Elephant
Bibliographic
Database

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Elephant Bibliographic Database
www.elephantcare.org

References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent first.

Campos-Arceiz, A., Larrinaga, A.R., Weerasinghe, U.R., Takatsuki, S., Pastorini, J., Leimgruber, P., Fernand, P., Santamaria, L., 2009. Behavior rather than diet mediates seasonal differences in seed dispersal by Asian elephants. Ecology 89, 2684-2691.
Abstract: Digestive physiology and movement patterns of animal dispersers determine deposition patterns for endozoochorously dispersed seeds. We combined data from feeding trials, germination tests, and GPS telemetry of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to (1) describe the spatial scale at which Asian elephants disperse seeds; (2) assess whether seasonal differences in diet composition and ranging behavior translate into differences in seed shadows; and (3) evaluate whether scale and seasonal patterns vary between two ecologically distinct areas: Sri Lanka's dry monsoon forests and Myanmar's (Burma) mixed-deciduous forests. The combination of seed retention times (mean 39.5 h, maximum 114 h) and elephant displacement rates (average 1988 m in 116 hours) resulted in 50% of seeds dispersed over 1.2 km (mean 1222-2105 m, maximum 5772 m). Shifts in diet composition did not affect gut retention time and germination of ingested seeds. Elephant displacements were slightly longer, with stronger seasonal variation in Myanmar. As a consequence, seed dispersal curves varied seasonally with longer distances during the dry season in Myanmar but not in Sri Lanka. Seasonal and geographic variation in seed dispersal curves was the result of variation in elephant movement patterns, rather than the effect of diet changes on the fate of ingested seeds.

Cerling, T.E., Wittemyer, G., Ehleringer, J.R., Remien, C.H., Douglas-Hamilton, I., 2009. History of Animals using Isotope Records (HAIR): a 6-year dietary history of one family of African elephants
76. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 106, 8093-8100.
Abstract: The dietary and movement history of individual animals can be studied using stable isotope records in animal tissues, providing insight into long-term ecological dynamics and a species niche. We provide a 6-year history of elephant diet by examining tail hair collected from 4 elephants in the same social family unit in northern Kenya. Sequential measurements of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen isotope rations in hair provide a weekly record of diet and water resources. Carbon isotope ratios were well correlated with satellite-based measurements of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of the region occupied by the elephants as recorded by the global positioning system (GPS) movement record; the absolute amount of C(4) grass consumption is well correlated with the maximum value of NDVI during individual wet seasons. Changes in hydrogen isotope ratios coincided very closely in time with seasonal fluctuations in rainfall and NDVI whereas diet shifts to relatively high proportions of grass lagged seasonal increases in NDVI by approximately 2 weeks. The peak probability of conception in the population occurred approximately 3 weeks after peak grazing. Spatial and temporal patterns of resource use show that the only period of pure browsing by the focal elephants was located in an over-grazed, communally managed region outside the protected area. The ability to extract time-specific longitudinal records on animal diets, and therefore the ecological history of an organism and its environment, provides an avenue for understanding the impact of climate dynamics and land-use change on animal foraging behavior and habitat relations

Chandrajith, R., Kudavidanage, E., Tobschall, H.J., Dissanayake, C.B., 2009. Geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of elephant geophagic soils in Udawalawe National Park, Sri Lanka. Environ. Geochem. Health 31, 391-400.
Abstract: Geophagy or deliberate ingestion of soils was observed among Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in the Udawalwe National Park, Sri Lanka, for several years. The geochemical and mineralogical composition of the clayey soil layers which are purposefully selected and eaten by elephants in the park were studied, in order to identify the possible reasons for elephant geophagy. The concentrations of major and trace elements were determined by means of X-ray fluorescence spectrometry in 21 soil samples from eight geophagic sites and six soil samples collected from four non-geophagic sites. The mineralogical composition of selected soil samples was investigated using X-ray diffractometry (XRD). These geochemical analyses revealed that geophagic soils in the study areas are deeply weathered and that most of the elements are leached from the soil layers under extreme weathering conditions. The XRD data showed that the soils of the area consisted mainly quartz, feldspar, and the clay minerals kaolinite, Fe-rich illite, and smectite. Although no significant geochemical differences were identified between geophagic and non-geophagic soils, a clear difference was observed in their clay mineralogical content. Soils eaten by elephants are richer in kaolinite and illite than non-geophagic soils, which contain a higher amount of smectite. It is suggested that elephants in Udawalawe National Park ingest soils mainly not to supplement the mineral contents of their forage but to detoxify unpalatable compounds in their diet

Dharani, N., Kinyamario, J.L., Wagacha, P.W., Rodrigues, A.J., 2009. Browsing impact of large herbivores on Acacia xanthophloea Benth in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology 47, 184-191.
Abstract: Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in growth of plant height, canopy cover and stem diameter of Acacia xanthophloea trees in fenced plot as compared with unfenced plot both in the wet and in the dry seasons. Finding of this study showed that although heavy browsing reduced the height and canopy of trees, it did not kill any trees and seedling regeneration took place simultaneously. Despite the presence of large herbivores that impact some considerable browsing pressure results indicate that the A. xanthophloea habitat type would continue to remain in balance in the presence of recruitment of seedlings and saplings. The conditions at the time of study indicate that the browsing on A. xanthophloea was not significant and was not serious enough to warrant management intervention at present.

Hermes, R., Behr, B., Hildebrandt, T.B., Blottner, S., Sieg, B., Frenzel, A., Knieriem, A., Saragusty, J., Rath, D., 2009. Sperm sex-sorting in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Anim Reprod. Sci. 112, 390-396.
Abstract: In captive Asian elephants, there is a strong need for production of female offspring to enhance reproduction, counter premature aging processes in female animals and reduce challenging management situations derived from husbandry of several bulls in one institution. Artificial insemination of flow cytometrically sex-sorted spermatozoa offers the possibility to predetermine the sex of offspring with high accuracy. The aims of this study were to determine a suitable semen extender and basic parameters for flow cytometrical sex-sorting of Asian elephant spermatozoa. In total 18 semen samples were collected by manual rectal stimulation from one bull. Sperm quality parameters and sex sortability of spermatozoa were evaluated after dilution in three semen extenders (MES-HEPES-skim milk, MES-HEPES, TRIS-citric acid) and DNA staining. MES-HEPES-skim milk was the only semen extender found suitable to sex Asian elephant spermatozoa. From 18 ejaculates collected, 12 were successfully sorted with a purity of 94.5+/-0.7% at an average sort rate of 1945.5+/-187.5 spermatozoa per second. Sperm integrity, progressive and total motility were 42.6+/-3.9%, 48.1+/-3.3%, 59.4+/-3.8% after DNA labelling, and 64.8+/-3.2%, 58.0+/-5.0%, 70.8+/-4.4% after sorting, respectively. After liquid storage of sorted spermatozoa for 12h at 4 degrees C, sperm integrity, progressive and total motility were 46.4+/-5.2%, 32.2+/-4.2% and 58.2+/-3.9%, respectively. The obtained results provide a promising base to inseminate Asian elephants with sexed semen

Leshchinskiy, S.V., 2009. Mineral deficiency, enzootic diseases and extinction of mammoth of northern Eurasia
82. Dokl. Biol. Sci. 424, 72-74.

Miller, M., Chen, T.C., Holick, M.F., Mikota, S., Dierenfeld, E., 2009. Serum concentrations of calcium, phosphorus, and 25-hydroxyvitamin d in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
38. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 40, 302-305.
Abstract: Seventy-two serum samples were collected from 14 healthy African elephants (Loxodonta africana), including three calves, to test for 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] as well as for performing biochemical panels. Samples were collected between July 1997 and January 2008 to establish normal 25(OH)D values for the species and to examine the relationship of season and time on these values. Although the number of samples from the calves was small (n = 7), there was no statistically significant difference in the mean 25(OH)D levels between adults and calves (15.7 +/- 7.7 ng/ml versus 17.1 +/- 5.8 ng/ml, P > 0.05, respectively). The comparison of mean and individual values among seasons showed some variation, but was not statistically different; therefore, all values were combined for further analyses. The mean value of 25(OH)D for all samples was 15.8 +/- 7.5 ng/ml (n = 72), with a 95% confidence interval of 14.0-17.6 ng/ml. There did not appear to be a direct correlation between 25(OH)D levels and calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), or calcium:phosphorus ratio (Ca:P) based on regression analyses (P < 0.05). Values measured approximated normal distributions. Mean calcium value was 10.5 +/- 0.6 mg/dl (n = 61); mean phosphorus value was 5.2 +/- 0.8 mg/dl (n = 50); and mean Ca:P was 2.06 +/- 0.34. Since all animals appeared healthy during the course of sample collection, and bone density on foot radiographs was assessed as good, the results are considered to be normal for this herd. With the incidence of joint disease in older elephants, and metabolic bone disease in hand-reared calves, these values will provide a basis for further studies of calcium metabolism in elephants

Moe, S.R., Rutina, L.P., Hytteborn, H., du Toit, J.T., 2009. What controls woodland regeneration after elephants have killed the big trees? Journal of Applied Ecology 46, 223-230.
Abstract: Top-down regulation of ecosystems by large herbivores is a topic of active debate between scientists and managers, and a prime example is the interaction between elephants Loxodonta africana and trees in African savannas. A common assumption among wildlife managers is that a local reduction in elephant numbers will ultimately allow woodland to self-restore to a desired former state. Such regeneration is, however, dependent on the survival of seedlings of impacted tree species. We conducted a field experiment to investigate seedling predation in the elephant-transformed Chobe riparian woodland of northern Botswana. We planted seedling gardens in (i) complete exclosures that excluded all herbivores except small rodents and invertebrates, (ii) semi-permeable exclosures that excluded ungulates but included primates, lagomorphs, all rodents, gallinaceous birds, etc, and (iii) completely open plots. Seedlings were of two tree species decreasing in the area (Faidherbia albida and Garcinia livingstonei) and two that are increasing (Combretum mossambicense and Croton megalobotrys). After 9 months, seedling survival ranged from > 75% for all species in the complete exclosure to < 20% for Faidherbia albida in the open plots. Survival of all seedlings except C. megalobotrys declined precipitously in open plots during the dry season when invertebrates are largely dormant but when impalas Aepyceros melampus (locally abundant ungulates) increase the browse components of their diets. Seedling survival in the open plots was negatively related to local impala density but unrelated to that of any other browser. Synthesis and applications. Our findings relate to the current debate about managing elephants to restore southern African savanna landscapes to desired historical states. Various seedling predators, including the ubiquitous impala Aepyceros melampus, regulate the regeneration of trees from seedlings, and our experiments support the hypothesis that tall closed-canopy woodlands originate during episodic windows of opportunity for seedling survival. To artificially recreate such a window would require the decimation of seedling predators as well as elephants, which is impractical at the landscape scale.

