neoplas

Chinnadurai, S.K., Suedmeyer, W.K., Fales, W.H., 2009. Microbiology of the external ear canal in six African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
99. Veterinary Record 164, 238-240.
Abstract: Samples collected from both external ear canals of six adult female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were cultured for fungi, yeasts and aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. All the samples produced heavy growths of several aerobic bacteria, but anaerobic bacteria were rare and no fungi or yeasts were isolated. The most common bacterium isolated was Staphylococcus epidermidis, which was cultured from 11 of the 12 ears. Acinetobacter calcoaceticus lwoffi, alpha-haemolytic Streptococcus and Corynebacterium species, and Aeromonas caviae were all isolated from at least six of the 12 ears

Kaim, U., Paltian, V., Krudewig, C., Nieder, A., Wohlsein, P., 2009. Pulmonary aspergillosis in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
64. Dtsch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 116, 148-151.
Abstract: A 26-year-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) with a history of purulent pododermatitis, recurrent abdominal pain, and severe weight loss died spontaneously after a period of deteriorating disease. The main pathological finding was a severe bilateral pyogranulomatous, partially necrotizing pneumonia with numerous intralesional fungal hyphae. At microbiological examination Aspergillus spp. were isolated. The present case indicates that mycotic pneumonia should to be considered as a differential diagnosis of pulmonary disorders in elephants

Aupperle, H., Reischauer, A., Bach, F., Hildebrandt, T., Goritz, F., Jager, K., Scheller, R., Klaue, H.J., Schoon, H.A., 2008. Chronic endometritis in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 39, 107-110.
Abstract: A 48-yr-old female Asian elephant with a history of pododermatitis developed recurrent hematuria beginning in 2002. Transrectal ultrasonography and endoscopic examination in 2004 identified the uterus as the source of hematuria and excluded hemorrhagic cystitis. Treatment with Desloreline implants, antibiotics, and homeopathic drugs led to an improved general condition of the elephant. In July 2005, the elephant was suddenly found dead. During necropsy, the severely enlarged uterus contained about 250 L of purulent fluid, and histopathology revealed ulcerative suppurative endometritis with high numbers of Streptococcus equi ssp. zooepidemicus and Escherichia coli identified on aerobic culture. Additional findings at necropsy included: multifocal severe pododermatitis, uterine leiomyoma, and numerous large calcified areas of abdominal fat necrosis. Microbiologic culture of the pododermatitis lesion revealed the presence of Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus equi ssp. zooepidemicus, Staphylococcus sp., Corynebacterium sp., and Entercoccus sp

von, A., I, Nimzyk, R., Klemke, M., Bullerdiek, J., 2008. A microRNA encoded in a highly conserved part of the mammalian HMGA2 gene. Cancer Genet. Cytogenet. 187, 43-44.
Abstract: The high mobility group protein HMGA2 plays an important role as a chromatin component of stem cells and as a protein causally related to the development of a variety of benign tumors (e.g., uterine leiomyomas, lipomas, and pleomorphic adenomas of the salivary glands). Herein, the existence of a highly conserved region within intron 3 of HMGA2 encoding a microRNA is described. The co-expression with HMGA2 suggests that as an intronic microRNA, this microRNA may cooperate with HMGA2 in its physiological and/or aberrant functions

Fraunfelder, F.T., Finnegan, M., Wilson, D.J., 2006. Conjunctival-corneal intraepithelial neoplasm in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 37, 424-426.
Abstract: An adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) presented with an enlarging nasal limbal mass of the left eye. The mass was excised and the surgical bed treated with liquid nitrogen cryotherapy. Histopathologic examination of the excised tissue showed the mass to be a superficial dysplastic ocular lesion, or conjunctival intraepithelial neoplasm. A 5-yr follow-up period has passed without complications or recurrence, suggesting that as is the case in humans (Homo sapiens), excision and cryotherapy is an effective treatment for these lesions in elephants. This is the first report of any ocular neoplasia in an elephant

