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Elephant
Bibliographic
Database
www.elephantcare.org
References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent
first.
Hermes, R.,
Behr, B., Hildebrandt, T.B., Blottner, S., Sieg, B., Frenzel, A.,
Knieriem, A., Saragusty, J., Rath, D., 2009. Sperm sex-sorting in the
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Anim Reprod. Sci. 112, 390-396.
Abstract: In captive Asian elephants, there is a strong need for
production of female offspring to enhance reproduction, counter
premature aging processes in female animals and reduce challenging
management situations derived from husbandry of several bulls in one
institution. Artificial insemination of flow cytometrically sex-sorted
spermatozoa offers the possibility to predetermine the sex of offspring
with high accuracy. The aims of this study were to determine a suitable
semen extender and basic parameters for flow cytometrical sex-sorting of
Asian elephant spermatozoa. In total 18 semen samples were collected by
manual rectal stimulation from one bull. Sperm quality parameters and
sex sortability of spermatozoa were evaluated after dilution in three
semen extenders (MES-HEPES-skim milk, MES-HEPES, TRIS-citric acid) and
DNA staining. MES-HEPES-skim milk was the only semen extender found
suitable to sex Asian elephant spermatozoa. From 18 ejaculates
collected, 12 were successfully sorted with a purity of 94.5+/-0.7% at
an average sort rate of 1945.5+/-187.5 spermatozoa per second. Sperm
integrity, progressive and total motility were 42.6+/-3.9%, 48.1+/-3.3%,
59.4+/-3.8% after DNA labelling, and 64.8+/-3.2%, 58.0+/-5.0%,
70.8+/-4.4% after sorting, respectively. After liquid storage of sorted
spermatozoa for 12h at 4 degrees C, sperm integrity, progressive and
total motility were 46.4+/-5.2%, 32.2+/-4.2% and 58.2+/-3.9%,
respectively. The obtained results provide a promising base to
inseminate Asian elephants with sexed semen
Knauf, S.,
Blad-Stahl, J., Lawrenz, A., Schuerer, U., Wehrend, A., 2009.
Plasma preparation and storage for African
elephants (Loxodonta africana).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40, 71-75.
Abstract:
The
use of plasma as a life-saving tool for neonatal African elephants
(Loxodonta africana) that failed passive transfer of immunoglobulins is
proposed. The methodology of blood sampling, plasma extraction, and
plasma storage is described. Values for cellular component sedimentation
and biochemical parameters of extracted plasma that was collected from 2
female elephants is presented. The proposal for a central plasma bank
for elephants in European zoos is suggested.
Knauf, S.,
Blad-Stahl, J., Lawrenz, A., Schuerer, U., Wehrend, A., 2009. Plasma
preparation and storage for African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
74. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 40, 71-75.
Abstract: The use of plasma as a life-saving tool for neonatal African
elephants (Loxodonta africana) that failed passive transfer of
immunoglobulins is proposed. The methodology of blood sampling, plasma
extraction, and plasma storage is described. Values for cellular
component sedimentation and biochemical parameters of extracted plasma
that was collected from 2 female elephants is presented. The proposal
for a central plasma bank for elephants in European zoos is suggested
Saragusty,
J., Hermes, R., Goritz, F., Schmitt, D.L., Hildebrandt, T.B., 2009.
Skewed birth sex ratio and premature mortality in elephants. Anim Reprod.
Sci. 115, 247-254.
Abstract: Sex allocation theories predict equal offspring number of both
sexes unless differential investment is required or some competition
exists. Left undisturbed, elephants reproduce well and in approximately
even numbers in the wild. We report an excess of males are born and
substantial juvenile mortality occurs, perinatally, in captivity.
Studbook data on captive births (CB, n=487) and premature deaths (PD, <5
years of age; n=164) in Asian and African elephants in Europe and North
America were compared with data on Myanmar timber (Asian) elephants (CB,
n=3070; PD, n=738). Growth in CB was found in three of the captive
populations. A significant excess of male births occurred in European
Asian elephants (ratio: 0.61, P=0.044) and in births following
artificial insemination (0.83, P=0.003), and a numerical inclination in
North American African elephants (0.6). While juvenile mortality in
European African and Myanmar populations was 21-23%, it was almost
double (40-45%) in all other captive populations. In zoo populations,
68-91% of PD were within 1 month of birth with stillbirth and
infanticide being major causes. In Myanmar, 62% of juvenile deaths were
at >6 months with maternal insufficient milk production, natural hazards
and accidents being the main causes. European Asian and Myanmar
elephants PD was biased towards males (0.71, P=0.024 and 0.56, P<0.001,
respectively). The skewed birth sex ratio and high juvenile mortality
hinder efforts to help captive populations become self-sustaining.
Efforts should be invested to identify the mechanism behind these trends
and seek solutions for them.
Conesa, C.,
Sanchez, L., Rota, C., Perez, M.D., Calvo, M., Farnaud, S., Evans, R.W.,
2008. Isolation of lactoferrin from milk of different species:
calorimetric and antimicrobial studies. Comp Biochem. Physiol B Biochem.
Mol. Biol. 150, 131-139.
Abstract: Lactoferrin (LF) is an iron-binding glycoprotein found in
different biological fluids of mammals and in neutrophils. It has been
proposed to be involved in many functions, including protection from
pathogens. In this work, purification of lactoferrin using an
ion-exchange chromatography (SP-Sepharose) was attempted for the milk of
the following animals: sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus), camel (Camelus
bactrianus), alpaca (Lama pacos), elephant (Elephas maximus) and grey
seal (Halichoerus grypus), as well as human (Homo sapiens). Lactoferrin
was identified in all the milks apart from that from grey seal. The
thermal stability of the purified lactoferrins, in their native and
iron-saturated forms, was studied by differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC). Maximum temperature, onset temperature and enthalpy change of
denaturation were higher when lactoferrins were saturated with iron than
in their native form, indicating an increase in the stability of the
protein structure upon iron-binding. Human lactoferrin was found to be
the most heat-resistant and the other lactoferrins presented different
degrees of thermoresistance, that of elephant being the least resistant.
The antimicrobial activity of the different isolated lactoferrins was
investigated against Escherichia coli 0157:H7. The minimal inhibitory
concentrations (MICs) were determined by measuring the absorbance at 620
nm. The minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) were also measured
and it was found that camel lactoferrin was the most active lactoferrin
against E. coli 0157:H7, whereas alpaca and human lactoferrins were the
least active
Osthoff, G.,
Dickens, L., Urashima, T., Bonnet, S.L., Uemura, Y., van der Westhuizen,
J.H., 2008. Structural characterization of oligosaccharides in the milk
of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana). Comp Biochem.
Physiol B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 150, 74-84.
Abstract: The oligosaccharides present in the milk of an African
elephant (Loxodonta africana africana), collected 4 days post partum,
were separated by size exclusion-, anion exchange- and high-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC) before characterisation by (1)H NMR
spectroscopy. Neutral and acidic oligosaccharides were identified.
Neutral oligosaccharides characterised were isoglobotriose,
Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc,
Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNA
c(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc,
Gal(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc
and a novel oligosaccharide that has not been reported in the milk or
colostrum of any other mammal:
Gal(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(al
pha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc. Acidic oligosaccharides that are
also found in the milk of Asian elephant were
Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)Glc,
Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc,
Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc,
Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc,
Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcN
Ac(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc and
Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3){Gal(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(
alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-6)}Gal(beta1-4)Glc, while
Neu5Gc(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc,
Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc,
Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)[Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-6)]Ga
l(beta1-4)Glc and
Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3){Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc
NAc(beta1-6)}Gal(beta1-4)Glc have not been found in Asian elephant milk.