Morgan, B.J., 2009. Sacoglottis gabonensis- a keystone fruit for forest elephants in the Reserve de Faune du Petit Loango, Gabon. African Journal of Ecology 47, 154-163.
Abstract: This study suggests that the fruits of Sacoglottis gabonensis (Baill.) Urb. (Humiriaceae) are a keystone resource for forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis Matschie) in a coastal rain forest, the REserve de Faune du Petit Loango, Gabon (now part of Loango National Park). Faecal counts demonstrated that forest elephants used Sacoglottis-dominated forest more when Sacoglottis was abundant and electivity indices suggest that Sacoglottis is a preferred food. The flora of Petit Loango is characterized by the absence of herbaceous vegetation such as Marantaceae and Zingiberaceae, and during the prolonged dry season few fleshy fruits are present other than Sacoglottis fruits, which are produced in a glut during this time. While inter-annual fruiting reliability remains to be confirmed, fruit production in 1998 and high stem density relative to other study sites provide indirect evidence that Sacoglottis fruits are a reliable inter-annual resource at Petit Loango. It is thus proposed that Sacoglottis gabonensis fruits fulfil an important role as a keystone 'fallback' resource for forest elephants during the dry season at Petit Loango.

Parker, D.M., Bernard, R.T.F., 2009. Levels of aloe mortality with and without elephants in the Thicket Biome of South Africa. African Journal of Ecology 47, 246-251.
Abstract: Studies concerning the influence of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) on vegetation have produced contradictory results; some show minimal or no effect while others report significant elephant-induced effects. Elephants are generalist megaherbivores but will selectively feed from preferred plant species. We investigated the mortality of aloe plants (highly preferred food items for elephants) at five sites with elephants (treatment) and five paired sites without elephants (control) in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. A significantly higher proportion of aloes were dead at treatment sites and significantly more aloes that had lost their crown (headless) were found at treatment sites compared with controls. We conclude that although the proportions of dead aloes at treatment sites were significantly higher, it remains unclear whether there is a need to be concerned with the potential small-scale extinction of aloes from parts of the Eastern Cape Province. The observed mortality may merely be an artefact of the loss of large herbivores through disease (e.g. rinderpest) and hunting in the past.

Saragusty, J., Hermes, R., Goritz, F., Schmitt, D.L., Hildebrandt, T.B., 2009. Skewed birth sex ratio and premature mortality in elephants. Anim Reprod. Sci. 115, 247-254.
Abstract: Sex allocation theories predict equal offspring number of both sexes unless differential investment is required or some competition exists. Left undisturbed, elephants reproduce well and in approximately even numbers in the wild. We report an excess of males are born and substantial juvenile mortality occurs, perinatally, in captivity. Studbook data on captive births (CB, n=487) and premature deaths (PD, <5 years of age; n=164) in Asian and African elephants in Europe and North America were compared with data on Myanmar timber (Asian) elephants (CB, n=3070; PD, n=738). Growth in CB was found in three of the captive populations. A significant excess of male births occurred in European Asian elephants (ratio: 0.61, P=0.044) and in births following artificial insemination (0.83, P=0.003), and a numerical inclination in North American African elephants (0.6). While juvenile mortality in European African and Myanmar populations was 21-23%, it was almost double (40-45%) in all other captive populations. In zoo populations, 68-91% of PD were within 1 month of birth with stillbirth and infanticide being major causes. In Myanmar, 62% of juvenile deaths were at >6 months with maternal insufficient milk production, natural hazards and accidents being the main causes. European Asian and Myanmar elephants PD was biased towards males (0.71, P=0.024 and 0.56, P<0.001, respectively). The skewed birth sex ratio and high juvenile mortality hinder efforts to help captive populations become self-sustaining. Efforts should be invested to identify the mechanism behind these trends and seek solutions for them.

Conesa, C., Sanchez, L., Rota, C., Perez, M.D., Calvo, M., Farnaud, S., Evans, R.W., 2008. Isolation of lactoferrin from milk of different species: calorimetric and antimicrobial studies. Comp Biochem. Physiol B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 150, 131-139.
Abstract: Lactoferrin (LF) is an iron-binding glycoprotein found in different biological fluids of mammals and in neutrophils. It has been proposed to be involved in many functions, including protection from pathogens. In this work, purification of lactoferrin using an ion-exchange chromatography (SP-Sepharose) was attempted for the milk of the following animals: sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus), camel (Camelus bactrianus), alpaca (Lama pacos), elephant (Elephas maximus) and grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), as well as human (Homo sapiens). Lactoferrin was identified in all the milks apart from that from grey seal. The thermal stability of the purified lactoferrins, in their native and iron-saturated forms, was studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Maximum temperature, onset temperature and enthalpy change of denaturation were higher when lactoferrins were saturated with iron than in their native form, indicating an increase in the stability of the protein structure upon iron-binding. Human lactoferrin was found to be the most heat-resistant and the other lactoferrins presented different degrees of thermoresistance, that of elephant being the least resistant. The antimicrobial activity of the different isolated lactoferrins was investigated against Escherichia coli 0157:H7. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined by measuring the absorbance at 620 nm. The minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) were also measured and it was found that camel lactoferrin was the most active lactoferrin against E. coli 0157:H7, whereas alpaca and human lactoferrins were the least active

Hermes, R., Saragusty, J., Schaftenaar, W., Goritz, F., Schmitt, D.L., Hildebrandt, T.B., 2008. Obstetrics in elephants. Theriogenology 70, 131-144.
Abstract: Obstetrics, one of the oldest fields in veterinary medicine, is well described and practiced in domestic and exotic animals. However, when providing care during elephant birth or dystocia, veterinary intervention options differ greatly from any domestic species, and are far more limited due to the dimensions and specific anatomy of the elephant reproductive tract. In addition, aging of captive elephant populations and advanced age of primiparous females make active birth management increasingly important. Intrauterine infection, uterine inertia and urogenital tract pathologies are emerging as major causes for dystocia, often leading to foetal and dam death. This paper reviews the current knowledge on elephant birth and the factors associated with dystocia. It then summarises recommendations for birth and dystocia management. As Caesarean section, the most common ultima ratio in domestic animal obstetrics, is lethal and therefore not an option in the elephant, non-invasive medical treatment, induction of the Fergusson reflex or the conscious decision to leave a retained foetus until it is expelled voluntarily, are key elements in elephant obstetrics. Surgical strategies such as episiotomy and foetotomy are sometimes inevitable in order to try to save the life of the dam, however, these interventions result in chronic post-surgical complications or even fatal outcome. Limited reliable data on serum calcium concentrations, and pharmacokinetics and effect of exogenous oestrogen, oxytocin, and prostaglandins during birth provide the scope of future research, necessary to advance scientific knowledge on obstetrics in elephants

Moncrieff, G.R., Kruger, L.M., Midgley, J.J., 2008. Stem mortality of Acacia nigrescens induced by the synergistic effects of elephants and fire in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Journal of Tropical Ecology 24, 655-662.
Abstract: One manner in which elephants utilize trees is by removing their bark. This type of utilization is concentrated on the largest trees in the landscape. The role of bark removal in increasing the vulnerability of large trees to fire and the mechanism through which fire damage is mediated were investigated in Kruger National Park. South Africa, by experimentally removing bark and burning Acacia nigrescens stems with diameters ranging between 30 and 68 mm. Also, field surveys were conducted subsequent to natural fires in order to investigate mortality patterns of large trees with dbh greater than 15 cm with bark removed by elephants. An increasing probability of mortality was associated with increasing amounts of bark removal but only if trees were burned. When trees had bark removed but were not burnt, simulating damage only to cambium and phloem, none of the 12 treated stems died in the 4-mo period over which the experimentran. Moreover, low levels of cambium damage were detected in large burned stems. This suggests that bark removal increases fire-induced xylem damage and that this damage contributes towards stein mortality. In a survey of 437 large trees. bark removal by elephants was frequent on large stems (44%) and larger trees have greater amounts of bark removed. Post-fire mortality of large trees was significantly associated with increasing bark removal and stem diameter. These results indicate that bark removal by elephants increases the vulnerability of stems to fire, resulting in mortality of large stems otherwise protected from fire.

Osthoff, G., Dickens, L., Urashima, T., Bonnet, S.L., Uemura, Y., van der Westhuizen, J.H., 2008. Structural characterization of oligosaccharides in the milk of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana). Comp Biochem. Physiol B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 150, 74-84.
Abstract: The oligosaccharides present in the milk of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana africana), collected 4 days post partum, were separated by size exclusion-, anion exchange- and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) before characterisation by (1)H NMR spectroscopy. Neutral and acidic oligosaccharides were identified. Neutral oligosaccharides characterised were isoglobotriose, Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNA c(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Gal(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc and a novel oligosaccharide that has not been reported in the milk or colostrum of any other mammal: Gal(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(al pha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc. Acidic oligosaccharides that are also found in the milk of Asian elephant were Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcN Ac(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc and Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3){Gal(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc( alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-6)}Gal(beta1-4)Glc, while Neu5Gc(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)[Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-6)]Ga l(beta1-4)Glc and Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3){Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc NAc(beta1-6)}Gal(beta1-4)Glc have not been found in Asian elephant milk. The oligosaccharides characterised contained both alpha(2-3)- and alpha(2-6)-linked Neu5Ac residues. They also contain only the type II chain, as found in most non-human, eutherian mammals

Shannon, G., Druce, D.J., Page, B., Eckhardt, H.C., Grant, R., Slotow, R., 2008. The utilization of large savanna trees by elephant in southern Kruger National Park . Journal of Tropical Ecology 24, 281-289.
Abstract: The utilization of large savanna trees by elephant in southern Kruger National Park Graeme Shannon, Dave J. Druce, Bruce R. Page, Holger C. Eckhardt, Rina Grant and Rob SlotowJournal of Tropical Ecology (2008) 24: 281-289.
Elephants are believed to be one of the main ecological drivers in the conversion of savanna woodlands to grassland. We assessed the impacts of elephant on large trees (=5 m in height) in the southern section of the Kruger National Park. Tree dimensions and utilization by elephant were recorded for 3082 individual trees across 22 transects (average length of 3 km and 10 m wide). Sixty per cent of the trees exhibited elephant utilization and 4% were dead as a direct result of elephant foraging behaviour. Each height class of tree was utilized in proportion to abundance. However, the size of the tree and the species influenced the intensity of utilization and foraging approach. Sclerocarya birrea was actively selected for and experienced the highest proportional utilization (75% of all trees). Interestingly, the proportion of large trees that were utilized and pushed over increased with distance from permanent water, a result which has implications for the provision of water in the KNP. We conclude that mortality is likely to be driven by a combination of factors including fire, drought and disease, rather than the actions of elephant alone. Further investigation is also required regarding the role of senescence and episodic mortality.