Masunga, G.S., Andresen, O., Taylor, J.E., Dhillion, S.S., 2006. Elephant dung decomposition and coprophilous fungi in two habitats of semi-arid Botswana
404. Mycol. Res. 110, 1214-1226.
Abstract: In order to understand the impact of habitat changes on ecosystem processes caused by increased populations of elephants, elephant dung decomposition was studied in semi-arid Botswana. Dung decomposition rates were studied with and without the presence of arthropods, using pairs of exposed dung and dung enclosed in nylon-mesh bags, respectively. Dung decomposition rates were lower in the absence of arthropods. The rates in the late wet season were higher in the scrubland than in the woodland. In the early dry season, immediately after the wet season, the rates were higher in the woodland than in the scrubland. The difference in decomposition rates between habitats was attributed to microclimatic conditions created by vegetation cover. With regard to fungal succession, Cladosporium cladosporioides and Eurotium brefeldianum occurred only in the late stages of dung decomposition whereas Talaromyces helicus, Cercophora coprophila and Sporormiella minima occurred in all the stages. Although there was no significant difference in Shannon-Weiner fungal species diversity index between habitats, seasons, dung ages and laboratory incubation periods, there were significant differences in fungal community composition between these parameters. Species richness was higher in the late wet season than in the early dry season, indicating the importance of moist conditions for a large diversity of fungal species

Wynne, J., Greer, L. Management of digital osteomyelitis in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 185-186. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: A 47-yr-old female Asian elephant was diagnosed with osteomyelitis of the left front digit 5, involving phalynges 1 and 2. Based on culture results of Pseudomonas and Bacteroides, enrofloxacin and metronidazole rectal suppository treatment was started. Serum levels were measured and different formulations were developed to attempt to deliver appropriate drug levels. The osteomyelitis progressed over the next 55 days. Enrofloxacin was discontinued based on culture and sensitivities (C&S) and regional limb perfusion (RLP) using amikacin started. From this point on, daily treatments with RLP have been performed. The 3-g amikacin dose was based on 5% of the elephant's systemic dose. Two weeks later, RLP with 6 g of ampicillin was started on alternate days based on C&S, and the following week, 400 mg fluconazole was added on a third day in response to C&S and tissue biopsies indicating invasive Candida. Despite aggressive medical therapy, radiographs and bone biopsy indicated the osteomyelitis continued. Surgery was performed 3 mo after systemic antibiotics were initiated. All infected bone and tissue was identified with methylene blue, and removed. Only the most proximal third of P1 remained post surgery. Post surgery, daily sterile bandage changes were performed and rotational RLP treatment was continued with amikacin (8 g), ampicillin (15 g), and fluconazole (800 mg). This daily treatment regime, with some drug adjustments, has been continued for 6 mo. One month after surgery P1 was radiolucent at the distal margin, and was progressing to a fragmented appearance, indicating the osteomyelitis may still be present. Amikacin serum levels were collected post RLP, before the tourniquet was removed. Systemic theraputic levels were reached, but not the recommended 10 times MIC. Amikacin was replaced with 12 g of ceftazidime in the RLP rotation. Two months post surgery a fragment of the remaining P1 was easily biopsied from the healing surgical tract with culture results indicating Enterococcus, but not Pseudomonas. Three months post surgery we reinstituted enrofloxacin suppositories at a higher dose. At 5 mo post surgery, cultures indicated that we had successfully eliminated Pseudomonas and anaerobic growth; however, the healing site continued to yield various gram-negative bacteria, including a Klebsiella resistant to ceftazidine. We replaced ceftazidine with 12 g of ceftriaxone and continued ampicillin and fluconazole in the 3-day RLP rotation. Since this last medical alteration the remaining P1 fragments have been radiographically unchanged for 3 mo and the surgical wound has been reduced to a tract that is <2 mm in diameter and 4 cm deep. The current success of this treatment is attributed to a very tractable patient that has allowed daily medical care for over 8 mo. We are continuing her daily treatments and I will give an update on the progression of the case.