The oligosaccharides characterised contained both alpha(2-3)- and
alpha(2-6)-linked Neu5Ac residues. They also contain only the type II
chain, as found in most non-human, eutherian mammals
Stoeger-Horwath, A.S., Stoeger, S., Schwammer, H.M., Kratochvil, H.,
2007. Call repertoire of infant African elephants: first insights into
the early vocal ontogeny. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 121, 3922-3931.
Abstract: African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) have a complex
acoustic communication system, but very little is known about their
vocal ontogeny. A first approach in ontogenetic studies is to define the
call repertoire of specific age groups. Twelve hundred calls of 11
infant elephants from neonatal to 18 months of age recorded at the
Vienna Zoo in Austria and at the Daphne Sheldrick's orphanage at the
Nairobi National Park, Kenya were analyzed. Six call types were
structurally distinguished: the rumble, the bark, the grunt, the roar
(subdivided into a noisy-, tonal-, and mixed-roar), the snort, and the
trumpet. Generally, within-call-type variation was high in all
individuals. In contrast to adult elephants, the infants showed no
gender-dependent variation in the structure or in the number of call
types produced. Male infants, however, were more vocally adamant in
their suckle behavior than females. These results give a first insight
to the early vocal ontogeny and should promote further ontogenetic
studies on elephants. Due to their vocal learning ability in combination
with the complex fission-fusion society, elephants could be an
interesting model to study the role of imitation in the vocal ontogeny
of a nonprimate terrestrial mammal
Dreisewerd,
K., Kolbl, S., Peter-Katalinic, J., Berkenkamp, S., Pohlentz, G., 2006.
Analysis of native milk oligosaccharides directly from thin-layer
chromatography plates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization
orthogonal-time-of-flight mass spectrometry with a glycerol matrix
517. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 17, 139-150.
Abstract: We have recently presented a new method for direct coupling of
high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) with matrix-assisted
laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS), illustrated by
the analysis of a complex ganglioside mixture. In the current
communication, an adaptation of this procedure to mixtures of native
oligosaccharides from human and from elephant milk is described. The key
features in this method are (1) glycerol as a liquid matrix, to provide
a homogeneous wetting of the silica gel and a simple and fast MALDI
preparation protocol, (2) an infrared (IR) laser for volume material
ablation and particular soft desorption/ionization conditions, and (3)
an orthogonal time-of-flight mass spectrometer for a high mass accuracy,
independent of any irregularity of the silica gel surface.
Chromatographic "mobility profiles" were determined by scanning the
laser beam across the analyte bands. The current limit of detection for
the MS analysis was determined to approximately 10 pmol of individual
oligosaccharides spotted for chromatography. A liquid composite matrix,
containing glycerol and the ultraviolet (UV-)MALDI matrix
alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid, allows a direct HPTLC-MALDI-MS
analysis with a 337 nm-UV laser as well. Compared to the IR-MALDI mode,
the analytical sensitivity in UV-MALDI was found to be lower by one
order of magnitude, whereas unspecific analyte ion fragmentation as well
as adduct formation was found to be more extensive
Graf, P.,
Weissenboeck, N., Schwammer, H.M. Hand-rearing of elephant calves: A
comparison between common milk replacer regarding their physiological
efficiency. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research
Symposium. 252. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Reid, C.E.,
Hildebrandt, T.B., Marx, N., Hunt, M., Thy, N., Reynes, J.M.,
Schaftenaar, W., Fickel, J., 2006. Endotheliotropic elephant herpes
virus (EEHV) infection. The first PCR-confirmed fatal case in Asia
436. Vet. Q. 28, 61-64.
Abstract: Since 1995, 4 suspected cases of Endotheliotropic Elephant
Herpes Virus (EEHV) infection, i.e. based on clinical presentation, have
occurred in Asia without resulting in epidemic outbreaks as expected. In
order to confirm the presence of EEHV on the continent of Asia, viral
DNA particles from liver samples of a wild-caught 3-year-old elephant
found dead at a Cambodian elephant sanctuary and clinically diagnosed
with EEHV, were PCR processed using known EEHV strain primers. The
presence of EEHV viral nucleic acids was confirmed and the nucleic acids
had a 99% sequence similarity to the U.S.A strain (gene bank locus:
AF117265) and 97% sequence similarity to the European strain (gene bank
locus: AF354746) assigning this case to the EEHV-1 cluster. More than
the confirmation of EEHV on the continent of Asia, is the phylogenic
relationship to the USA and European strains with no corresponding
contact or transport of USA or European elephants to Asia. Thus, this
brings many of the traditional theories into question. Although almost
forgotten, this disease is still ramped in captive elephant populations
worldwide and continues to devastate particularly the neonatal and
weaning-age population. Special attention and continued research are
needed specifically in the area of basic virology and epidemiology
Uemura, Y.,
Asakuma, S., Yon, L., Saito, T., Fukuda, K., Arai, I., Urashima, T.,
2006. Structural determination of the oligosaccharides in the milk of an
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
412. Comp Biochem. Physiol A Mol. Integr. Physiol 145, 468-478.
Abstract: Milk of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), collected at 11
days post partum, contained 91 g/L of hexose and 3 g/L of sialic acid.
The dominant saccharide in this milk sample was lactose, but it also
contained isoglobotriose (Glc(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc) as well as a
variety of sialyl oligosaccharides. The sialyl oligosaccharides were
separated from neutral saccharides by anion exchange chromatography on
DEAE-Sephadex A-50 and successive gel chromatography on Bio Gel P-2.
They were purified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
using an Amide-80 column and characterized by 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Their
structures were determined to be those of 3'-sialyllactose,
6'-sialyllactose, monofucosyl monosialyl lactose
(Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc), sialyl lacto-N-neotetraose
c (LST c), galactosyl monosialyl lacto-N-neohexaose, galactosyl
monofucosyl monosialyl lacto-N-neohexaose and three novel
oligosaccharides as follows:
Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc,
Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(
beta1-4)Glc, and
Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc
(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc. The higher oligosaccharides
contained only the type II chain (Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc); this finding
differed from previously published data on Asian elephant milk
oligosaccharides
Andrews, J.,
Mecklenborg, A., Bercovitch, F.B., 2005. Milk intake and development in
a newborn captive African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Zoo
Biology 24, 275-281.
Abstract: In August 2003 the San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park (WAP) and
the Lowry Park Zoo, under the auspices of the AZA's Elephant SSP and a
USFWS permit, imported 3.8 African elephants (Loxodonta africana
) from the Kingdom of Swaziland. When they were captured, transrectal
ultrasound examinations revealed that one nulliparous cow was
approximately 10 months pregnant. At the time of their arrival (August
2003), all of the animals were estimated to be approximately 13 years
old and were thought to be nulliparous. Based on the ultrasound
examination results and the average African elephant gestation period,
parturition was predicted to be 20 February 2004. In this report, we
provide the first detailed data about nursing activity around the clock
and newborn calf development, describe maternal and neonatal nighttime
activity budgets, and explore maternal weight changes during suckling
and lactation. The newborn calf suckled significantly more at night than
during the day, but suckled for only about 2 hr per 24-hr period.