Shannon, G., Page, B.R., Mackey, R.L., Duffy, K.J., Slotow, R., 2008. Activity budgets and sexual segregation in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Mammalogy 89, 467-476.
Abstract: The activity budget hypothesis is 1 of 4 main hypotheses proposed to explain sexual segregation by large herbivores. Because of their smaller body size, females are predicted to have higher mass-specific energy requirements and lower digestive efficiency than males. As a result, females are expected to forage longer to satisfy their nutritional demands. Maintaining the cohesion of a mixed-sex group with differing activity budgets and asynchronous behavioral patterns is increasingly difficult, ultimately leading to spatial segregation of males and females. We tested this hypothesis using data (2002-2005) from 3 distinct populations of African elephants (Loxodonta africana), a species that exhibits marked sexual segregation. Group and individual behaviors were assessed at discrete points in time throughout the day, with a minimum of 10 min between consecutive records. Focal samples of individual male and female elephants also were recorded, with behavioral data logged every minute for 15 min. Data were grouped into 5 behavioral categories: drinking, resting, walking, feeding, and other. Neither activity rhythms nor feeding time varied significantly between the sexes and behavioral patterns were very similar. We propose that social and environmental factors influence behavioral rhythms to a greater extent than does body size, whereas increasing feeding time is only 1 method by which elephants can improve nutritional return. This is especially pertinent when considering their generalist foraging approach, substantial energy demands, and hindgut fermentation. We conclude that the activity budget hypothesis is unlikely to be the causal mechanism in the sexual segregation of African elephants, a finding that concurs with recent experimental and field research on a range of sexually dimorphic herbivores.

Valeix, M., Fritz, H., Matsika, R., Matsvimbo, F., Madzikanda, H., 2008. The role of water abundance, thermoregulation, perceived predation risk and interference competition in water access by African herbivores. African Journal of Ecology 46, 402-410.
Abstract: In African savannas, surface water can become limiting and an understanding of how animals address the trade-offs between different constraints to access this resource is needed. Here, we describe water access by ten African herbivore species in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. and we explore four possible determinants of the observed behaviours: water abundance, thermoregulation, perceived predation risk and interference competition. On average, herbivores were observed to drink in 80% of visits to a waterhole. The probability of drinking was higher in 2003 (474 mm) than in 2004 (770 mm), and at the end of the dry season than at its beginning. For larger species, this probability may also be related to risks of interference competition with elephants or other herbivores. For smaller species, this probability may also be related to the perceived risk of predation. We also investigate the time spent accessing water to drink. The influence of herd size and the presence of young on the time spent accessing water for most species suggests that perceived predation risk plays a role. Themoregulation also affects this time: during the hottest periods, herbivores spend less time in open areas. unless when wind is strong, probably owing to evapotranspired heat loss.

van der Kolk, J.H., van Leeuwen, J.P., van den Belt, A.J., van Schaik, R.H., Schaftenaar, W., 2008. Subclinical hypocalcaemia in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 162, 475-479.
Abstract: The hypothesis that hypocalcaemia may play a role in dystocia in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) was investigated. The objectives of the study were to measure the total calcium concentration in elephant plasma; assess the changes in parameters of calcium metabolism during a feeding trial; investigate a possible relationship between calcium metabolism and dystocia; and assess bone mineralisation in captive Asian elephants in vivo. The following parameters were measured: total and ionised calcium, inorganic phosphorous and magnesium, the fractional excretions of these minerals, intact parathyroid hormone, 25-OH-D(3) and 1,25-OH-D(3). Radiographs were taken from tail vertebrae for assessment of bone mineralisation. The mean (sd) heparinised plasma total calcium concentration was 2.7 (0.33) mmol/l (n=43) ranging from 0.84 to 3.08 mmol/l in 11 Asian elephants. There was no significant correlation between plasma total calcium concentration and age. Following feeding of a calcium rich ration to four captive Asian elephant cows, plasma total and ionised calcium peaked at 3.6 (0.24) mmol/l (range 3.4 to 3.9 mmol/l) and 1.25 (0.07) mmol/l (range 1.17 to 1.32 mmol/l), respectively. Plasma ionised calcium concentrations around parturition in four Asian elephant cows ranged from 0.37 to 1.1 mmol/l only. The present study indicates that captive Asian elephants might be hypocalcaemic, and that, in captive Asian elephants, the normal plasma concentration of total calcium should actually be around 3.6 mmol/l and normal plasma concentration of ionised calcium around 1.25 mmol/l. Given the fact that elephants absorb dietary calcium mainly from the intestine, it could be concluded that elephants should be fed calcium-rich diets at all times, and particularly around parturition. In addition, normal values for ionised calcium in captive Asian elephants should be reassessed

Carbone, C., Teacher, A., Rowcliffe, J.M., 2007. The Costs of Carnivory. PLoS Biol 5, 1-6.
Abstract: Mammalian carnivores fall into two broad dietary groups: smaller carnivores (,20 kg) that feed on very small prey (invertebrates and small vertebrates) and larger carnivores (.20 kg) that specialize in feeding on large vertebrates. We develop a model that predicts the mass-related energy budgets and limits of carnivore size within these groups. We show that the transition from small to large prey can be predicted by the maximization of net energy gain; larger carnivores achieve a higher net gain rate by concentrating on large prey. However, because it requires more energy to pursue and subdue large prey, this leads to a 2-fold step increase in energy expenditure, as well as increased intake. Across all species, energy expenditure and intake both follow a three-fourths scaling with body mass. However, when each dietary group is considered individually they both display a shallower scaling. This suggests that carnivores at the upper limits of each group are constrained by intake and adopt energy conserving strategies to counter this. Given predictions of expenditure and estimates of intake, we predict a maximum carnivore mass of approximately a ton, consistent with the largest extinct species. Our approach provides a framework for understanding carnivore energetics, size, and extinction dynamics.

Clauss, M., Steinmetz, H., Eulenberger, U., Ossent, P., Zingg, R., Hummel, J., Hatt, J.M., 2007. Observations on the length of the intestinal tract of African Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach 1797) and Asian elephants Elephas maximus (Linne 1735). European Journal of Wildlife Research 53, 68-72.
Abstract: The digestive tract of elephants is surprisingly short compared to other herbivorous mammals. However, measurements relating the length of the intestine to the body mass of the respective individual are rare. In this study, we report such data for an African elephant and an Asian elephant. Our data support the hypothesis that Asian elephants have a longer intestinal tract than their African counterparts. These findings are in accord with the observation of longer retention times and higher digestion coefficients in Asian as compared to African elephants. This difference between the species could be the reflection of slightly different ecological niches, with Asian elephants adapted to a natural diet with a higher proportion of grass.

Clauss, M., Streich, W.J., Schwarm, A., Ortmann, S., Hummel, J., 2007. The relationship of food intake and ingesta passage predicts feeding ecology in two different megaherbivore groups. Oikos 116, 209-216.
Abstract: Digestion, especially of plant material, is a time-dependent process. In herbivores, an increase in food intake is usually correlated to an acceleration of ingesta passage through the gut, and could hence depress digestive efficiency. Therefore, the nature of the relationship between food intake and ingesta passage (i.e. whether the increase in ingesta passage due to the increase in food intake is mild or drastic) should determine the flexibility of the feeding strategy of herbivore and omnivore species. Using two megaherbivore groups, the elephants and the hippopotamuses, as examples from opposing ends of the range of potential adaptations to this problem, we demonstrate that the species-specific relationship of food intake and ingesta passage can precisely predict feeding ecology and activity budgets. In hippos, the distinct acceleration in ingesta passage due to increased intake limits the additional energy gained from eating more forage, and explains the comparatively low food intake and short feeding times generally observed in these animals. In elephants, increased food intake only leads to a very moderate increase of ingesta passage, thus theoretically allowing to optimize energy gain by eating more, which is in accord with the high food intake and long feeding times observed in these animals. We suggest that the characterization of the intake-passage relationship in herbi- and omnivorous species is of much higher ecological relevance than the determination of a supposedly species-specific "passage time/mean retention time.".

Mills, A., Milewski, A., 2007. Geophagy and nutrient supplementation in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania, with particular reference to selenium, cobalt and molybdenum. Journal of Zoology 271,  110-118.
Abstract: Wildlife and livestock in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, commonly practise geophagy. We investigated the nutrient content of nine earth licks and adjacent topsoils in the NCA, and for comparative purposes, two salt pans in north-eastern Tanzania, licks in central Tanzania and a lick near Puerto Maldonado, Peru. The licks had no consistent pattern of nutrient enrichment relative to unutilized topsoils, although the Na content of licks was greater than that of the adjacent topsoils at all but one site. The three largest licks in the NCA (Gibbs Farm, Seneto and Ascent Road) were enriched relative to topsoils and global averages in Se (maximum of 4.7 mg kg), Co (maximum of 107 mg kg) and/or Mo (maximum of 7.4 mg kg). We suggest that licks do provide supplemental Na, but that Se, Co and/or Mo at the largest licks provide easily overlooked nutritional benefits and are perhaps the primary target for geophagy at these sites. Subsoil zones of clay deposition are likely to be enriched in various elements through illuviation or mineral precipitation from solution. Animals may use the taste of NaCl as a clue for locating such zones where they are likely to find a greater quantity of micronutrients relative to other soils. These findings have consequences for conservation and pastoralism in that these large licks may be key resources, providing micronutrients that are essential for maintaining the health and fecundity of animal as well as human populations in the region.