Zuba, J.R., Oosterhuis, J.E., Pessier, A.P. The toenail "abscess" in elephants: treatment options including cryotherapy and pathologic similarities with equine proliferative pododermatitis (canker). 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 187-190. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Foot problems potentially represent the single most important clinical disease of captive elephants. Predisposing factors include obesity, lack of exercise, nail or sole overgrowth, improper foot care, poor hygiene, inappropriate enclosure surfaces, poor conformation, malnutrition and secondary skeletal disorders such as degenerative joint disease. Furthermore, factors such as elephant management philosophy, disposition of elephants, facilities and competency of staff in caring for elephant feet will contribute significantly to the foot health of captive animals. It is important to note that these conditions are rarely reported in free-ranging elephants. The elephant toenail abscess is characterized grossly by proliferative outgrowth of "crab meat-like" tissue that may acutely rupture through the surface of the nail wall and/or adjacent cuticle or sole. True abscess formation with localized collections of suppurative material is not a consistent clinical feature. In most cases, the inciting cause of these lesions are typically not found and are likely due to one or more of the predisposing factors listed above. Once established, these frustrating lesions require extensive, intensive and prolonged medical attention. If not cared for properly, these wounds may progress to phalangeal osteomyelitis and the need for surgical intervention. Sole abscesses are equally frustrating and difficult to manage with proposed etiologies similar to toenail lesions. There are no reports in the literature describing the pathology of the classic proliferative abscess tissue of the elephant nail abscess. Although variously interpreted as fibrous or granulation tissue, the authors are unaware of previous histologic descriptions of this tissue. Biopsy samples of toenail abscess tissue from two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at the San Diego Wild Animal Park (SDWAP) consisted of stratified squamous epithelium arranged in columns resembling horn tubules. The predominant histologic finding was marked, near diffuse, hydropic degeneration of keratinocytes. There were multifocal areas of suppurative inflammation with admixed bacterial colonies. Inflammatory foci comprised only a small portion of the lesion and were interpreted as the external surfaces of the biopsy with likely secondary bacterial colonization. Because descriptions of the normal histology of the elephant toenail could not be located, a grossly normal toenail from a different Asian elephant was obtained to compare histologic features with those of the toenail abscesses. Sections demonstrated formation of the toenail in a manner similar to that of the hoof of the horse and cattle with tubular, intertubular and laminar horn. Primary and secondary epidermal laminae were identified. Proliferative lesions of horn-producing epithelium associated with ballooning degeneration and inadequate keratinization of keratinocytes, have been described in horses as equine "canker" and coronary band dystrophy. Equine canker is most commonly observed in the hind feet of draft horses and begins in the frog sometimes with extension to the sole and hoof wall. Grossly, lesions are characterized by soft white papillary to "cauliflower-like" tissue associated with a foul odor. Similar to what is noted in elephant foot problems, predisposing factors for the development of equine canker include poor hygiene or wet environmental conditions. There is a lack of gross and histologic description of the normal nail and sole tissue of the elephant and further investigations are warranted. A review of the anatomy and histology of the normal equine hoof may provide a basic understanding of the elephant nail until more specific and detailed elephant information is available. From our investigation, the authors offer that a more accurate description of the elephant toenail abscess would be proliferative pododermatitis, the term synonymous with equine canker. A more colloquial term such as "elephant canker" may be appropriate, as well. Canker in the horse is an uncommon but difficult to treat disease of the hoof. Historically, treatment options for elephant toenail abscesses include corrective trimming, superficial debridement and application of topical disinfectants or antibiotics. Others have constructed innovative sandals to treat and protect the affected sole or nail with success. The use of regional intravenous perfusion of the affected limb with antibiotics has also been successful. Since the elephant nail abscess now appears to be histologically and clinically comparable to equine canker, this novel characterization of an old disease may offer unique insight for treatment. In the least, it has provided our practice with a new list of treatment options and experienced equine clinicians for consultation who have been managing patients with a similar disease for many years. One of the Asian elephants at the SDWAP has had chronic toenail abscesses for over 2 yr. Radiographs of the affected digits, as reported by others to assess degree of involvement, have fortunately been negative for evidence of osteomyelitis. Several bacterial and fungal cultures of deep tissue biopsies and swabs of affected lesions have resulted in a mixture of organisms with no consistent single etiologic agent. Biopsies were found negative for presence of viral DNA (elephant papillomavirus and herpesvirus) by PCR. Typical elephant foot care at the SDWAP includes trimming and debriding with hoof knives, foot soaks and topical antibiotics. Although difficult, attempts are made in keeping the affected foot clean and dry. Following recommendations for the treatment of equine canker, we recently implemented the routine use of cryotherapy in all elephants with proliferative pododermatitis with improved success in the control and recession of exuberant nail lesions. The proliferative tissue of the nail is first cleaned then disinfected, debrided, trimmed with hoof knives and allowed to dry. Modified brass branding tools with contact surfaces of variable size (2-5 cm diameter) and shape (round or ovoid) are placed into liquid nitrogen (-196 C) for several minutes and then placed directly on the cankerous tissue for 30-60 sec. This process is then repeated 4-5 min later, following a complete thaw of tissue. Within 24 hr, the cryoburned tissue becomes macerated and necrotic and is readily removed with gentle scrubbing. Cryotherapy offers the advantage of destroying tissue to a deeper level than trimming alone and provides hemostasis, as well. Because of decreased sensation at the cryotherapy treatment site, a memorable painful event is avoided and the elephant patient is more routinely accepting of this technique. With the use of hoof knives, we typically remove 2-3 mm of proliferative tissue before the patient refuses further treatment, presumably due to discomfort. With cryotherapy, we are able to remove an additional 3-5 mm of tissue by cell freezing and necrosis. The result is quicker resolution of cankerous lesions without the need for aggressive, and potentially painful, interventions. In conclusion, it appears that elephant nail abscesses can best be described as proliferative pododermatitis, or canker, as is seen in other species. Further gross and microscopic descriptions of normal and pathologic nail or sole lesions are necessary. Routine cryotherapy has shown promise in the treatment of these chronic, frustrating and potentially devastating lesions of our captive elephants.