Regression analysis revealed that through the first 3 months of life the
calf gained 0.385 kg/day while it suckled on a regular basis. We compare
our findings with published information on wild elephants, and conclude
that although the growth rate is reduced compared to hand-reared
elephant calves, the suckling patterns are almost identical to those
reported for wild calves.
Mobasheri,
A., Gent, T.C., Womack, M.D., Carter, S.D., Clegg, P.D., Barrett-Jolley,
R., 2005. Quantitative analysis of voltage-gated potassium currents from
primary equine (Equus caballus) and elephant (Loxodonta africana)
articular chondrocytes
618. Am. J. Physiol Regul. Integr. Comp Physiol 289, R172-R180.
Abstract: In this comparative study, we have established in vitro models
of equine and elephant articular chondrocytes, examined their basic
morphology, and characterized the biophysical properties of their
primary voltage-gated potassium channel (Kv) currents. Using whole cell
patch-clamp electrophysiological recording from first-expansion and
first-passage cells, we measured a maximum Kv conductance of 0.15 +/-
0.04 pS/pF (n = 10) in equine chondrocytes, whereas that in elephant
chondrocytes was significantly larger (0.8 +/- 0.4 pS/pF, n = 4, P </=
0.05). Steady-state activation parameters of elephant chondrocytes (V =
-22 +/- 6 mV, k = 11.8 +/- 3 mV, n = 4) were not significantly different
from those of horse chondrocytes (V = -12.5 +/- 4.3 mV, k = 12 +/- 2, n
= 10). This suggests that there would be slightly more resting Kv
activation in elephant chondrocytes than in their equine counterparts.
Kinetic analysis revealed that both horse and elephant chondrocyte Kv
currents had similar activation and inactivation parameters.
Pharmacological investigation of equine chondrocyte Kv currents showed
them to be powerfully inhibited by the potassium channel blockers
tetraethylammonium and 4-aminopyridine but not by dendrotoxin-I.
Immunohistochemical studies using polyclonal antibodies to Kv1.1-Kv1.5
provided evidence for expression of Kv1.4 in equine chondrocytes. This
is the first electrophysiological study of equine or elephant
chondrocytes. The data support the notion that voltage-gated potassium
channels play an important role in regulating the membrane potential of
articular chondrocytes and will prove useful in future modeling of
electromechanotransduction of fully differentiated articular
chondrocytes in these and other species
Osthoff, G., De Waal, H.O., Hugo, A., de, W.M., Botes, P., 2005.
Milk
composition of a free-ranging African elephant (Loxodonta africana) cow
during early lactation
593. Comp Biochem. Physiol A Mol. Integr. Physiol 141, 223-229.
Abstract: Only one study previously reported comprehensively on the
composition of African elephant's (Loxodonta africana) milk that was
collected from 30 dead animals. In the current study milk was obtained
from a tame but free-ranging African elephant cow without immobilization
during the period when she was 4-47 days postpartum. At the respective
collection times the nutrient content was 21.8 and 25.0 g protein; 56.0
and 76.0 g fat; 71.1 and 26.0 g sugars per kilogram of milk. The protein
fraction, respectively, consisted of 10.0 and 14.0 g caseins/kg milk and
of 11.8 and 11 g whey proteins/kg milk. During lactation the lactose
content dropped from 52.5 to 11.8 g/kg milk, while the oligosaccharide
content increased from 11.8 to 15.2 g/kg milk. The oligosaccharide was
characterized as a galactosyllactose, which is digestible by cellulase.
Electrophoresis and identification of protein bands showed a similar
migrating sequence of proteins as seen in cow's milk, but some of the
corresponding proteins were less negatively charged. The lipid fraction
contains a high content of capric and lauric acids, approximately 60% of
the total fatty acids, and low content of myristic, palmitic and oleic
acids
2003.
Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project
Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.
Chakraborty,
A., 2003. Nenatal mortality in elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare,
Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of
India, New Delhi, pp. 119-122.
Kajaysri, J.,
Huayjunteuk, S., Reunpech, S., Thammakarn, C., et, al. The condition of
paper thin bone layer and fracture by metabolic bone disease in an
orphan elephant. Proceedings of 41st Kasetsart University Annual
Conference, 3-7 February, 2003. 508-515. 2003. Kasetsart University;
Bangkok; Thailand.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Roychoudhury,
R., 2003. Feeding schedule for elephants of different age groups and
jobs. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian
Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 83-93.
Sarma, N.K.,
2003. Neonatal care, weaning and hand rearing of orphan elephant calves.
In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian
Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 67-69.
Wilson, J.D.,
Leihy, M.W., Shaw, G., Renfree, M.B., 2003. Androgen physiology:
unsolved problems at the millennium. Molecular and Cellular
Endocrinology 198, 1-5.
Abstract: Androgen physiology differs from that of other steroid
hormones in two major regards. First, testosterone, the predominant
circulating testicular androgen, is both an active hormone and a
prohormone for the formation of a more active androgen, the
5alpha-reduced steroid dihydrotestosterone. Genetic evidence indicates
that testosterone and dihydrotestosterone work via a common
intracellular receptor, and studies involving in vitro reporter gene
assays and intact mice in which both steroid 5alpha-reductase isoenzymes
have been disrupted by homologous recombination indicate that
dihydrotestosterone acts during embryonic life to amplify hormonal
signals that can be mediated by testosterone at higher concentrations.
However, in post-embryonic life dihydrotestosterone plays unique roles
that have not been elucidated. Studies of other 5alpha-reduced steroids,
including the plant hormone brassinolide, the hog pheromones androstanol
and androstenol, and 5alpha-dihydroprogesterone (in horses and
elephants) indicate that this reaction serves different functions in
different systems. Second, during embryonic life androgen causes the
formation of the male urogenital tract and hence is responsible for
development of the tissues that serve as the major sites of androgen
action in postnatal life. It has been generally assumed that androgens
virilize the male fetus by the same mechanisms as in the adult, namely
by the conversion of circulating testosterone to dihydrotestosterone in
target tissues. However, in marsupial mammals there is no sexual
dimorphism in the levels of testosterone or dihydrotestosterone at the
time the male phenotype forms, and in the pouch young of one marsupial,
the tammar wallaby, the testes secrete another 5alpha-reduced steroid,
5alpha-androstane-3alpha, 17beta-diol (5alpha-adiol), into plasma. The
administration of 5alpha-adiol to female pouch young causes profound
virilization of the urogenital sinus and external genitalia, but within
target tissues 5alpha-adiol appears to work after oxidation to
dihydrotestosterone. Thus, two separate mechanisms evolved for the
formation of dihydrotestosterone in target tissues. 5alpha-adiol is the
predominant androgen in neonatal testes in several placental mammals,
but it is unclear whether it plays a similar role in other mammalian
species.
Gage, L.J.,
2002. Hand-rearing wild and domestic mammals. Iowa State Press, Ames,
Iowa, USA.
Abstract: This book contains articles on hand-rearing wild and domestic
animals. It is divided into the following topics: domestic animals
(orphan rabbits, puppies, domestic kittens, critically ill and orphaned
foals, pigs, goat kids and South American Camelids); and wildlife, zoo
and marine animals (opossums, sugar gliders, macropods, hedgehogs,
sloths, ground and tree squirrels, insectivorous bats, lemurs, tamarins,
macaques species, great apes, harbour seals and Northern Elephant seals,
sea lions and fur seals, walrus calves, fox kits, black bear cubs, polar
bears, raccoons, ferret kits, exotic felids, elephants, nondomestic
equids, rhinoceros, black-tailed and white-tailed deer exotic
ungulates).