Odadi, W.O., Young, T.P., Okeyo-Owuor, J.B., 2007. Effects of wildlife on cattle diets in Laikipia rangeland, Kenya. Rangeland Ecology and Management 60, 179-185.
Abstract: The impacts of wild herbivores on cattle diet selection were investigated in an East African rangeland during August 2001 and February 2002. The study compared cattle diets in plots exclusively accessible to cattle (C) and those accessible to megaherbivores (elephants and giraffes), non-megaherbivore wild herbivores > 15 kg (zebras, hartebeests, Grant's gazelles, oryx, elands, and buffaloes) and cattle (MWC); or non-megaherbivore wild herbivores and cattle (WC). There were no treatment differences in selection of most grass species in either sampling period (P > 0.05). However, selection of forbs differed among treatments during February when conditions were relatively dry and percent Of bites taken by cattle on this forage class increased (P < 0.005) from 1.8% +/- 0.3 to 7.7% +/- 1.6 (mean +/- SE). During this period, cattle took a lower percent of bites on forbs in MWC (4.3% +/- 1.7; P = 0.01) and WC (5.9% +/- 2.2; P = 0.03) than in C (12.5% +/- 0.9). These patterns were generally driven by Commelina spp., which comprised 65% +/- 9.4 of total bites on forbs. Notably, these differences were associated with differences in cover of forbs, which was positively correlated with percent of bites on forbs (r(2) = 0.86, P < 0.01). Because forbs may be critical components of cattle diets in such rangelands during relatively dry periods, these dietary changes may indicate potential seasonal costs of wildlife to cattle production. Looking for ways to offset such costs may be worthwhile for livestock properties that accommodate wildlife.

Bojesen, A.M., Olsen, K.E., Bertelsen, M.F., 2006. Fatal enterocolitis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile
456. Vet. Microbiol. 116, 329-335.
Abstract: Two cases of fatal enteritis caused by Clostridium difficile in captive Asian elephants are reported from an outbreak affecting five females in the same zoo. Post mortem examination including histopathology demonstrated fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis. C. difficile was isolated by selective cultivation from two dead and a third severely affected elephant. Four isolates were obtained and found positive for toxin A and B by PCR. All isolates were positive in a toxigenic culture assay and toxin was demonstrated in the intestinal content from one of the fatal cases and in a surviving but severely affected elephant. PCR ribotyping demonstrated that the C. difficile isolates shared an identical profile, which was different from an epidemiologically unrelated strain, indicating that the outbreak was caused by the same C. difficile clone. It is speculated that the feeding of large quantities of broccoli, a rich source of sulforaphane, which has been shown to inhibit the growth of many intestinal microorganisms may have triggered a subsequent overgrowth by C. difficile. This is the first report of C. difficile as the main cause of fatal enterocolitis in elephants. The findings emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially dangerous for elephants and caution is recommended concerning antibiotic treatment and feeding with diets containing antimicrobials, which may trigger an expansion of a C. difficile population in the gut

Bojesen, A.M., Olsen, K.E., Bertelsen, M.F., 2006. Fatal enterocolitis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile. Vet Microbiol Epub ahead of print.
Abstract: Two cases of fatal enteritis caused by Clostridium difficile in captive Asian elephants are reported from an outbreak affecting five females in the same zoo. Post mortem examination including histopathology demonstrated fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis. C. difficile was isolated by selective cultivation from two dead and a third severely affected elephant. Four isolates were obtained and found positive for toxin A and B by PCR. All isolates were positive in a toxigenic culture assay and toxin was demonstrated in the intestinal content from one of the fatal cases and in a surviving but severely affected elephant. PCR ribotyping demonstrated that the C. difficile isolates shared an identical profile, which was different from an epidemiologically unrelated strain, indicating that the outbreak was caused by the same C. difficile clone. It is speculated that the feeding of large quantities of broccoli, a rich source of sulforaphane, which has been shown to inhibit the growth of many intestinal microorganisms may have triggered a subsequent overgrowth by C. difficile. This is the first report of C. difficile as the main cause of fatal enterocolitis in elephants. The findings emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially dangerous for elephants and caution is recommended concerning antibiotic treatment and feeding with diets containing antimicrobials, which may trigger an expansion of a C. difficile population in the gut.

Cerling, T.E., Wittemyer, G., Rasmussen, H.B., Vollrath, F., Cerling, C.E., Robinson, T.J., Douglas-Hamilton, I., 2006. Stable isotopes in elephant hair document migration patterns and diet changes
521. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 103, 371-373.
Abstract: We use chronologies of stable isotopes measured from elephant (Loxodonta africana) hair to determine migration patterns and seasonal diet changes in elephants in and near Samburu National Reserve in northern Kenya. Stable carbon isotopes record diet changes, principally enabling differentiation between browse and tropical grasses, which use the C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways, respectively; stable nitrogen isotopes record regional patterns related to aridity, offering insight into localized ranging behavior. Isotopically identified range shifts were corroborated by global positioning system radio tracking data of the studied individuals. Comparison of the stable isotope record in the hair of one migrant individual with that of a resident population shows important differences in feeding and ranging behavior over time. Our analysis indicates that differences are the result of excursions into mesic environments coupled with intermittent crop raiding by the migrant individual. Variation in diet, quantified by using stable isotopes, can offer insight into diet-related wildlife behavior

De Beer, Y., Kilian, W., Versfeld, W., van Aarde, R.J., 2006. Elephants and low rainfall alter woody vegetation in Etosha National Park, Namibia. Journal of Arid Environments 64, 412-421.
Abstract: Elephants, the distribution of water sources and below-average rainfall may threaten the survival of woody plants in Etosha National Park, Namibia. We base our assessment of  such interactions on the satellite tracking of six elephant herds following a 17-year record of fixed point photographs. These showed that woody plant survival increased and spatial use by elephants decreased at greater distances from water sources. We conclude, therefore, that elephants may be an important factor in reducing woody plant survival. The low rainfall typical of our study period may also have limited survival. A continued decline in vegetation, aggravated by elephants, could compromise local conservation efforts. Our study emphasizes the importance of studying interactions between animals, plants and water before supplementing water sources as a management action.

Dreisewerd, K., Kolbl, S., Peter-Katalinic, J., Berkenkamp, S., Pohlentz, G., 2006. Analysis of native milk oligosaccharides directly from thin-layer chromatography plates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization orthogonal-time-of-flight mass spectrometry with a glycerol matrix
517. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 17, 139-150.
Abstract: We have recently presented a new method for direct coupling of high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS), illustrated by the analysis of a complex ganglioside mixture. In the current communication, an adaptation of this procedure to mixtures of native oligosaccharides from human and from elephant milk is described. The key features in this method are (1) glycerol as a liquid matrix, to provide a homogeneous wetting of the silica gel and a simple and fast MALDI preparation protocol, (2) an infrared (IR) laser for volume material ablation and particular soft desorption/ionization conditions, and (3) an orthogonal time-of-flight mass spectrometer for a high mass accuracy, independent of any irregularity of the silica gel surface. Chromatographic "mobility profiles" were determined by scanning the laser beam across the analyte bands. The current limit of detection for the MS analysis was determined to approximately 10 pmol of individual oligosaccharides spotted for chromatography. A liquid composite matrix, containing glycerol and the ultraviolet (UV-)MALDI matrix alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid, allows a direct HPTLC-MALDI-MS analysis with a 337 nm-UV laser as well. Compared to the IR-MALDI mode, the analytical sensitivity in UV-MALDI was found to be lower by one order of magnitude, whereas unspecific analyte ion fragmentation as well as adduct formation was found to be more extensive

Graf, P., Weissenboeck, N., Schwammer, H.M. Hand-rearing of elephant calves: A comparison between common milk replacer regarding their physiological efficiency. Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.  252. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Holdo, R.M., 2006. Tree growth in an African woodland savanna affected by disturbance. Journal Of Vegetation Science 17, 369-378.
Abstract: Questions: How does tree growth in a tropical woodland savanna vary as a function of size, and how is it affected by competition from neighbours, site attributes, and damage caused by disturbance?
Location: western Zimbabwe. Methods: Trees of common species were tagged, mapped, and measured annually between 2001 and 2003 in a Kalahari sand woodland savanna. Diameter increments were analysed with mixed model regressions for the largest ramet in each genet. Stem diameter and damage, soil texture, and indices of competition at multiple spatial scales were used as covariates.
Results: Stem diameter increased initially and then declined as a function of size in undamaged trees, which grew faster than damaged trees. Growth in damaged trees declined with size. No site differences were detected, and there was evidence for between-tree competition on growth only in the fastest-growing species, Brachystegia spiciformis. In several species the growth rate of the largest ramet increased as a function of the basal area of secondary ramets, contrary to expectations. For many species, the growth models showed poor explanatory power.Conclusions: Growth in Kalahari sand savanna trees varies as a function of size and changes in tree architecture caused by disturbance agents such as fire, frost, and elephant browsing. Disturbance may thus play an important role on vegetation dynamics through its effects on growth in the post-disturbance phase. Growth is highly stochastic for some species in this system, and more deterministic in others. It is hypothesized that this dichotomy may be driven by differences in rooting depth among species.

Loveridge, A.J., Hunt, J.E., Murindagomo, F., Macdonald, D.W., 2006. Influence of drought on predation of elephant (Loxodonta africana) calves by lions (Panthera leo) in an African wooded savannah. Journal of Zoology 270, 523-530.
Abstract: Data were collected on species killed by lions Panthera leo in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe between 1998 and 2004. Lions killed predominantly large to medium-sized herbivores, concentrating on buffalo Syncerus caffer, elephant Loxodonta africana, giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis, wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus and zebra Equus burchelli. These species made up 83% of all lion kills found and 94% of the biomass of kills actually observed. Elephant calves made up an unusually large proportion of lion prey during the study period (23% of kills recorded). All elephants killed were dependent juveniles. Elephant calves appear more vulnerable during the dry months of the year, particularly in years of below average rainfall. Elephant calves are usually well protected. However, high-density aggregations of elephants around limited water sources during the dry season may deplete local food resources, forcing elephant herds to travel large distances between water and forage. Under these circumstances, elephant calves may become lost or separated from family groups, accounting for their high incidence in lion diet.