Walker, C.L., Stewart, E.A., 2005. Uterine fibroids: the elephant in the room. Science 308, 1589-1592.
Abstract: Uterine fibroids (leiomyomas) have historically been viewed as important chiefly as the major indication for hysterectomy. As new therapies are developed, the heterogeneity of this disease becomes therapeutically relevant. An awareness of the role of genetics, the extracellular matrix, and hormones in tumor etiology is key to understanding this disease.

Paugy, M., Baillon, F., Chevalier, D., Duponnois, R., 2004. Elephants as dispersal agents of mycorrhizal spores in Burkina Faso. African Journal of Ecology 42, 225-227.
Abstract: It is well known that the seeds of many plant species are blank; found in the dung of elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1797) (Waifhaka, 2001). As fruits constitute the main component of elephant diets in forest environments (White, 1994), most of the studies have focused on the role of elephants and their impacts on the structure of plant communities, in particular through their role as seed dispersal agents (Wrangham, Chapman & Chapman, 1994). Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have been shown to be ubiquitous in terrestrial ecosystems and beneficial for plant growth (Smith & Read, 1997). These symbiotic relationships increase plant nutrient uptake (Bu¨ rkert & Robson, 1994). In soils, AM fungi are found as spores, hyphae or infected root pieces (Duponnois et al., 2001) and all these fungal propagules are sources of inoculum (Sylvia & Jarstfer, 1992). As elephants consume both roots (as described for Combretum molle) but also herbaceous plant species (Tehoue, 2001), they can act as dispersal agents for the AM propagules. This study investigated the role of elephants in AM propagule in Burkina Faso, in 'Deux Bale´' National Park located near Boromo (175 km at the south-west of Ouagadougou).

Steenkamp, G., 2003. Oral biology and disorders of tusked mammals. Veterinary Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 6, 689-725.
Abstract: Tusked mammals can be terrestrial or aquatic. Many of these magnificent animals are kept in captivity all over the world. Functions of tusks vary as much as the species in which they occur. Dental anomalies and disorders of tusks and the rest of the dentition in these mammals were discussed, with an emphasis on the elephant. The tusk anatomy, with its large, conically-shaped pulp, makes it an ideal tooth for partial pulpectomy treatment in trauma cases where the pulp is exposed. Surgical techniques for tusks have been developed and were discussed. Oral tumors occur, but are rare.Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0010, South Africa. steenkamp@op.up.ac.za

Vodicka, R., Kral, J., 2003. Purulent trunk dermatitis in a male Ceylon elephant (Elephas maximus). Verh. ber. Erkrg. Zootiere 41, 151-153.
Abstract: A report in given on the therapy of purulent trunk dermatitis in an aggressive male Ceylon elephant. Despite the non-standard steps we took (repeated anaesthesias during a short time, non-compliance with the recommendations as to the application of some drugs, etc.) and the difficult handling (an aggressive; incontrollable elephant, no restraint chute), it is possible even to treat a case like this.