Johnson,
E.W., Rasmussen, L., 2002. Morphological characteristics of the
vomeronasal organ of the newborn Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
Anatomical Record 267, 252-259.
Abstract: The 6-week-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) has a
well-documented precocious flehmen response to pheromones, suggesting
that the pheromone-detecting vomeronasal organ (VNO) is functional very
early in the life of this species. To further document this, the VNOs of
two newborn elephants were examined in situ and analyzed by light
microscopy (LM) to ascertain their structural maturity at birth. A
tubular, cartilage-encased VNO was located along the anterior base of
each side of the nasal septum. Its rostral end was connected to a duct
to the roof of the mouth; the caudal end was attached to a well-defined
vomeronasal nerve projecting toward the brain. LM revealed distinctive
differences in the mucosae bordering the horseshoe-shaped lumen: a
concave, sensory mucosa, and a convex, nonsensory mucosa. Small groups
of receptor neurons were observed among ciliated columnar cells in the
sensory epithelium. Numerous unmyelinated nerve bundles and blood
vessels filled the underlying lamina propria (LP) and a small section of
the vomeronasal nerve was conspicuous at one edge. The nonsensory mucosa
manifested a thinner epithelium that principally consisted of ciliated
columnar cells, some of which showed a granular cytoplasm, and a
conspicuous row of basal cells. The LP was replete with acinar glands
and ducts that opened into the lumen. This study shows that the VNO of
the newborn elephant has reached an advanced stage of structural
maturity, closely resembling that of the adult. Its composition supports
the view that flehmen at 6 weeks delivers pheromones to a functional VNO.
Sharma, K.K.,
Choudhury, B.D., Sarma, M., 2002. Lingual thrush in a hand reared
elephant (E.maximus) calf. Wildlife Information Bulletin, vii,
53-54.
Horwath, A.,
Kratochvil, H., Schwammer, H. Sounds of a Newborn African Elephant (Loxodonta
africana) in Captivity. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos;
Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium,
Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 265-267. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling
Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Urashima, T., Saito, T., Nakamura, T., Messer, M., 2001.
Oligosaccharides of milk and colostrum in non-human mammals. Glycoconj J
18, 357-371.
Abstract: Mammalian milk or colostrum usually contains, in addition to
lactose, a variety of neutral and acidic oligosaccharides. Although the
oligosaccharides of human milk have been reviewed in several recent
publications, those of non-human mammals have received much less
attention. This paper reviews the chemical structures and the variety of
milk oligosaccharides in species other than humans, including placental
mammals (e.g. primates, domestic herbivores, bears and other carnivores,
the rat and the elephant) as well as monotremes (platypus and echidna)
and marsupials (e.g. wallaby). The gastrointestinal digestion and
absorption and the possible biological functions of these
oligosaccharides are
also discussed.
Wisser, J.,
Pilaski, J., Strauss, G., Meyer, H., Burck, G., Truyen, U., Rudolph, M.,
Frolich, K., 2001. Cowpox virus infection causing stillbirth in an Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 149, 244-246.
Schmitt, D.L.,
Pace, L.W. Multiple Congenital Cardiac Anomalies in a Newborn Asian
Elephant (Elephas maximus). Proceedings of the Elephant Managers
Association Conference, Oct 6-9,2000 Syracuse, NY. 13-14. 2000. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Cardiac anomalies in humans occur in about 1% of human births.
Most are a developmental disorder of the vascular trunk and septum of
the heart, which result in reduced blood circulation to periphery. This
report of a cardiac anomaly in a neonatal elephant is first to the
author's knowledge. A congenital defect known as tetrology of Fallot is
described in a male Asian elephant who lived for 9 hours following
birth.
Kunz, C.,
Rudloff, S., Schad, W., Braun, D., 1999. Lactose-derived
oligosaccharides in the milk of elephants: comparison with human milk.
Br J Nutr 82, 391-399.
Abstract: Human milk is commonly considered to be unique when compared
with the milk of other species with regard to its high content of
complex fucosylated and sialylated lactose-derived oligosaccharides. We
describe the application of high-pH anion-exchange chromatography with
pulsed amperometric detection and TLC to characterize and quantitate
neutral and sialylated lactose-derived oligosaccharides in milk from
three Asian elephants and human milk. The lactose contents of elephant
and human milks were 25-30 g/l and about 66 g/l respectively, whereas
total oligosaccharide concentration was about three times higher in
elephant milk and comprised up to 40% (10% in human milk) of the
carbohydrate content. The ratio neutral: acidic components was different
in the milk of the two species; in elephant milk, the N-acetylneuraminic
acid-containing oligosaccharides made up almost half of the total amount
v. 30% in human milk. Most oligosaccharides in elephant milk were more
fucosylated and/or sialylated compared with human milk components. By
mild acid hydrolysis, fucose and N-acetylneuraminic acid were cleaved
off from complex components, and this resulted in increased amounts of
fucose, galactose, N-acetylneuraminic acid, lactose and lacto-N-neo-tetraose.
Unique to elephant milk are the high levels of 3'-galactosyllactose (up
to 4 g/l) and lacto-N-neo-tetraose which are present in human milk only
in trace amounts. Elephant and human milks have high levels and unique
patterns of oligosaccharides which may reflect the relative importance
of these components in neonatal host defence, in endothelial leucocyte
interactions or in brain development.
Sarwar, G.,
Botting, H.G., Davis, T.A., Darling, P., Pencharz, P.B., 1998. Free
amino acids in milks of human subjects, other primates and non-primates.
Br J Nutr 79, 129-131.
Abstract: Preterm and term transitional milks of human subjects and
mature milks of human subjects, non-human primates and non-primates were
analysed for free amino acids (AA) using precolumn phenylisothiocyanate
derivatization and liquid chromatography. Differences in free AA between
three types of human milk were small. Milks of pinnipeds (seals and sea
lions) contained the highest levels of total free AA (8634-20,862 mumol/l),
while the milks of cows and sheep had the lowest levels of total free AA
(1061-1357 mumol/l). The milks of human subjects, chimpanzees (Pan
troglodytes), gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), elephants (Elephas maximus),
horses and pigs had intermediate levels of total free AA (3069-7381
mumol/l). Glutamic acid was the most abundant free AA in milks of human
subjects (1339-2157 mumol/l), non-human primates (423-2528 mumol/l),
elephants (1332 mumol/l), horses (1119 mumol/l), and cows (349 mumol/l).
Taurine was the most abundant free AA in milks of pinnipeds (5776-13,643
mumol/l), pigs (1238 mumol/l), goats (1150 mumol/l) and sheep (341 mumol/l).
Taurine was the second most abundant free AA in milks of human subjects
and non-human primates, while histidine was the second most abundant
free AA in milks of pinnipeds. Milks of each species had a distinctive
free AA pattern which may reflect the relative importance of the free AA
during early postnatal development.
Taylor, V.J.,
Poole, T.B., 1998. Captive breeding and infant mortality in Asian
elephants: a comparison between twenty Western zoos and three Eastern
elephant centers. Zoo Biology 17, 311-332.
Abstract: A questionnaire was designed to assess the importance of
reproductive behaviour and husbandry factors on breeding success in
captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). This was circulated to zoos
in Europe and North America in 1996. Data from 20 zoos were analysed.