Makhabu, S.W., Skarpe, C., Hytteborn, H., 2006. Elephant impact on shoot distribution on trees and on rebrowsing by smaller browsers. Acta Oecologica-International Journal of Ecology 30, 136-140.
Abstract: In order to determine the effects of a megaherbivore, the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) on browse available for mesoherbivores, we assessed the vertical distribution of shoots (< 6 mm in diameter) on trees with different accumulated elephant impact. We also determined the foraging responses by a mixed feeder, impala (Aepyceros melampus) and a browser, greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) which are mesoherbivores. The foraging responses by impala and kudu were in terms of preferences of trees with different accumulated elephant impact levels and whether animals browsed in different height sections in proportion to availability of shoots. We counted shoots in each 20 cm height section up to 2.6 m on trees in 25 m by 25 m plots and on trees observed to be browsed by impala and kudu. In most tree species, individuals with high accumulated elephant impact were shorter and had more shoots at low levels than tree individuals with either low or no accumulated elephant impact. Impala and kudu preferred to browse tree individuals with accumulated elephant impact over those without such impact. Impala and kudu browsed more than expected at height sections with many shoots and less than expected at height sections with fewer shoots indicating a non-linear overmatching foraging response. We suggest that increased shoot abundance at low levels in the canopy might explain part of the observed preferences. Elephants, therefore, seem to facilitate browsing by mesoherbivores by generating 'browsing lawns'. Such benefits need to be considered when making decisions on how to manage populations of megaherbivores like elephant.

Mtui, D., Owen-Smith, N., 2006. Impact of elephants (Loxodonta africana) on woody plants in Malolotja Nature Reserve, Swaziland. African Journal of Ecology 44, 407-409.
Abstract: In 1992, two elephants aged approximately 6-8 years moved into the Malolotja Nature Reserve (MNR) in Swaziland from the adjoining Songimvelo Nature Reserve in South Africa. Since that time their impact on the woody vegetation component of this primarily highland grassland reserve has become a cause for increasing concern. Accordingly, aims of this study were (i) to determine which species and size classes of woody plants were most affected, (ii) to compare impacts occurring in riverine forest versus woodland habitats and (iii) to evaluate the implications thereof for woody plant diversity in MNR.

Rode, K.D., Chiyo, P.I., Chapman, C.A., McDowell, L.R., 2006. Nutritional ecology of elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda, and its relationship with crop-raiding behaviour. Journal of Tropical Ecology.
Abstract: This study investigated the nutritional ecology of forest elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda relative to crop-raiding behaviour, and examined nutritional differences between crops and food consumed by wild elephants. An index of dietary nutrient concentration was determined by quantifying the species and parts of plants consumed along feeding trails. collecting food items, and analysing foods for energy, fibre, protein, minerals and secondary compounds. Frequency of crop raiding was quantified over 13 mo. Energy and protein concentration was within suggested levels. but concentrations of several minerals, particularly sodium, were low relative to requirements based on captive elephants and values reported for other wild populations. The very low sodium concentrations of Kibale elephant diets and low availability of alternative sodium sources, such as soil or water, suggest that sodium drive is very likely in this population. Crops consumed by Kibale elephants had higher Na concentrations and lower concentrations of fibre and secondary compounds than wild diets. The known attraction of elephants to mineral sources throughout their range and the low mineral concentration of leaves, fruits, bark, and stems consumed by forest elephant in this study suggest that mineral nutrition is likely to be an important factor driving elephant behaviour and patterns of habitat use.

Ruf, T., Valencak, T., Tataruch, F., Arnold, W., 2006. Running speed in mammals increases with muscle n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid content. PLoS. One. 1, e65.
Abstract: Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are important dietary components that mammals cannot synthesize de novo. Beneficial effects of PUFAs, in particular of the n-3 class, for certain aspects of animal and human health (e.g., cardiovascular function) are well known. Several observations suggest, however, that PUFAs may also affect the performance of skeletal muscles in vertebrates. For instance, it has been shown that experimentally n-6 PUFA-enriched diets increase the maximum swimming speed in salmon. Also, we recently found that the proportion of PUFAs in the muscle phospholipids of an extremely fast runner, the brown hare (Lepus europaeus), are very high compared to other mammals. Therefore, we predicted that locomotor performance, namely running speed, should be associated with differences in muscle fatty acid profiles. To test this hypothesis, we determined phospholipid fatty acid profiles in skeletal muscles of 36 mammalian species ranging from shrews to elephants. We found that there is indeed a general positive, surprisingly strong relation between the n-6 PUFAs content in muscle phospholipids and maximum running speed of mammals. This finding suggests that muscle fatty acid composition directly affects a highly fitness-relevant trait, which may be decisive for the ability of animals to escape from predators or catch prey

Shannon, G., Page, B.R., Duffy, K.J., Slotow, R., 2006. The role of foraging behaviour in the sexual segregation of the African elephant. Oecologia Epub.
Abstract: Elephants (Loxodonta africana) exhibit pronounced sexual dimorphism, and in this study we test the prediction that the differences in body size and sociality are significant enough to drive divergent foraging strategies and ultimately sexual segregation. Body size influences the foraging behaviour of herbivores through the differential scaling coefficients of metabolism and gut size, with larger bodied individuals being able to tolerate greater quantities of low-quality, fibrous vegetation, whilst having lower mass-specific energy requirements. We test two distinct theories: the scramble competition hypothesis (SCH) and the forage selection hypothesis (FSH). Comprehensive behavioural data were collected from the Pongola Game Reserve and the Phinda Private Game Reserve in South Africa over a 2.5-year period. The data were analysed using sex as the independent variable. Adult females targeted a wider range of species, adopted a more selective foraging approach and exhibited greater bite rates as predicted by the body size hypothesis and the increased demands of reproductive investment (lactation and pregnancy). Males had longer feeding bouts, displayed significantly more destructive behaviour (31% of observations, 11% for females) and ingested greater quantities of forage during each feeding bout. The independent ranging behaviour of adult males enables them to have longer foraging bouts as they experience fewer social constraints than females. The SCH was rejected as a cause of sexual segregation due to the relative abundance of low quality forage, and the fact that feeding heights were similar for both males and females. However, we conclude that the differences in the foraging strategies of the sexes are sufficient to cause spatial segregation as postulated by the FSH. Sexual dimorphism and the associated behavioural differences have important implications for the management and conservation of elephant and other dimorphic species, with the sexes effectively acting as distinct "ecological species".

Sharam, G., Sinclair, A.R.E., Turkington, R., 2006. Establishment of broad-leaved thickets in Serengeti, Tanzania: The influence of fire, browsers, grass competition, and elephants. Biotropica 38, 599-605.
Abstract: The role of Euclea divinorum in the establishment of broad-leaved thickets was investigated in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Thickets are declining due to frequent fires, but have not reestablished when fires have been removed. Seedlings of E. divinorum, a fire-resistant tree, were found in grassland adjacent to thickets and as thicket canopy trees and may function to facilitate thicket establishment. Seedlings of thicket species were abundant under E. divinorum canopy trees but not in the grassland, indicating that E. divinorum can facilitate forest establishment. We examined E.divinorum establishment in grassland by measuring survival and growth of seedlings with respect to fire, browsers, elephants, and competition with grass. Seedling survival was reduced by fire (50%), browsers (70%), and competition with grass (50%), but not by elephants. Seedling growth rate was negative unless both fire and browsers, or grass was removed. Establishment of thickets via E. divinorum is not occurring under the current conditions in Serengeti of frequent fires, abundant browsers, and dense grass in riparian areas. Conditions that allowed establishment may have occurred in 1890-1920s during a rinderpest epizootic, and measurements of thicket canopy trees suggest they established at that time.

Singh, R.R., Goyal, S.P., Khanna, P.P., Mukherjee, P.K., Sukumar, R., 2006. Using morphometric and analytical techniques to characterize elephant ivory. Forensic Sci. Int. 162, 144-151.
Abstract: There is a need to characterize Asian elephant ivory and compare with African ivory for controlling illegal trade and implementation of national and international laws. In this paper, we characterize ivory of Asian and African elephants using Schreger angle measurements, elemental analysis {X-ray fluorescence (XRF), inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES), and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS)} and isotopic analysis. We recorded Schreger angle characteristics of elephant ivory at three different zones in ivory samples of African (n=12) and Asian (n=28) elephants. The Schreger angle ranged from 32 degrees to 145 degrees and 30 degrees to 153 degrees in Asian and African ivory, respectively. Elemental analysis (for Asian and African ivory) by XRF, ICP-AES and ICP-MS provided preliminary data. We attempted to ascertain source of origin of Asian elephant ivory similarly as in African ivory based on isotopes of carbon, nitrogen and strontium. We determined isotopic ratios of carbon (n=31) and nitrogen (n=31) corresponding to diet and rainfall, respectively. Reference ivory samples from five areas within India were analyzed using collagen and powder sample and the latter was found more suitable for forensic analysis. During our preliminary analysis, the range of delta13C values (-13.6+/-0.15 per thousand and -25.6+/-0.15 per thousand) and delta15N values (10.2+/-0.15 per thousand and 3.5+/-0.15 per thousand) were noted

Uemura, Y., Asakuma, S., Yon, L., Saito, T., Fukuda, K., Arai, I., Urashima, T., 2006. Structural determination of the oligosaccharides in the milk of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
412. Comp Biochem. Physiol A Mol. Integr. Physiol 145, 468-478.
Abstract: Milk of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), collected at 11 days post partum, contained 91 g/L of hexose and 3 g/L of sialic acid. The dominant saccharide in this milk sample was lactose, but it also contained isoglobotriose (Glc(alpha1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc) as well as a variety of sialyl oligosaccharides. The sialyl oligosaccharides were separated from neutral saccharides by anion exchange chromatography on DEAE-Sephadex A-50 and successive gel chromatography on Bio Gel P-2. They were purified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using an Amide-80 column and characterized by 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Their structures were determined to be those of 3'-sialyllactose, 6'-sialyllactose, monofucosyl monosialyl lactose (Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]Glc), sialyl lacto-N-neotetraose c (LST c), galactosyl monosialyl lacto-N-neohexaose, galactosyl monofucosyl monosialyl lacto-N-neohexaose and three novel oligosaccharides as follows: Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc, Neu5Ac(alpha2-6)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal( beta1-4)Glc, and Neu5Ac(alpha2-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc (alpha1-3)]GlcNAc(beta1-3)Gal(beta1-4)Glc. The higher oligosaccharides contained only the type II chain (Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc); this finding differed from previously published data on Asian elephant milk oligosaccharides

