascorbic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, and pyridoxine.  Vitamin A and carotene were shown to be almost non-existent.

Davidar, P., 1971. The Teppakadu twins. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 68, 819-820.

Seetharam, S.B., 1971. Umbilical hernia in an elephant calf. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 48, 533-536.

Singh, B.S., 1971. Umbilical hernia in an elephant calf. Indian Veterinary Journal 48, 533-536.

McCullagh, K.G., Widdowson, E.M., 1970. The milk of the African elephant. British Journal of Nutrition 24, 109-117.
Abstract: 1. Analyses have been made of milk collected from thirty wild African elephants immediately after they were shot. 2.  The milk contained an average of 5.1% protein, 9.3% fat and 3.6% lactose.  The concentration of lactose decreased and the concentration of protein and fat increased with advancing lactation.  Inorganic constituents were present in approximately the same proportions as in bovine milk.  3.  The contribution of capric acid to the total fatty acids, previously shown to be extremely high, increased with advancing lactation.  4.  The significance of these findings to the preparation of milk for rearing young elephants by hand is discussed.

Rao, A.T., Acharjya, L.N., 1970. A case of fibrosarcoma in a baby elephant. Indian Veterinary Journal 47, 593.

Woodford, M.H., 1970. Fostering a baby elephant. East African Wildlife Journal 8, 204-205.

McCullagh, K.G., Lincoln, H.G., Southgate, D.A.T., 1969. Fatty acid composition of milk fat of the African elephant. Nature 222, 493-494.

Dittrich, L., 1967. Contribution about the propagation and raising of the Indian elephant Elephas maximus in captivity with a review of elephant births in European zoos and circuses. Zoologische Garten 34, 56-92.

Bolwig, M., Hill, D.H., Philpott, M., 1965. Hand-rearing of an African elephant, Loxodonta africana. International Zoo Yearbook 5, 152-154.

Bolwig, N., 1965. Observations on the early behavior of a young African elephant, Loxodonta africana. International Zoo Yearbook 5, 149-152.

Werksman, R., 1965. The birth of an elephant. African Wild Life 19, 335.

Bellinge, W.H.S., 1964. Some notes on the rearing of young African elephants. East African Wildlife Journal 2, 71-74.

Perry, J.S., 1964. The structure and development of the reproductive organs of the female African elephant. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. [Biol] 248, 35-52.

Ben Shaul, D.M., 1962. The composition of milk of wild animals. International Zoo Yearbook 4, 333-342.

Anghi, C.G., 1961. Quinba, the fifth elephant calf. International Zoo News 8, 78-79.

Simon, K.J., 1959. Preliminary studies on composition of milk of Indian elephants. Indian Veterinary Journal 36, 500-503.

McGaughey, C.A., 1958. Baby elephant rearing.  A report on two orphan elephant calves. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 6, 29-32.

Poppleton, F., 1957. An elephant birth. African Wild Life 11, 106-108.

Poppleton, F., 1957. The birth of an elephant. Oryx 4, 180-181.

Taylor, J.I., 1955. The rearing of an African elephant in captivity. Veterinary Record 67, 301-302.

McGaughey, C.A., Schmid, E.E., Velaudapillai, T., Weinman, A.N., 1953. Salmonella typhimurium in young elephants and chimpanzees. Veterinary Record 65, 431-432.

Hindle, E.M., 1950. Birth of an elephant in the Rome Zoo. Zoo Life 5, 7-9.

Markuze, Z., 1939. Vitamins of elephant's milk. Biochemical Journal 33, 198-200.
Abstract: 1. Elephant's milk has a lower content of fat-soluble vitamins (A and D) than has cow's milk.  2. Its vitamin B1 content exceeds that of cow's milk, being 25 I.U. per 100 ml, as compared with 10 I.U. for the latter.  3.  Elephant's and cow's milks have approximately the same content of vitamin B2 complex.  4.  Elephant's milk contains 7.72 mg per 100 ml of ascorbic acid, as compared with 2.12 mg in cow's milk.

Driak, F., 1935. Studien der zahnanlagen an einem foetus von Elephas indicus. Morph. J. 75, 1-14.
Abstract: .

Tutein-Nolthenius, A.C., 1935. Birth of an elephant calf. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 34, 183-184.

Friant, M., 1933. La regression de la levre superieure au cours de l'otogenie individual chez l'elephant. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 878-879.

Adloff, P., 1919. Zur otogenie des elefantengebisses. Anatomischer Anzeiger 52, 534-540.

Bolk, L., 1917. Anatomische bemerkungen ueber einen fetus von Elephas africanas. Verh. Koninkl. Akad. Wet. Amsterdam 19, 1-40.

Allan, C.W., 1911. The birth of a wild elephant calf. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 21, 239-240.

Beddard, F.E., 1902. Birth of an elephant. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 2, 320-322.

Doremus, C.A., 1882. On the composition of elephant's milk. Journal of the American Chemistry Society 4, 157-159.

Doremus, C.A., 1882. Analysis of elephant's milk. Medical News (Philadelphia) 40, 282.

Doremus, C.A., 1881. On the composition of elephant's milk. Journal of the American Chemistry Society 3, 55-59.

Brown, A.E., 1880. Mr. Sclater on the birth of an elephant. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London XV, 222-223.

 

 

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