Forsyth, I.A., Wallis, M., 2002. Growth hormone and prolactin--molecular and functional evolution. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 7, 291-312.
Abstract: Growth hormone, prolactin, the fish hormone, somatolactin, and related mammalian placental hormones, including placental lactogen, form a family of polypeptide hormones that share a common tertiary structure. They produce their biological effects by interacting with and dimerizing specific single transmembrane-domain receptors. The receptors belong to a superfamily of cytokine receptors with no intrinsic tyrosine kinase, which use the Jak-Stat cascade as a major signalling pathway. Hormones and receptors are thought to have arisen as a result of gene duplication and subsequent divergence early in vertebrate evolution. Mammalian growth hormone and prolactin show a slow basal evolutionary rate of change, but with episodes of accelerated evolution. These occurred for growth hormone during the evolution of the primates and artiodactyls and for prolactin in lineages leading to rodents, elephants, ruminants, and man. Placental lactogen has probably evolved independently on three occasions, from prolactin in rodents and ruminants and from growth hormone in man. Receptor sequences also show variable rates of evolution, corresponding partly, but not completely, with changes in the ligand. A principal biological role of growth hormone, the control of postnatal growth, has remained quite consistent throughout vertebrate evolution and is largely mediated by insulin-like growth factors. Prolactin has many and diverse roles. In relation to lactation, the relative roles of growth hormone and prolactin vary between species. Correlation between the molecular and functional evolution of these hormones is very incomplete, and it is likely that many important functional adaptations involved changes in regulatory elements, for example, altering tissue of origin or posttranscriptional processing, rather than change of the structures of the proteins themselves. The Babraham Institute, Babraham, Cambridge, United Kingdom. isabel.forsyth@bbsrc.ac.uk

Ronald, B.S.M., Sukumar, K., Meenachiselvan, M.S., Dorairajan, N., 2000. Isolation of Actinomyces pyogenes [Arcanobacterium pyogenes] from fistula in an elephant. Zoos' Print Journal 15, 306.

Kodikara, D.S., deSilva, N., Makuloluwa, C.A.B., Gunatilake, M., 1999. Bacterial and fungal pathogens isolated from corneal ulcerations in domesticated elephants (Elephas maximus maximus) in Sri Lanka. Veterinary Ophthalmology 2, 191-192.
Abstract: Of 140 elephants of different ages and both sexes, 36 animals (25.7%) had evidence of keratitis, corneal ulcers, corneal opacities and some had foreign bodies in their eyes. Nine elephants (6.4%) had lesions in both eyes (6.41%). Cultures for both bacteria and fungi were obtained from 26 corneal ulcers, including the nine elephants with bilateral lesions. The other 10 animals could not be restrained for sample collection. Swabs from the normal corneas of an additional 20 elephants without signs of any ophthalmic diseases were also collected. 23 of the 35 (65.71%) samples from affected corneas yielded bacterial pathogens, and 14 (40%) also had fungal isolates. None of them yielded a fungal isolate alone. The predominant bacteria isolated were Staphylococcus aureus, beta haemolytic streptococci and coliforms. Fusarium, Cladosporium, Curvularia and Aspergillus species were the primary fugal isolates. No bacteria or filamentous fungi were isolated from the eyes with the normal corneas. Microbial identification including that of fungal isolates is suggested in the management of infective corneal diseases in elephants.

Montali, R.J., Hildebrandt, T., Goritz, F., Hermes, R., Ippen, R., Ramsay, E.C., 1997. Ultrasonography and pathology of genital tract leiomyomas in captive Asian elephants: implications for reproductive soundness. Verh. ber. Erkrg. Zootiere 38, 199-204.

Hildebrandt, T., Goritz, F., 1995. Sonographischer nachweis von leiomyomen im genitaltrakt weiblicher elefanten. verh. ber Erkrankg. Zootiere 37, 287-294.

Guillot, J., Chermette, R., Gueho, E., 1994. Prevalence of the genus Malassezia in the Mammalia. Journal de Mycologie Medicale 4, 72-79.
Abstract: The carriage of Malassezia on the skin of 271 domestic and 85 wild mammals was investigated. Ear samples and skin samples were collected, and Sabouraud's glucose agar with 0.05% chloramphenicol and 0.05% cycloheximide and the same medium with 1% olive oil were used for cultures. The plates were incubated for 1 wk at 32 and 37°C, respectively. Of the 356 animals examined, representative of 40 different species, 122 (34%) had Malassezia on the skin, especially in the external ear canal (27%). Lipophilic yeasts were particularly prevalent in some animal species (29% of cattle, 36% of cats, 57% of pigs, 66% of dogs and 75% of pachyderms). For these species, the presence of yeasts correlated with the amount of lipids on the skin. No Malassezia yeasts were recovered from rodents, lagomorphs and insectivores. Most strains isolated from domestic and wild carnivores (33 dogs, 18 cats, 2 bears, 2 foxes and 2 ferrets) were the non-lipid dependent species M. pachydermatis. The lipid dependent strain M. furfur was recovered from 23 pigs, 7 elephants, 3 chimpanzees, 2 rhinoceros, 2 sheep, 1 cow, 1 cheetah and 1 okapi. Except for 18 dogs, 12 cats, 2 foxes, 2 ferrets and 1 okapi suffering from otitis externa, no dermatological lesions were observed at the time of sampling. The possible aetiological role of Malassezia yeasts in animal cutaneous diseases is discussed.