Williams, M.F., 2006. Morphological evidence of marine adaptations in human kidneys. Med Hypotheses 66, 247-257.
Abstract: Amongst primates, kidneys normally exhibiting lobulated, multipyramidal, medullas is a unique attribute of the human species. Although, kidneys naturally multipyramidal in their medullary morphology are rare in terrestrial mammals, kidneys with lobulated medullas do occur in: elephants, bears, rhinoceroses, bison, cattle, pigs, and the okapi. However, kidneys characterized with multipyramidal medullas are common in aquatic mammals and are nearly universal in marine mammals. To avoid the deleterious effects of saline water dehydration, marine mammals have adaptively thickened the medullas of their kidneys--which enhances their ability to concentrate excretory salts in the urine. However, the lobulation of the kidney's medullary region in marine mammals appears to be an adaptation to expand the surface area between the medulla and the enveloping outer cortex in order to increase the volume of marine dietary induced hypertonic plasma that can be immediately processed for the excretion of excess salts and nitrogenous waste. A phylogenetic review of freshwater aquatic mammals suggest that most, if not all, nonmarine aquatic mammals inherited the medullary  pyramids of their kidneys from ancestors who originally inhabited, or frequented, marine environments. So this suggest that most, if not all, aquatic mammals exhibiting kidneys with lobulated medullas are either marine adapted--or are descended from marine antecedents. Additionally, a phylogenetic review of nonhuman terrestrial mammals possessing kidneys with multipyramidal medullas suggest that bears, elephants and possibly rhinoceroses, also, inherited their lobulated medullas from semiaquatic marine ancestors. The fact that several terrestrial mammalian species of semiaquatic marine ancestry exhibit kidneys with multipyramidal medullas, may suggest that humans could have, also, inherited the lobulated medullas of their kidneys from coastal marine ancestors. And a specialized marine diet in ancient human ancestry could, also, explain the reactivation and enumeration of corporeal eccrine sweat glands and the copious secretion of salt tears. The substantial loss of genetic variation in humans relative to other hominoid primates, combined with the apparent isolation of early Pliocene human ancestors from particular retroviruses that infected all other African primate species, may suggest that such a semiaquatic marine phase, during the emergence of Homo, may have occurred on an island off the coast of Africa during the early Pliocene.

Agnew, D.W., Hagey, L., Shoshani, J., 2005. The elephants of Zoba Gash Barka, Eritrea: part 4. Cholelithiasis in a wild African elephant (Loxodonta africana). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36, 677-683.
Abstract: A 4.0-kg cholelith was found within the abdominal cavity of a dead wild African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Eritrea. Analysis of this cholelith by histochemistry, electron microscopy, electrospray mass spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy revealed it was composed of bile alcohols but no calcium, bilirubin, or cholesterol. Bacteria were also found in the cholelith. Similar, but smaller, bile stones have been identified previously in other wild African elephants and an excavated mammoth (Mammuthus columbi). Choleliths have been reported only once in a captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Elephants, along with hyraxes (Procavia capensis) and manatees (Trichechus manatus), are unique among mammals in producing only bile alcohols and no bile acids, which may predispose them to cholelithiasis, particularly in association with bacterial infection. Dietary factors may also play an important role in cholelith formation.

Andrews, J., Mecklenborg, A., Bercovitch, F.B., 2005. Milk intake and development in a newborn captive African elephant  (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24, 275-281.
Abstract: In August 2003 the San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park (WAP) and the Lowry Park Zoo, under the auspices of the AZA's Elephant SSP and a USFWS permit, imported 3.8 African elephants (Loxodonta africana ) from the Kingdom of Swaziland. When they were captured, transrectal ultrasound examinations revealed that one nulliparous cow was approximately 10 months pregnant.  At the time of their arrival (August 2003), all of the animals were estimated to be approximately 13 years old and were thought to be nulliparous.  Based on the ultrasound examination results and the average African elephant gestation period, parturition was predicted to be 20 February 2004. In this report, we provide the first detailed data about nursing activity around the clock and newborn calf development, describe maternal and neonatal nighttime activity budgets, and explore maternal weight changes during suckling and lactation. The newborn calf suckled significantly more at night than during the day, but suckled for only about 2 hr per 24-hr period. Regression analysis revealed that through the first 3 months of life the calf gained 0.385 kg/day while it suckled on a regular basis. We compare our findings with published information on wild elephants, and conclude that although the growth rate is reduced compared to hand-reared elephant calves, the suckling patterns are almost identical to those reported for wild calves.

Baxter, P.W.J., Getz, W.M., 2005. A model-framed evaluation of elephant effects on tree and fire dynamics in African savannas. Ecological Applications 15, 1331-1341.
Abstract: mThere is a concern that high densities of elephants in southern Africa could lead to the overall reduction of other forms of biodiversity. We present a grid-based model of elephant-savanna dynamics, which differs from previous elephant-vegetation models by accounting for woody plant demographics, tree-grass interactions, stochastic environmental variables (fire and rainfall), and spatial contagion of fire and tree recruitment. The model projects changes in height structure and spatial pattern of trees over periods of centuries. The vegetation component of the model produces long-term tree-grass coexistence, and the emergent fire frequencies match those reported for southern African savannas. Including elephants in the savanna model had the expected effect of reducing woody plant cover, mainly via increased adult tree mortality, although at an elephant density of 1.0 elephant/km(2), woody plants still persisted for over a century. We tested three different scenarios in addition to our default assumptions. (1) Reducing mortality of adult trees after elephant use, mimicking a more browsing-tolerant tree species, mitigated the detrimental effect of elephants on the woody population. (2) Coupling germination success (increased seedling recruitment) to elephant browsing further increased tree persistence, and (3) a faster growing woody component allowed some woody plant persistence for at least a century at a density of  3 elephants/km(2). Quantitative models of the kind presented here provide a valuable tool for exploring the consequences of management decisions involving the manipulation of elephant population densities.

Benz, A. The elephant's hoof: macroscopic and microscopic morphology of defined locations under consideration of pathological changes.  2005.  Vetsuisse-Fakultät Universität Zürich.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation

Deem, S.L., Brown, J.L., Eggert, L., Wemmer, C., Htun, W., Nyunt, T., Murray, S., Leimgruber, P. Health and management of working elephants in Myanmar (Burma). Procedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  228-231. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Myanmar has approximately 6,000 working elephants.  Remaining wild elephants are declining, partly because of live-capture for captivity.  Through health and reproductive assessments, genetic analyses and GPS tracking of captive and wild elephants, we are exploring linkages between the two populations and conducting studies to reduce morbidity and mortality of captive elephants. Captive elephants live and work in Myanmar's forests in close proximity and contact to the remaining wild herds. We propose that reducing morbidity and mortality in the captive elephants will decrease the need for live-capture, and the risk of disease transmission, to wild elephants.
Introduction
There are an estimated 6,000 working elephants in Myanmar - half owned by the government operated Myanmar Timber Enterprise (MTE) and half owned privately^.5 This may be one of the largest captive elephant populations in the world and its management will have a significant impact on remaining wild herds in Myanmar.^4,6,8  With mortality rates higher than birth rates, the working population is probably maintained by supplementing it with elephants captured from the wild.⁵ There is evidence that continued harvest of wild elephants may have reduced the remaining wild populations of Myanmar.  Recent surveys of wild populations in two of Myanmar's protected elephant ranges revealed extremely low dung counts, indicative of small and declining herds. Constant contact with captive elephants in Myanmar's forests may exacerbate the threat to Myanmar wild elephants by increasing the transmission of disease between these two groups. For both the above reasons, we believe that the conservation of wild elephants in Myanmar will require significant improvements in the care and management of currently existing captive populations.  
Elephants owned by MTE receive veterinary care from the Burmese veterinarians that work for the timber company and travel extensively throughout the country to sites were the elephants are located.¹ There is a dire need for veterinary supplies and laboratory capabilities in the country. Currently, veterinary practices are based on the extensive field experience of lead MTE veterinarians. However, MTE veterinarians frequently rely on older published work ^3,7 and would benefit significantly from training that incorporates new insights into elephant health and new veterinary techniques. Similarly, because of their close-up experience of elephant health problems in the forests, MTE veterinarians may be able to make important new contributions to the care and management of elephants elsewhere.     
The overall objective of our study is to work jointly with MTE veterinarians to develop long-term captive population management strategies to reduce mortality and increase births in the working timber elephants and stop the continued off-take of animals from the wild to supplement captive herds.
Methods
The health component of this study has five major objectives.  These are to:
1              Conduct a training workshop, in conjunction with MTE veterinarians, on elephant management and veterinary care. 
2              Develop protocols so that the MTE veterinarians can collect samples for reproductive, genetic, and health status assessments.
3              Analyze samples and provide data to MTE veterinarians to improve husbandry, preventive care and disease treatment of working elephants.
4              Develop a comprehensive bibliography of all published information on the health and management of Myanmar elephants.
5              Perform an epidemiologic evaluation of records available on the historic and current working elephant population.
Specific steps to achieve these objectives include: 
1              Determine causes and rates of morbidity and mortality of captive MTE elephants.
2              Determine causes of low rates of reproduction in captivity.
3              Develop a genetic profile of the captive herds.
4              Develop a protocol to assess oozies-Burmese mahout-expertise in parallel with endocrine and health assessments to determine quality of care and potentially related stress.
5              Develop small population viability models to assess how current mortality effects long-term survival of the captive population and what supplementation from the wild is needed for short- and long-term sustainability.
6              Use population viability models to demonstrate how supplementation from the wild will negatively affect that population.
7              Get baseline health parameter data on free-ranging elephants.
8              Quantify habitat/space use using GPS and satellite tracking of captive and wild elephants. 
Results and Discussion
During an initial exploratory visit in November 2004, we learned that the annual mortality rate for MTE working elephants was 2.4% (66) in 2003.  Deaths occurred in all age groups (>18 yr, n = 40; 4 - 17 yr, n = 11; <4 yr, n = 15) and included preventable diseases (i.e., poor nutrition, heat stroke, diarrhea, dystocia, infectious and parasitic agents).  Additionally, we collected samples for performing health, genetic and endocrine analyses of 22 elephants maintained in one of the working camps (results to be presented). A relationship also was established with the veterinary staff at the Yangon Zoo, including follow up donations of veterinary literature and journals to the zoo. We provided medical advice for the care of an orphaned elephant calf and other animals housed at the zoo during our brief visit. We are seeking funds for a training course to be conducted in late 2005 and hope to perform health evaluations on a larger number of zoo and working elephants during that visit.
The National Zoo already has an extensive conservation program for wild elephants in Myanmar.^4,6,8  This program has focused on assessing wild elephant populations in protected areas and satellite-tracking of four wild elephants to learn more about their conservation status and ecology in Myanmar.  Currently this work is being extended to a national elephant survey. Part of this work included collecting fecal samples for genetic and health assessments.
The Smithsonian team of researchers involved in this project includes a veterinarian, reproduction physiologist, geneticist, conservation biologist, and landscape ecologist.  All members of this multidisciplinary team have extensive experience working with elephants and together provide the necessary expertise to study and understand the numerous factors affecting Myanmar's captive elephants and the long-term survival of elephants in Myanmar.  These challenges range from human land use and elephant population fragmentation, human-elephant conflict, poor reproduction and health care of captive elephants and lack of information on the health status of the wild elephants.  A viable conservation initiative for the elephants of Myanmar requires that health issues be addressed as one component of a comprehensive program to address the anthropogenic pressures on both working and wild elephants.²
The elephants of Myanmar are an excellent example of the fine line that exists between captive and wild animals, especially as it relates to health.  Captive and wild elephants are regularly in direct and indirect contact.  The working elephants live with their oozies who may expose them to diseases, such as tuberculosis.  The working elephants in turn may encounter wild elephants at night in the forests where they forage and live during non-working hours. In fact, the majority of captive born calves are said to be sired by wild bulls.  Potentially, the use of working elephants in selectively extracting valuable timber provides new strategies for the conservation of elephants and forests. Most likely, "elephant-logging" is less damaging than machine-operated timbering projects that tend to clear-cut areas and also damage the soil and streams.  However, decreasing the negative impact of such practices (i.e., minimizing off-take of elephants from the wild, decreasing disease risks to the wild elephants) is imperative.  
LITERATURE CITED
1 Aung, T., and T. Nyunt.  2002.  The care and management of the domesticated Asian elephant in Myanmar.  In: Baker, I., and M. Kashio (eds.): Giants on our hands. Proc. Int. Workshop Domesticated Asian Elephant. Dharmasarn Co., Ltd. Bangkok, Thailand. Pp. 89 - 102.
2 Deem, S.L., W.B. Karesh, and W. Weisman.  2001.  Putting theory into practice: wildlife health in conservation.  Conserv. Biol. 5: 1224-1233.
3 Evans, G.H. 1910.  Elephants and Their Diseases.  Government Printing. Rangoon. 323 
4 Kelly, D.S. 2005.  Habitat selection in declining elephant populations of Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park. Masters Thesis.  George Mason University.
5 Lair, R.C. 1997.  Myanmar. In: Gone Astray: The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Thailand.  RAP Publication. Pp. 99-131
6 Leimgruber, P., and C. Wemmer.  2004.  National elephant symposium and workshop. Report to the USFWS and the Myanmar Forest Department.
7 Pfaff, G. 1930.  Reports on Diseases of Elephants.  Government Printing. Rangoon. 91
8 Wemmer, C., P. Leimgruber and D. S. Kelly.  2005.  Managing wild elephants in Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park and Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary.  Report to the USFWS and the Myanmar Forest Department.