Data were also obtained from 3 elephant centres in Asia (Pinnawela
Elephant Orphanage in Sri Lanka, Myanma Timber Enterprise in Myanmar and
the Tamilnadu Forest Department in India). The aims were to compare
Asian elephant breeding success, establish possible causes for any
differences, and make recommendations for improving the welfare and
breeding success of the animals. Breeding success in most of the zoos
was notably lower and the percentages of stillbirths and infant
mortality were relatively higher when compared with those of the centres
in Asia. Female elephants in zoos appeared to reach sexual maturity and
reproduce earlier than those in the Asian establishments. However, zoo
elephants produced fewer young per female. The different facilities and
husbandry methods used are described. Recommendations are made for both
short- and long-term changes that could be used to modify existing
practices to improve the welfare and breeding success of captive Asian
elephants.
Welsch, U.,
Feuerhake, F., van Aarde, R., Buchheim, W., Patton, S., 1998. Histo- and
cytophysiology of the lactating mammary gland of the African
elephant(Loxodonta africana). Cell Tissue Res 294, 485-501.
Abstract: The lactating mammary gland of the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana) has been studied with a panel of morphological techniques
focusing on (1) the functional changes during the secretory process, (2)
proliferative process [by application of proliferating cell nuclear
antigen (PCNA) immunohistochemistry] and apoptotic phenomena [by use of
the TUNEL technique] in the individual lobules, and (3) components of
milk and milk-fat-globule membrane. In the lactating gland, the lobules
are variably differentiated; within a lobule, however, the alveoli are
usually similarly differentiated. The morphology of their alveoli
suggests a classification of the lobules into types 1-3. Lobules of type
1 are composed of immature tubular alveoli with mitotic figures and
numerous PCNA-positive nuclei; advanced type 1 alveoli contain abundant
glycogen and specific secretory granules. Lobules of type 2 are further
subdivided. In type 2a lobules, the epithelial cells of the alveoli form
tall apical protrusions, which in part are occupied by small lipid
droplets and which are pinched off in an apocrine fashion. The number of
lysosomes varies considerably. Type 2b is the most common type, with
striking basal membrane foldings, abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum
cisterns, large Golgi apparatus, numerous mitochondria, lipid droplets,
and protein vesicles with 30- to 90-nm-wide casein micelles. The lipid
droplets are pinched off with minimal amounts of cytoplasm. Type 2c is
composed of alveoli with a cuboidal epithelium and few signs of
secretory activity. Increasing expression of peanut-agglutinin-binding
sites parallels the maturation and differentiation of the glandular
cells. Type 3 lobules are marked by numerous TUNEL-positive nuclei and
large lipid droplets and are apparently degenerating structures.
Cytokeratin (CK) 14 is usually present in the myoepithelial cells; CK 19
and CK 7 mark ductal and immature alveolar epithelia. Milk protein
content varies between 2.6% and 6.3%, and casein micelles range from 35
to 90 nm in diameter. The diameter of intra-alveolar milk fat globules
ranges from 5 to 25 micrometer and the membranes bear a filamentous
surface coat composed of membrane-anchored mucins; gel-electrophoretic
analysis of these mucins from different individuals demonstrates the
presence of mucin MUC 1, which is expressed with considerable genetic
heterogeneity.
Mircean, M.,
Giurgiu, G., Oros, A., Kadar, L., Ghergariu, S., 1997. Complex
osteodystrophy in an orphan Indian elephant. Revista Romana de Medicina
Veterinara 7, 191-199.
Abstract: An Indian elephant calf, rejected by its mother, was fed at
first with cow and buffalo milk, and subsequently with bread, bran,
rice, barley and fruit. He was initially affected with rickets, leading
to osteofibrosis. Forelegs and the mandible were curved, causing
difficulty in mastication. Clinical pathology showed a fall in Ca:P
ratio to 1.47, and radiology showed thinning of the bone cortex.
Intensive treatment with vitamins (B, C, D3 and E), a testosterone
compound and amoxicillin made it possible for the animal to stand and
walk, but the deformities remained. The elephant was eventually killed.
Roy, A.,
Krift, I.J.J. Milk replacer for Asian and African elephant calves.
Proceedings of the 18th Annual EMA Workshop, Fort Worth Zoological
Park. 43-49. 1997. Fort Worth, TX.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Kurt, F.,
Mar, D.K., 1996. Neonate mortality in captive Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus). International Journal of Mammalian Biology 61,
155-164.
Abstract: One third of Asian elephants born in European zoos and
circuses are stillborn (16.0%) or killed or refused by their mothers
(15.7%). Stillbirths and infanticides are rare in extensively kept and
wild-living elephants. Infanticide could be related to life history of
the mothers: Females which had grown up in the company of an older,
motherly female adopted their offsprings without complications. Those
having lacked such affection, tended to kill or at least not to adopt
their neonates. Stillborn calves show higher neonate weights (124.6 +/-
20.8 kg) than surviving calves (92.0 +/-27.6 kg). Positive correlations
were found between gestation period and neonate weight as well as
between neonate weight and relative weight (body weight/shoulder height)
of the mother. As female elephants in modern zoos and circuses are
relatively heavier than those living in Asian camps, they produce calves
after longer gestation periods (644.4 +/- 19.5 days) with larger neonate
weights (105.6 +/- 26.6 kg) than extensively kept females in Asia (598.1
+/- 51.6 days; 74.0 +/- 21.6 kg). Chances to survive parturition are
negatively correlated with length of gestation and neonate weight.
Mosley, J.
Hand-Rearing a Captive-Born Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus): (I)
A Study of Physical Development as a Response to the Rearing Regime, and
(ii) Social Interactions. Spooner, N. G. and Sharp, K. The Ninth UK
Elephant Workshop. 36-65. 1996. England, The North of England
Zoological Society. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Murray, S.,
Bush, M., Tell, L.A., 1996. Medical management of postpartum problems in
an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) cow and calf. Journal of Zoo
and Wildlife Medicine 27, 255-258.
Abstract: An 18-yr old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
gave birth to a 120-kg female calf following 22 mo of gestation.
Immediately after parturition, the cow became agitated and aggressive
towards the calf. Before the keepers were able to safely intervene and
remove the calf, the cow stepped on the calf's head and right front
leg. Within 30 min, the cow calmed down, allowing the calf's safe
reintroduction under close keeper supervision and control. The cow had
a retained placenta, poor mammary development, and low milk production.
The calf's injuries, in combination with the cow's low milk production,
impeded the calf's ability to nurse and gain weight. Within 10 days,
the calf lost 10% of its weight. Serum protein electrophoresis
indicated failure of passive transfer of maternal immunoglobulin. On
day 10, the calf received a transfusion of concentrated immunoglobulin
extracted and concentrated from the cow's previously banked plasma. On
day 13, the calf developed a urinary tract infection, as diagnosed by
white blood cells and bacteria in the urine. Following immunoglobulin
administration and antibiotic therapy, clinical signs slowly resolved
and the calf gained weight. The cow passed the fetal membranes during
parturition, but the placenta was retained. Despite prophylactic
systemic antibiotics and vaginal flushing, the cow became depressed and
developed a leukocytosis and anemia. A mucopurulent vaginal discharge
and ventral edema were noted on day 3, and milk production was minimal.
Because decreased milk production has been reported as a common sequel
to retained placenta, efforts were focused on removing the placenta.