Kuttin, E.S., Muller, J., 1994. The fungal flora of zoo animals' ears. Mycoses 37, 59-60.
Abstract: The mycotic flora of the ears of zoo animals was investigated in a large zoological garden in Duisburg, Germany. Malassezia pachydermatis was isolated from the following animals: giant ant-eater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), brown bear (Ursus arctos), common wombat (Vombatus ursinus), Eurasian badger (Meles meles), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus bengalensis), Mangaliza pig (Potamochoerus sus scrofa domestica) and white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). Aspergillus fumigatus, A. niger, Candida guilliermondii, Geotrichum candidum, Trichosporon cutaneum [T. beigelii], Rhizopus microsporus, R. oryzae and Penicillium sp. were also isolated.

Mikota, S.K., Sargent, E.L., Ranglack, G.S., 1994. Medical Management of the Elephant. Indira Publishing House, West Bloomfield MI.

Lloyd, M., Goddard, M., Zeinowicz, R., Harper, J.S., III, 1993. One approach to the removal of an aural rhabdomyoma in a 7 year old african elephant. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 115-119.

Arora, B.M., 1992. An overview of infectious diseases and neoplasms of the elephants (Elephas maximus) in India. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 159-161.

Islam, S., Lahkar, B.C., Barman, N.N., Das, M., 1992. Isolation of Trichosporiella species from a fungal lesion of an Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) and its successful treatment. Journal of the Assam Veterinary Council 2, 68-69.
Abstract: Skin lesions (approx. 5 cm in size) were found on the left and right thoracic and abdominal regions along the linea alba of a working bull elephant. Some lesions showed scab-like thickening. A fungal isolate identified as Trichosporiella was cultured from skin scrapings of the lesions. The lesions resolved after 5 months of topical application of iodine and an ointment of salicylic, benzoic and chrysophanic acids.

Pandey, S.K., Bandopaphyay, A.C., 1992. A fibroma in the trunk of an Indian elephant. Indian Veterinary Journal 69, 847.

Teunissen, M.J., de Kort, G.V., Op den Camp, H.J., Huis in 't Veld, J.H., 1992. Production of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes during growth of the anaerobic fungus Piromyces sp. on different substrates. J Gen Microbiol 138 (Pt 8), 1657-1664.
Abstract: Piromyces sp. strain E2, an anaerobic fungus isolated from an Indian elephant (hindgut fermenter) was tested for its ability to ferment a range of substrates. The fungus was able to use bagasse, cellobiose, cellulose, fructose, glucose, lactose, mannose, starch, wheat bran, wheat straw, xylan and xylose. Formate and acetate were the main fermentation products after growth on these substrates. The amount of carbon found in the fermentation products of cultures, in which substrate digestion was complete averaged 88.5 mM, or 59% of the carbon offered as substrate. No growth was observed on other substrates tested. Lactose, starch, cellobiose and filter paper cellulose were good inducers of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes. Cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes were produced constitutively by Piromyces strain E2, although enzyme activities were generally lower after growth on glucose and other soluble sugars. Complex substrates (bagasse, wheat bran, and wheat straw) were good inducers for xylanolytic enzymes but not for cellulolytic enzymes. The extracellular protein banding pattern after SDS-PAGE was therefore only slightly affected by the growth substrate. Identical beta-glucosidase and endoglucanase activity patterns were found after growth on different substrates. This indicated that differences in enzyme activities were not the result of secretion of different sets of isoenzymes although it remains possible that the relative amount of each isoenzyme produced is influenced by the growth substrate.

Teunissen, M.J., Op den Camp, H.J., Orpin, C.G., Huis in 't Veld, J.H., Vogels, G.D., 1991. Comparison of growth characteristics of anaerobic fungi isolated from ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores during cultivation in a defined medium. J Gen Microbiol 137 (Pt 6), 1401-1408.
Abstract: Anaerobic fungi were isolated from rumen fluid of a domestic sheep (Ovis aries; a ruminant) and from faeces of five non-ruminants: African elephant (Loxodonta africana), black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) and mara (Dolichotis patagonum). The anaerobic fungus isolated from the sheep was a Neocallimastix species and the isolates from non-ruminants were all species similar to Piromyces spp. A defined medium is described which supported growth of all the isolates, and was used to examine growth characteristics of the different strains. For each fungus the lipid phosphate content was determined after growth on cellobiose and the resulting values were used to estimate fungal biomass after growth on solid substrates. The ability of isolates from ruminants and non-ruminants to digest both wheat straw and cellulose was comparable. More than 90% and 60%, respectively, of filter paper cellulose and wheat straw were digested by most strains within 60-78 h. Growth of two fungi, isolated from rumen fluid of a sheep (Neocallimastix strain N1) and from faeces of an Indian rhinoceros (Piromyces strain R1), on cellobiose was studied in detail. Fungal growth yields on cellobiose were 64.1 g (mol substrate)-1 for N1 and 34.2 g mol-1 for R1. The major fermentation products of both strains were formate, lactate, acetate, ethanol and hydrogen.