Neil, K.M., Caron, J.P., Orth, M.W., 2005. The role of glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate in treatment for and prevention of osteoarthritis in animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 226, 1079-1088.

Osthoff, G., De Waal, H.O., Hugo, A., de, W.M., Botes, P., 2005. Milk composition of a free-ranging African elephant (Loxodonta africana) cow during early lactation
593. Comp Biochem. Physiol A Mol. Integr. Physiol 141, 223-229.
Abstract: Only one study previously reported comprehensively on the composition of African elephant's (Loxodonta africana) milk that was collected from 30 dead animals. In the current study milk was obtained from a tame but free-ranging African elephant cow without immobilization during the period when she was 4-47 days postpartum. At the respective collection times the nutrient content was 21.8 and 25.0 g protein; 56.0 and 76.0 g fat; 71.1 and 26.0 g sugars per kilogram of milk. The protein fraction, respectively, consisted of 10.0 and 14.0 g caseins/kg milk and of 11.8 and 11 g whey proteins/kg milk. During lactation the lactose content dropped from 52.5 to 11.8 g/kg milk, while the oligosaccharide content increased from 11.8 to 15.2 g/kg milk. The oligosaccharide was characterized as a galactosyllactose, which is digestible by cellulase. Electrophoresis and identification of protein bands showed a similar migrating sequence of proteins as seen in cow's milk, but some of the corresponding proteins were less negatively charged. The lipid fraction contains a high content of capric and lauric acids, approximately 60% of the total fatty acids, and low content of myristic, palmitic and oleic acids

Pendlebury, C., Odongo, N.E., Renjifo, A., Naelitz, J., Valdez, E.V., McBride, B.W., 2005. Acid-insoluble ash as a measure of dry matter digestibility in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24, 261-265.
Abstract: There are limited data on the diet dry matter digestibility (DMD) of captive African elephants. Although the total fecal collection method is the standard for determining DMD, it is labor-intensive, time-consuming, and expensive. The acid-insoluble ash (AIA) marker technique has been used successfully to determine DMD in ruminants and monogastrics. The objective of this study was to assess how accurately the AIA marker technique could estimate the DMD of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana).  Three mature male African elephants at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida were used in this study. The animals were offered a Bermuda grass hay-based ration, and the total dry matter intake (DMI) and total fecal output were measured daily over a 7-day period to determine the total collection DMD.  The feed ingredients and fecal samples were also analyzed for AIA.  Although there were differences (P < 0.05) in total DMI and total fecal outputs, the DMD values did not (P > 0.05) differ (35.1 +/- 0.72 vs. 37.1 +/- 0.72 for total collection and AIA, respectively). There was a linear (y=0.9461x; R-2 = 0.74) relationship between the total collection and AIA marker technique DMD values. These results suggest that AIA can be used to accurately   estimate the DMD of captive African elephants.

Perez-Barberia, F.J., Gordon, I.J., 2005. Gregariousness increases brain size in ungulates
586. Oecologia. 145, 41-52.
Abstract: The brain's main function is to organise the physiological and behavioural responses to environmental and social challenges in order to keep the organism alive. Here, we studied the effects that gregariousness (as a measurement of sociality), dietary habits, gestation length and sex have on brain size of extant ungulates. The analysis controlled for the effects of phylogeny and for random variability implicit in the data set. We tested the following groups of hypotheses: (1) Social brain hypothesis-gregarious species are more likely to have larger brains than non-gregarious species because the former are subjected to demanding and complex social interactions; (2) Ecological hypothesis-dietary habits impose challenging cognitive tasks associated with finding and manipulating food (foraging strategy); (3) Developmental hypotheses (a) energy strategy: selection for larger brains operates, primarily, on maternal metabolic turnover (i.e. gestation length) in relation to food quality because the majority of the brain's growth takes place in utero, and finally (b) sex hypothesis: females are expected to have larger brains than males, relative to body size, because of the differential growth rates of the soma and brain between the sexes. We found that, after adjusting for body mass, gregariousness and gestation length explained most of the variation in brain mass across the ungulate species studied. Larger species had larger brains; gregarious species and those with longer gestation lengths, relative to body mass, had larger brains than non-gregarious species and those with shorter gestation lengths. The effect of diet was negligible and subrogated by gestation length, and sex had no significant effect on brain size. The ultimate cause that could have triggered the co-evolution between gestation length and brain size remains unclear

Sanchez, C.R., Murray, S.Z., Isaza, R., Papich, M.G., 2005. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of enrofloxacin administered orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Am J Vet Res 66, 1948-1953.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To determine the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after oral administration to captive elephants. ANIMALS: 6 clinically normal adult Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). PROCEDURE: Each elephant received a single dose of enrofloxacin (2.5 mg/kg, PO). Three elephants received their complete diet (pellets and grain) within 2 hours after enrofloxacin administration, whereas the other 3 elephants received only hay within 6 hours after enrofloxacin administration. Serum concentrations of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin were measured by use of high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: Harmonic mean half-life after oral administration was 18.4 hours for all elephants. Mean +/- SD peak serum concentration of enrofloxacin was 1.31 +/- 0.40 microg/mL at 5.0 +/- 4.2 hours after administration. Mean area under the curve was 20.72 +/- 4.25 (microg x h)/mL. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Oral administration of enrofloxacin to Asian elephants has a prolonged elimination half-life, compared with the elimination half-life for adult horses. In addition, potentially therapeutic concentrations in elephants were obtained when enrofloxacin was administered orally at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg. Analysis of these results suggests that enrofloxacin administered with feed in the manner described in this study could be a potentially useful antimicrobial for use in treatment of captive Asian elephants with infections attributable to organisms, such as Bordetella spp, Escherichia coli, Mycoplasma spp, Pasteurella spp, Haemophilus spp, Salmonella spp, and Staphylococcus spp.

Slotow, R., Garai, M.E., Reilly, B., Page, B., Carr, R.D., 2005. Population dynamics of elephants re-introduced to small fenced reserves in South Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 35, 23-32.
Abstract: By 2001, elephants had been translocated (mainly from Kruger National Park) to 58 small, fenced reserves in South Africa. All but two introductions took place since 1989. We document important aspects of the population dynamics of elephants in these reserves using data collected in a survey conducted in 2001. The mean population size was 45 elephants, with an average density of 0.25 elephants/square km. Populations have a female bias with 0.79 males to females. Populations have 19% adult males, and 31% adult females. On average, almost 50% of the population comprises adult and subadult females, indicating an immanent potential for large population growth. Births were not significantly different from a 1:1 sex ratio. When two extreme populations were removed, mean mortality rate was 0.4% per annum. Population growth rates averaged 8.3%, but five reserves had growth rates above 13%, and the highest annual growth rate was 16.5% per annum. Twenty-seven populations already have densities above 0.2 elephants/square km, and eight reserves have densities above 0.4 2 elephants/square km. Assuming a 12% per annum growth (feasible given the data presented), over half the reserves will have densities above 0.33 elephants/square km within five years. These results indicate that the translocation of elephants has been successful, with most populations reproducing at a rate far exceeding expectations. This has serious implications for owners and managers, as some form of population control (contraception, removals, culling etc.) needs to be urgently planned for implementation as soon as possible in most, and probably all small reserves.