Intermittent oxytocin therapy on days 2-14 did not result in expulsion
of the placenta and produced only transient abdominal contractions and
minimal increases in milk letdown. On day 15, 10 mg estradiol cypionate
was administered i.m. followed by 200 IU oxytocin i.v. An additional 10
IU oxytocin was administered i.v. on day 16. The friable placenta was
palpable within the vaginal vault on day 17. The remaining placenta was
removed by gentle traction applied by a modified weighted pressure
cuff. Once the placenta was removed, the cow's clinical problems slowly
resolved and the calf continued to gain weight.
Parrott, J.J.
Analysis of African elephant mature milk in early lactation and
formulation of an elephant calf milk replacer. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.
102-111. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Mature milk samples (n=5) were collected from one African
elephant (Loxodonta africana) during early lactation for analysis of
nutrient composition. Total solids averaged 11.32% and were
significantly lower than previously reported for African elephants.
Lactose averaged 2.79% (24.6% dry matter basis), which was also
significantly lower than previously reported and indicates African
elephants are a low-to-moderate lactose species. Bovine milk contains
1.5-2 times this level, and human milk replacers contain 2.5 times this
level of lactose on a dry matter basis. This could represent a
significant cause of diarrhea when human milk replacers are used in
African elephant calves. Milk fat averaged 4.38% (39% dry matter basis)
and ranged from 3.51-5.32%. Protein levels averaged 2.3% (20% dry matter
basis). Ash levels averaged 0.53% (4.7% dry matter basis). Vitamin A
levels ranged from 28-171 IU/100 g (249-1361 IU/100 g dry matter basis)
and vitamin D ranged from 22-69.8 IU/100 g (196-693 IU/100 g dry matter
basis). Vitamin E ranged from 0.33-0.88 µg/ml, with the cow supplemented
on a diet of 8,000 IU per day. Calcium levels averaged 37.8 mg/100 g
(334 mg/100 g) and ranged from 28-43 mg/100 g (257-431 mg/100 g dry
matter basis); phosphorus averaged 18.8 mg/100 g (166 mg/100 g dry
matter basis) and ranged from 15.9-20.8 mg/100 g (143- 204 mg/100 g dry
matter basis). The calcium:phosphorus ratio averaged approximately 2:1.
An African elephant calf milk replacer was formulated based on the
mature milk analysis of early lactation. The general makeup included:
total solids (11.5%), fat (5%), lactose (2.5%), protein (3.3%), ash
(0.52%), calcium (65 mg/100 g), phosphorus (42 mg/100 g), vitamin A (75
IU/100 g) and vitamin D (46 IU/100 g). Vitamin E is supplemented
separately as 2 IU/kg body weight micellized natural tocopherol (Stuart
Products) to insure bioavailability. The milk replacer is produced
starting with bovine skim milk powder and bovine whey protein
concentrate, mixed to provide the milk proteins necessary in the milk
replacer. Fat is then added using a fat premix and coconut oil (coconut
oil is approximately 25% of the total fat supplied). A mixture of
mineral and vitamin premix completes the formula. The final formulation
maintained lactose on the low end of the milk analysis range (20-26% dry
matter basis), to minimize the risk of a lactose-induced diarrhea.
Protein and fat were maintained at the high end or slightly above the
range in the milk analysis to accommodate the lower lactose and still
maintain a total solids of approximately 11.5%.
Davis, T.A.,
Davis, T.A., Garcia-Bravo, R., Fiorotto, M.L., Jackson, E.M., Lewis,
D.S., Lee, D.R., Reeds, P.J., 1994. Amino acid composition of human milk
is not unique. J Nutr 124, 1126-1132.
Abstract: To determine whether the amino acid pattern of human milk is
unique, we compared the amino acid pattern of human milk with the amino
acid patterns of the milks of great apes (chimpanzee and gorilla), lower
primates (baboon and rhesus monkey) and nonprimates (cow, goat, sheep,
llama, pig, horse, elephant, cat and rat). Amino acid pattern was
defined as the relative proportion of each amino acid (protein-bound
plus free) (in mg) to the total amino acids (in g). Total amino acid
concentration was lower in primate milk than in nonprimate milk. There
were commonalities in the overall amino acid pattern of the milks of all
species sampled; the most abundant amino acids were glutamate (plus
glutamine, 20%), proline (10%) and leucine (10%). Essential amino acids
were 40%, branched-chain amino acids 20%, and sulfur amino acids 4% of
the total amino acids. The amino acid pattern of human milk was more
similar to those of great apes than to those of lower primates. For
example, cystine was higher and methionine was lower in primate milks
than in nonprimate milks, and in great ape and human milks than in lower
primate milks. Because the milk amino acid patterns of the human and
elephant, both slow-growing species, were dissimilar, the amino acid
pattern of human milk seems unrelated to growth rate.
Ensley, P.K.,
Osborn, K., Bissonette, S., Deftos, L.J. Osteodystrophy in an orphan
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 142-143. 1994.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Mainka, S.A.,
Cooper, R.M., Black, S.R., Dierenfeld, E.S., 1994. Asian Elephant
(Elephas maximus) milk composition during the first 280 days of
lactation. Zoo Biology 13, 389-393.
Abstract: Milk samples (n=10) taken during the first 280 days of
lactation from one Asian elephant were examined for nutrient composition
including total solids, protein, fat, ash, alpha-tocopherol and retinol
levels. Total solids averaged 19.7±2.7% s.d. (range 15.0-23.3%). Percent
protein remained fairly stable throughout this portion of lactation and
averaged 3.4±0.3 (range 3.0-4.0%). Ash content averaged 0.54±0.03%. Milk
fat and fat-soluble vitamin levels varied considerably with a suggestion
of a cyclic pattern. Fat content of milk averaged 7.6±2.6% (range
3.9-12.1%); alpha-tocopherol levels averaged 0.33±0.12 µg/ml and retinol
levels averaged 0.46±0.1 µg/ml.
Nath, N.C.,
Hussain, A., Rahman, F., 1993. Milk characteristics of a captive Indian
rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine
24, 528-533.
Abstract: The physicochemical characteristics of the milk of a captive
Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) were determined at 30, 37 and
44 days post partum. The milk was ivory white and aromatic. The mean
value for pH was 6.49 and sp.gr. was 1.0296. The mean values of
different components in whole milk in g/dl were as follows: TS, 9.81;
fat, 1.40; SNF, 8.41; lactose (total reducing sugars), 7.60; total
protein, 1.39; casein, 1.00; whey protein, 0.39; beta-lactoglobulin,
0.23; alpha-lactalbumin, 0.17; serum albumin, 0; immunoglobulin, 0;
urea, 0.04; calcium, 0.08; sodium, 0.02; potassium, 0.09; inorganic
phosphorus, 0.02; and chloride, 0.04. Values for total protein, casein,
whey protein, sugar and minerals in this investigation were similar to
values reported previously in Indian rhinoceros milk, but not in milk of
the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) or black rhinoceros (Diceros
bicornis). Comparisons of these values with reported values in milk of
domestic horses, elephants (Elephas maximus), cows, buffalo (Bubalis
bubalis), goats and sheep revealed similarity only with milk of the
horse.
Rasmussen,
L.E.L., Johnson, E.W., Jafek, B.W. Preliminary observations on the
morphology of the vomeronasal organ of a newborn Asian elephant.