Li, J., Heath, I.B., Bauchop, T., 1990. Piromyces mae and Piromyces dumbonica, two new species of uniflagellate anaerobic chytridiomycete fungi from the hindgut of the horse and elephant. Can. J. Bot. 68, 1021-1033.

Sironi, G., Caniatti, M., Caniatti, M., 1990. Immunohistochemical detection of papillomavirus structural antigens in animal hyperplastic and neoplastic epithelial lesions. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series A 37 , 760-770.
Abstract: One hundred and seventy two hyperplastic and neoplastic epithelial lesions from 8 different mammalian and 1 avian species were tested with an immunohistochemical technique to detect papillomavirus structural antigens. Selected lesions were diagnosed histologically as papilloma, fibropapilloma, equine sarcoid, squamous cell carcinoma, basalioma, epulis, keratoacanthoma, trichoepithelioma, pilomatrixoma, epidermal inclusion cyst, and hyperkeratotic or acanthotic epidermal lesions. Positive nuclear staining was detected in 14 out of 23 papillomas, 8 out of 32 fibropapillomas and in 1 out of 3 hyperplastic epidermal lesions. Positive samples were found in 5 of 8 mammalian species. Selected samples were also examined by transmission electron microscopy. In 4 samples papillomavirus was seen. In two other samples, negative with immunoperoxidase technique, papovavirus-like particles were observed.

Muller, M., Rytz, U. Dermatomycosis in two African elephants. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 31. Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere, Dortmund 1989. 207-209. 1989. Berlin, German Democratic Republic, Akademie Verlag.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Cases of dermatomycosis are reported in 2 adult African elephants in the Zoological Garden in Basle. Trichothecium, Scopulariopsis and Aspergillus spp. were isolated from skin biopsies.

Ramsay, E.C., Leach, M.W. Postmortem reproductive findings in a female Asian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 55. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Raubenheimer, E.J., van Heerden, W.F., Turner, M.L., Mare, L.K., 1989. Odontoma in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 60, 149-150.
Abstract: The first known case of an odontoma in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is described. The tumour was fused with the coronal cementum of the sixth right mandibular molar tooth, thus preventing its eruption.

von Hegel, G., Hanichen, T., Mahnel, H., Wiesner, H. Warts (papilloma/sarcoid) in two elephants. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 31. Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere, Dortmund 1989. 201-205. 1989. Berlin, German Democratic Republic, Akademie-Verlag.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Jacobson, E.R., Sundberg, J.P., Gaskin, J.M., Kollias, G.V., O'Banion, M.K., 1986. Cutaneous papillomas associated with a herpesvirus-like infection in a herd of captive African elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 189, 1075-1078.
Abstract: Proliferative cutaneous lesions developed in a herd of captive African elephants (33 from an animal importer in Texas, and 63 young elephants collected in Zimbabwe). Group-1 elephants were purchased 8 months before the arrival of the group-2 elephants. On arrival, 7 group-1 elephants had raised nodular fibrous growths, located predominantly on their trunks. Lesions were not observed in the group-2 elephants until approximately 3 months after they were acquired. Lesions on group-2 elephants began as small focal proliferative growths that regressed or that progressed into large nodular fibrous growths that were similar in appearance to those seen in the group-1 elephants. Lesions at various stages of development were biopsied and examined. Histologically, early lesions were inverted papillomas, with hyperplastic and hypertrophic epithelial cells containing amphoteric intranuclear inclusions in the lesion center. Older, large, nodular fibrous growths were ulcerated and were composed predominantly of a thickened dermis containing fibroblasts, collagen, and a mixed inflammatory cell infiltrate; inclusions were not observed in adjacent epidermal cells. Using a peroxidase- antiperoxidase technique, we did not detect group-specific papillomavirus antigens. Southern blot hybridization analysis of DNA from lesion specimens did not indicate papillomavirus- specific genomes. Electron-microscopically, inclusions consisted of aggregates of virus particles. The particles had electron- dense and electron-lucent cores and were 95 to 103 nm in diameter. Virions developed envelopes from nuclear membranes. Mature particles were seen within the cytoplasm and filled the intercellular spaces. On the basis of size, location, conformation, and envelopment, the particles most closely resembled those of herpesviruses.