Chemical Senses 18, 618. 1993.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: Abstract. Full-text. Adult Asian elephants have an
apparently typical mammalian vomeronasal organ (VNO). Presumably,
flehmen responses aid in the presentation of bioactive molecules to
vomeronasal neuroreceptors. Young Asian elephants do not exhibit
flehmen responses until 6-17 weeks after birth. Histological studies of
VNO in newborn elephants have not been available. Recently, at the
light microscopic level, we have observed a structure that in gross
appearance is similar to the VNO of other mammals; there is a lumen
surrounded by a convex and a concave epithelial border, those borders
join at both ends. Based on previous studies, we presume that the
concave border would be the neuroepithelium with the receptor cells. The
epithelia of both surfaces are pseudostratified. Within these epithelia
are cells with different nuclear morphologies. Some of the nuclei are
euchromatic and oval. Other appear heterochromatic. Round basal cells
are also apparent. At the surfaces of the epithelia some ciliated cells
can be seen. To our knowledge, ciliated cells have been identified in
the VNO neuroepithelium of only one other mammalian species. To further
document the cell types found in the newborn elephant VNO and to attempt
to identify receptor cells, we will do electron microscopy on
representative regions.
Rietkerk, F.E.,
Hiddingh, H., Van Dijk, S., 1993. Hand-rearing an Asian elephant
Elephas maximus at the Noorder Zoo, Emmen. Iowa State University
Veterinarian 32, 244-252.
Tuchili, L.M.,
Pandey, G.S., Sinyangwe, P.G., Kaji, T., 1993. Anthrax in cattle,
wildlife and humans in Zambia. Veterinary Record 132, 487.
Abstract: In Zambia, 265 specimens of various tissues from animals and
of surface water (5 samples) submitted over the period from 1987 to 1991
were examined for anthrax. 35 of the 85 were positive; 35 were in
domestic animals including 33 cattle, a sheep and a pig from the
Western, Southern, Central, Lusaka and North Western Provinces, and 50
in wild animals including 13 hippos, 11 kudus, 5 buffaloes, 4 elephants,
4 pukus, 4 wild dogs, 4 zebras, 3 waterbucks and 2 giraffes from South
Luangwa National Park in Eastern Province. One water sample from the
park was positive. Of 17 long bones from infected cattle, 5 yielded
virulent, pure cultures of Bacillus anthracis. All milk samples examined
were negative. Over 100 human deaths from anthrax, usually associated
with eating infected meat have been recorded, mainly since 1990 in the
Western and North-Western Provinces. Control measured for anthrax in
wild animals after environmental contamination, including carcass
disposal and adding quaternary ammonium compounds to water-holes, are
suggested.
Krishnamurth,
V., 1992. Care and management of elephant calves in captivity. In:
Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant:
Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of
the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 82-85.
Santha, B.K.,
1990. Care and treatment of orphaned baby elephants. Sri Lanka
Veterinary Journal 37, 33.
Sheldrick,
D., 1990. Raising baby orphaned elephants: part II. Swara 13,
23-27.
Sheldrick,
D., 1990. Raising baby orphaned elephants. Swara 13, 13-17.
Nair, P.V.,
1989. Development of nonsocial behaviour in the Asiatic elephant.
Ethology 82, 46-60.
Abstract: The elephant calf, a defended follower is completely dependent
on adults till the age of 3 months. It begins to explore and attempts
to feed at 3 to 6 months, and then becomes partially independent with
some feeding on its own. The characteristics of behavior in adults are
examined and the development of this pattern in the calf is traced by
analysis of duration, transition and clustering of the behavioral
elements. Essential activities like suckling, locomotion, and lying down
for rest appear soon after birth whereas elements of feeding, grooming,
and play appear only at a later stage. The calf takes the initiative in
suckling and its termination, drinking directly by mouth til the age of
6 months. The first element of feeding appears at about one week in
attempts to pick up and hold objects in the trunk. Co-ordination of
limb, trunk, and mouth movement is achieved by about 1 month. The calf
is strong enough to pull out plants by 6 months when independent feeding
begins. In about a year feeding, drinking and dusting patterns are well
developed.
Schmidt, M.J.
The role of the veterinarian in a captive elephant breeding program.
Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 44-53. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Renewed interest in breeding elephants has led to the creation
of new captive elephant breeding programs. The veterinarian has a key
role to play in the elephant breeding program. The role of the
veterinarian in an elephant breeding program is outlined; followed by
brief discussion of specific elephant breeding problems which the
veterinarian will be called upon to manage.
Sreekumar, K.P., Nirmalan, G., 1989.
Mineral
status in the blood of Indian elephants. Indian Journal of Animal
Sciences 59, 1253-1258.
Abstract: Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper and zinc
have been estimated in the sera of Indian elephants (babies, tuskers and
adult females) and the iron:copper ratio calculated. But for the higher
level of calcium in baby elephants compared to that in adult females, no
influence of age or sex could be detected in the distribution pattern of
major elements. Baby elephants had a lower level of copper than adult
females. The iron:copper ratio was higher in baby elephants than in
tuskers.
Heard, D.J.
Nutritional disorders of neonatal and juvenile elephants.
Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 9. 128-132. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
1987.
Elephant history in the making. Swara 10, 25.
Berg, J.K.,
1987. Developmental behavior of three African elephant calves (Loxodonta
africana) in captivity. Zoologische Garten 57, 171-196.
Berg, J.K.,
1986. Report on the behavioral development of three captive born African
elephant calves. Elephant 2, 39-41.
Abstract: The San Diego Wild Animal Park in San Pasqual, California, had
three successful African elephant (Loxodonta africana) births in
1982; "Tavi" (female) born 29 January, "Margo" (female) born 24 May and
"Tsavo" (male) born 22 June (Lash, 1982). The gestation period for the
calves was estimated to be from 21 to 21 3/4 months. By the end of
their first year, each calf had grown over one foot in height to
approximately 49 inches. Although they eat solid foods, the calves
continue to nurse regularly at about 1 hour intervals for a duration of
1.5 minutes over the 8-hour period of observation.
Lee, P.C.,
1986. Early social development among African elephant calves. National
Geographic Research 2, 388-401.
Niemuller, C.
Energy metabolism and nitrogen retention in captive infant Asian (Elephas
maximus) elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop. 7, 43-47. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Jones, D.K.,
1985. New life at the Ark.
Swara 8, 29-31.
Jones, D.K., 1985. Horizons: Kenya: Aberdares Salient. Swara 8,
20.
Ullrey, D.E., Jacobson, E.R., Kollias, G.V., Ku, P.K., Whetter, P.A.,
1985.
Kwashiorkor and marasmus in baby elephants. Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians 84-85.
1984. Some
recorded elephant births. Loris Dec., 308-310.
Sharma, R.,
Krishnamurthy, K.V., 1984. Behavior of a neonate elephant (Elephas
maximus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 13, 157-161.
Abstract: Observations of behavior of one calf from birth to 5 h post
partum, born to an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), show that
such calves are born precocious. It urinated, defecated and stood
unassisted by the mother, walked and attempted suckling within an hour
of birth. The precocity in development appears to have an indirect
impact on the nature of its approach to humans. Thus, calves acquiring
an "aunt" at birth seldom approach humans voluntarily, in contrast to
those developing such associations later on. It is suggested that
gravid cows be kept as isolated as possible, particularly close to term,
if the calves are to be used for commercial purposes.
Hromadka, J.,
1982. Birth and rearing of Elephas maximus. Animal Keepers' Forum
9, 294-299.
Styles, T.E.,
1982. Birth and early development of an African elephant Loxodonta
africana at the Metro Toronto Zoo, Canada. International Zoo
Yearbook 22, 215-217.