Munson, L., Heuschele, W., O'Banion, M.K., Sundberg, J.P., Oosterhuis, J.E., 1986. Polyp in the urogenital canal of an African elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 189, 1190-1191.

Velez, H., Diaz, F., 1985. Onychomycosis due to saprophytic fungi (human). Mycopathologia 91, 87-92.

Chatterjee, A., 1984. Association of a Stephanofilaria indistinguishable form S. assamensis with lesions on the feet of Indian elephant (Elephas maximus). Indian Journal of Animal Health 23, 29-35.

Mann, P.C., Bush, M., Jones, D.M., Griner, L.A., Kuehn, G.R., Montali, R.J. Leiomyomas of the genital tract in large zoo mammals. Laboratory Investigation 44[1], 40A. 1981.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: From the 70th Annual Meeting of the International Academy of Pathology, U.S.A. -- Canadian Division, Chicago, Ill,USA, March 2-6, 1981. Abstract. "Leiomyomas of the female genital tract occurred in four Indian rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicoris) and three Indian elephants (Elephas maximus indicus) exhibited at the National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C., Regent's Park Zoo, London, England, San Diego Zoo, San Diego, California, and Los Angeles Zoo, Los Angeles, California. The majority of the animals were aged without recent reproductive activity. Tumors were mainly in the vaginal tract in the rhinoceros and the uterus of the elephants. The tumors in two of the three rhinoceroses were discovered clinically via rectal palpation. A postmortem examination of the rhinoceros at the National Zoo showed endometrial cysts and a large (25 cm) follicular cyst of one ovary. Ovarian cysts were also found in one of the elephants. The tumors consisted of circumscribed collections of interlacing, well differentiated, smooth muscle-like cells with varying amounts of connective tissue. The uterine tumors were all intramural, whereas the vaginal tumors in the rhinoceros were often pedunculated. Although intrauterine leiomyomas (fibroids) are extremely common in women, they are very rare in domestic animals. The role of hyperestrinism in leiomyoma induction remains controversial in humans, and is presently unknown in animals. The prevalence of cystic ovaries and reproductive difficulties may indicate a hormonal relationship with leiomyomas in zoo animals as well."

Sundberg, J.P., Russell, W.C., Lancaster, W., 1981. Papillomatosis in Indian elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 179, 1247-1249.

Effron, M., Griner, L., Benirschke, K., 1977. Nature and rate of neoplasia found in captive wild mammals, birds, and reptiles at necropsy. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 59, 185-198.
Abstract: The nature and rate of neoplasia found at necropsy of captive wild animals of the Zoological Society of San Diego collection were studied. Neoplasia was present at necropsy in 2.75% of 3,127 mammals, 1.89% of 5,957 birds, and 2.19% of 1,233 reptiles. Neoplasms were not detected during 198 necropsies of amphibians. Gross and histologic examinations were performed on the 92 mammalian, 111 avian, and 28 reptilian neoplasms. The lesions were diagnosed. The findings included a high frequency of lymphosarcomas in birds and reptiles, multiple endocrine tumors in 2 European mouflons (Ovis musimon), and proliferative lessions of the billiary duct and pancreatic ductal systems in several species. Note: Only elephant tumor is Asian female--Papillomatous tumor of vulva.

Robinson, P.T., Meier, J.E., 1977. Surgical removal of a tumor from an Asian elephant. Veterinary Medicine Small Animal Clinician 72, 1638-1640.

Brown, R.J., Kupper, J.L., Trevethan, W.P., Johnson, N.L., 1973. Fibrosarcoma in an African elephant. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 9, 227-228.
Abstract: A 4 year old female African elephant developed a slow-growing mass of 6 months' duration on the medial aspect of the carpal area of the right front leg. Histopathological examination revealed a low grade fibrosarcoma.

Rao, A.T., Acharjya, L.N., 1970. A case of fibrosarcoma in a baby elephant. Indian Veterinary Journal 47, 593.

Werle, E., Haendle, H., Schmal, A., 1968. A case of carcinoid in an elephant. Pathologica Veterinaria 5, 81-83.

Return to Database Index

Return to Top