1981. Annual
Projects Report: Amboseli elephant research project. Wildlife News 16,
9.
Nambiar,
M.O.R., 1981. Leptaden (vet) as a galactagogue in an elephant with
deficient lactation. Indian Veterinary Journal 58, 667-668.
Oftedal, O.T.,
1980. Milk composition and formula selection for hand-rearing young
mammals. Proc. 1st. Dr. Scholl Conf. Nutr. Captive Wild Animals 67-83.
Strazielle,
L., 1980. Birth of an Asian elephant at the Paris Zoo. Mammalia 44,
592-594.
1979. "Motty"
-- Birth of an African/Asian elephant at Chester Zoo. Elephant 1,
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Nirmalan, G.
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Elephants. 21-24. 1979. India, College of Veterinary and Animal
Sicences, Kerala Agricultural University.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Eriksen, E.,
1978. The birth of an Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus in the
Copenhagen Zoo. Zoologische Garten 45, 421-432.
Douglas-Hamilton, O., 1977. Twins are light relief for Manyara's
elephant - perhaps! Africana 6, 10-11.
Bronzini, E.,
1975. On the teeth, temperature, and growth in Asiatic elephants
Elephas maximus born in captivity. Zoologische Garten 45,
97-128.
Lockhart, M.,
1972. Birth of an elephant. Loris 12, 259-262.
Peters, J.M.,
Maier, R., Hawthorne, B.E., Storvik, C.A., 1972. Composition and
nutrient content of elephant (Elephas maximus) milk. Journal of
Mammalogy 53, 717-724.
Abstract: Gross composition and nutrient content were determined for
milk samples from four cows of a captive family of Indian elephants
during the course of eight calvings at the Portland Zoo in Oregon. The
milk had a lower concentration of fat than that frequently reported for
this species and showed a unique fatty acid composition with respect to
the large amounts of capric acid (10:0) present. Data for amino acid
analyses are given as well as values for ascorbic acid, thiamin,
riboflavin, and pyridoxine. Vitamin A and carotene were shown to be
almost non-existent.
Davidar, P.,
1971. The Teppakadu twins. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society
68, 819-820.
Seetharam,
S.B., 1971. Umbilical hernia in an elephant calf. Ceylon Veterinary
Journal 48, 533-536.
Singh, B.S.,
1971. Umbilical hernia in an elephant calf. Indian Veterinary Journal 48,
533-536.
McCullagh,
K.G., Widdowson, E.M., 1970. The milk of the African elephant. British
Journal of Nutrition 24, 109-117.
Abstract: 1. Analyses have been made of milk collected from thirty wild
African elephants immediately after they were shot. 2. The milk
contained an average of 5.1% protein, 9.3% fat and 3.6% lactose. The
concentration of lactose decreased and the concentration of protein and
fat increased with advancing lactation. Inorganic constituents were
present in approximately the same proportions as in bovine milk. 3.
The contribution of capric acid to the total fatty acids, previously
shown to be extremely high, increased with advancing lactation. 4. The
significance of these findings to the preparation of milk for rearing
young elephants by hand is discussed.
Rao, A.T.,
Acharjya, L.N., 1970. A case of fibrosarcoma in a baby elephant. Indian
Veterinary Journal 47, 593.
Woodford, M.H.,
1970. Fostering a baby elephant. East African Wildlife Journal 8,
204-205.
McCullagh,
K.G., Lincoln, H.G., Southgate, D.A.T., 1969. Fatty acid composition of
milk fat of the African elephant. Nature 222, 493-494.
Dittrich, L.,
1967. Contribution about the propagation and raising of the Indian
elephant Elephas maximus in captivity with a review of elephant
births in European zoos and circuses. Zoologische Garten 34,
56-92.
Bolwig, M.,
Hill, D.H., Philpott, M., 1965. Hand-rearing of an African elephant,
Loxodonta africana. International Zoo Yearbook 5, 152-154.
Bolwig, N.,
1965. Observations on the early behavior of a young African elephant,
Loxodonta africana. International Zoo Yearbook 5, 149-152.
Werksman, R.,
1965. The birth of an elephant. African Wild Life 19, 335.
Bellinge,
W.H.S., 1964. Some notes on the rearing of young African elephants. East
African Wildlife Journal 2, 71-74.
Perry, J.S.,
1964. The structure and development of the reproductive organs of the
female African elephant. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. [Biol] 248,
35-52.
Ben Shaul,
D.M., 1962. The composition of milk of wild animals. International Zoo
Yearbook 4, 333-342.
Anghi, C.G.,
1961. Quinba, the fifth elephant calf. International Zoo News 8,
78-79.
Simon, K.J.,
1959. Preliminary studies on composition of milk of Indian elephants.
Indian Veterinary Journal 36, 500-503.
McGaughey,
C.A., 1958. Baby elephant rearing. A report on two orphan elephant
calves. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 6, 29-32.
Poppleton,
F., 1957. An elephant birth. African Wild Life 11, 106-108.
Poppleton,
F., 1957. The birth of an elephant. Oryx 4, 180-181.
Taylor, J.I.,
1955. The rearing of an African elephant in captivity. Veterinary Record
67, 301-302.
McGaughey,
C.A., Schmid, E.E., Velaudapillai, T., Weinman, A.N., 1953.
Salmonella typhimurium in young elephants and chimpanzees.
Veterinary Record 65, 431-432.
Hindle, E.M.,
1950. Birth of an elephant in the Rome Zoo. Zoo Life 5, 7-9.
Markuze, Z.,
1939. Vitamins of elephant's milk. Biochemical Journal 33,
198-200.
Abstract: 1. Elephant's milk has a lower content of fat-soluble vitamins
(A and D) than has cow's milk. 2. Its vitamin B1 content
exceeds that of cow's milk, being 25 I.U. per 100 ml, as compared with
10 I.U. for the latter. 3. Elephant's and cow's milks have
approximately the same content of vitamin B2 complex. 4.
Elephant's milk contains 7.72 mg per 100 ml of ascorbic acid, as
compared with 2.12 mg in cow's milk.
Driak, F.,
1935. Studien der zahnanlagen an einem foetus von Elephas indicus.
Morph. J. 75, 1-14.
Abstract: .
Tutein-Nolthenius, A.C., 1935. Birth of an elephant calf. Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society 34, 183-184.
Friant, M.,
1933. La regression de la levre superieure au cours de l'otogenie
individual chez l'elephant. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 878-879.
Adloff, P.,
1919. Zur otogenie des elefantengebisses. Anatomischer Anzeiger 52,
534-540.
Bolk, L.,
1917. Anatomische bemerkungen ueber einen fetus von Elephas africanas.
Verh. Koninkl. Akad. Wet. Amsterdam 19, 1-40.
Allan, C.W.,
1911. The birth of a wild elephant calf. Journal of the Bombay Natural
History Society 21, 239-240.
Beddard, F.E.,
1902. Birth of an elephant. Procedings of the Zoological Society of
London 2, 320-322.
Doremus,
C.A., 1882. On the composition of elephant's milk. Journal of the
American Chemistry Society 4, 157-159.
Doremus,
C.A., 1882. Analysis of elephant's milk. Medical News (Philadelphia) 40,
282.
Doremus,
C.A., 1881. On the composition of elephant's milk. Journal of the
American Chemistry Society 3, 55-59.
Brown, A.E.,
1880. Mr. Sclater on the birth of an elephant. Procedings of the
Zoological Society of London XV, 222-223.
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