Steinheim, G., Wegge, P., Fjellstad, J.I., Jnawali, S.R., Weladji, R.B., 2005. Dry season diets and habitat use of sympatric Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinocerus unicornis) in Nepal. Journal of Zoology 265, 377-385.
Abstract: Dry season diets and habitat use of increasing populations of Asian elephants Elephas maximus and greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros  unicornis in the Babai Valley of Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal, are  described, and an assessment is made of the potential for competition between them. The diets, analysed by microhistology, were different, with a similarity index of 37.5%, and with different grass/browse proportions: the rhino diet consisted of 63% grass and 28% browse; that of elephants was 24% grass and 65% browse. A tallgrass floodplain grass, Saccharum  spontaneum,  was the plant most eaten by rhinos, whereas elephants consumed a large  proportion of bark of Bombax ceiba and Acacia catechu, as well as  several  browse species not eaten by rhino. The habitat use of elephants was determined by dung-counts within 30 kin of 20-m wide belt transects, while that of rhino was taken from an earlier study. Elephants used a wider range of habitats than rhino, but two types, the tallgrass floodplain and khair-sissoo forest, were preferred by both species simultaneously.  While elephants used the abundant sal forest extensively, rhino strongly avoided this habitat. Densities of both species were low at the time of study (< 0.5 animals/square km), but their numbers are expected to increase markedly in coming years. Because available habitats for expansion are limited, this may lead to competition. Rhino might then become the weaker species, as elephants are more flexible in their ranging and foraging activities.  The tallgrass floodplain habitat and its important forage grass  S.  spontaneum may then become the critical resources.

Wooding, F.B., Stewart, F., Mathias, S., Allen, W.R., 2005. Placentation in the African elephant, Loxodonta africanus: III. Ultrastructural and functional features of the placenta
598. Placenta 26, 449-470.
Abstract: Successful transfer of nutrients to the elephant fetus during pregnancy relies on a variety of placental modifications. Our light and electron microscopical investigations show that the structure is endotheliochorial from implantation to term, with unicellular, never syncytial trophoblast. Light and electron microscope immunocytochemistry shows the restriction of the glucose transporter 1 isoform to the basolateral surfaces of the trophoblast, with the glucose transporter 3 restricted to the apical plasmalemma of the trophoblast. Glucose transport to the fetus therefore requires a sequential use of both isoforms. Light and electron microscope cytochemistry indicate the presence of iron deposits only in the haemophagous zones confirming their iron transport function. No trophoblast areas with high concentrations of Calcium binding protein, specialised for Calcium transport were found. In situ hybridisation demonstrated the presence of IGF-II mRNA in the trophoblast from the earliest stage, with TGFbeta1 and HGF-SF mRNA expressed subsequently but only IGF-II and HGF mRNA present in the second half of pregnancy. The results are briefly discussed in terms of placental growth and function and indicate that the elephant placenta is another example of a unique solution to the variety of problems posed by a resident fetus

 2004. Elephant Husbandry Resource Guide. International Elephant Foundation, Azle. TX.

Cerling, T.E., Passey, B.H., Ayliffe, L.K., Cook, C.S., Ehleringer, J.R., Harris, J.M., Dhidha, M.B., Kasiki, S.M., 2004. Orphans' tales: seasonal dietary changes in elephants from Tsavo National Park, Kenya. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 206, 367-376.
Abstract: The similarity of delta(13)C and delta(15)N patterns in hairs of different individuals from the Tsavo East orphaned elephant herd indicates that a single hair represents the dietary preferences and behavior of the entire group. Multiple tail hairs from the same individual collected at different times allows a chronology to be established because of the overlap in isotope patterns in hair, and there is a very high correlation between
hair from different individuals in the same group. Forward modeling using a three-component isotope turnover model for hair allows a precise estimate of diet of these elephants over a 2-year interval. Elephants from Tsavo East National Park in Kenya feed predominantly on C-3 leaves, although they have a significant fraction Of C-4 grass in their diet for a short time at the beginning of the rainy season. The overall integrated diet for the elephants studied is between 10% and 15% C-4 grass, although it reaches up to 60% for short intervals. Stable carbon isotope analyses of elephant tooth enamel show that the average integrated dietary preference of elephants in Tsavo National Park remained less than 25% grass between 1940 and the present.

Goheen, J.R., Keesing, F., Allan, B.F., Ogada, D.L., Ostfeld, R.S., 2004. Net effects of large mammals on Acacia seedling survival in an African Savanna. Ecology 85, 1555-1561.
Abstract: Trees of the genus Acacia are widespread and important components of savanna ecosystems. Factors or organisms that influence the survival of Acacia seedlings are likely to affect tree recruitment and therefore community and ecosystem dynamics. In African savannas, large mammals, especially elephants, have been considered the most important agents of mortality for adult trees, but their impacts on tree seedlings are not well known. We investigated the effects of large mammals on Acacia seedling survival by excluding large mammals from replicated 4-ha plots. Approximately twice as many seedlings were killed in plots with large mammals absent as on plots with large mammals present. Rodents and some invertebrates were more abundant on plots without large mammals and were responsible for these higher predation rates. Seedlings in areas with large mammals were more likely to die of desiccation; however, net seedling survival was approximately twice as high in the presence of large mammals. Our results indicate that large mammals may indirectly increase Acacia seedling survival and thus accelerate, rather than inhibit, tree recruitment.

Holdo, R.M., McDowell, L.R., 2004. Termite mounds as nutrient-rich food patches for elephants. Biotropica 36, 231-239.

Loveridge, J.P., Moe, S.R., 2004. Termitaria as browsing hotspots for African megaherbivores in miombo woodland. Journal of Tropical Ecology 20, 337-343.
Abstract: Thirteen termite mounds and 1.3 similar-sized control plots were surveyed in central Zimbabwe in order to study large mammalian browsing and vegetation characteristics. The mounds Supported almost twice as many tree species as the control plots and the woody vegetation was denser on mounds compared with the woodland plots. Species of woody plants were recorded along with the percentage of branches browsed (cumulative browsing score) by black rhino. Diceros bicornis. elephant, Loxodonta africana and other browsers combined. In addition we measured how the cumulative browsing score on three woody plant species, Acacia nilotica. Colophospermum mopane and Dichrostachys cinerea. which were common both on and off mounds, was related to the distance from mound centre. Both black rhino and elephant cumulative browsing scores were significantly higher on the mound plants compared with the woodland plots. Cumulative browsing score was negatively related to distance from the mound centre for Dichrostachys cinerea. Colophospermum mopane and Acacia nilotica. We propose that termite mound construction in miombo woodland contributes to sustaining populations of megaherbivores and perhaps some woody species in these areas.

Madhusudan, M.D., 2004. Recovery of wild large herbivores following livestock decline in a tropical Indian wildlife reserve. Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 858-869.
Abstract: 1. Resource competition is an important process governing the impact of livestock on native wild mammalian herbivores, an issue acknowledged to be of global conservation concern. Resource competition occurs between species when their resources (habitat and diet) overlap and are limiting. Yet the evidence that livestock compete with wild herbivores has remained weak because resource limitation is often difficult to demonstrate in the field.
2. This 2-year field study at Bandipur National Park, India, examined livestock-mediated resource limitation among five wild herbivore species: wild pig Sus scrofa, chital Axis axis, sambar Cervus unicolor, gaur Bos gaurus and Asian elephant Elephas maximus, by comparing their distribution and densities in adjoining livestock-grazed and livestockfree areas before, and after, a 49% decline in livestock density.
3. During 2001, mean densities of wild grazers, gaur (0·11 ha^-1), chital (1·51 ha- 1) andelephant (0·61 ha-1), were, respectively, 132, 11 and six times higher in the livestock-free area than in the adjacent livestock-grazed area. Densities of gaur, chital and elephant showed a sharp declining relationship with increasing livestock density, whereas no clear pattern was discernible with wild pig, a non-ruminant generalist, and the sambar, a forest browser. Preferred plant biomass also fell sharply with increasing livestock density.
4. Following the decline in livestock density in the livestock-grazed area in 2002, the densities of gaur, chital and elephant increased by a factor of 57, five and two in the same area, respectively, whereas no changes were seen in the densities of wild pig and sambar or in the preferred plant biomass. Except for a decline in elephant density, the livestock-free area did not show changes in wild herbivore densities.
5. Given the considerable overlap in habitat and dietary preference/ requirements between livestock and wild herbivores in the study area, it is suggested that the recovery of gaur, chital and elephant densities following the livestock decline represents their release from livestock-mediated resource limitation.
6. Synthesis and applications. These results indicate that resource competition may be intense between wild herbivores and grazing livestock, and if left unchecked could trigger declines of wild herbivores, particularly grazing ruminants and bulk feeders. These results also suggest that, where possible, interventions to reduce livestock grazing may rapidly benefit wild herbivores that have been competitively suppressed. This has important implications for the management of livestock grazing in India's wildlife reserves.

Paugy, M., Baillon, F., Chevalier, D., Duponnois, R., 2004. Elephants as dispersal agents of mycorrhizal spores in Burkina Faso. African Journal of Ecology 42, 225-227.
Abstract: It is well known that the seeds of many plant species are blank; found in the dung of elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1797) (Waifhaka, 2001). As fruits constitute the main component of elephant diets in forest environments (White, 1994), most of the studies have focused on the role of elephants and their impacts on the structure of plant communities, in particular through their role as seed dispersal agents (Wrangham, Chapman & Chapman, 1994). Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have been shown to be ubiquitous in terrestrial ecosystems and beneficial for plant growth (Smith & Read, 1997). These symbiotic relationships increase plant nutrient uptake (Bu¨ rkert & Robson, 1994). In soils, AM fungi are found as spores, hyphae or infected root pieces (Duponnois et al., 2001) and all these fungal propagules are sources of inoculum (Sylvia & Jarstfer, 1992). As elephants consume both roots (as described for Combretum molle) but also herbaceous plant species (Tehoue, 2001), they can act as dispersal agents for the AM propagules. This study investigated the role of elephants in AM propagule in Burkina Faso, in 'Deux Bale´' National Park located near Boromo (175 km at the south-west of Ouagadougou).

Richardson-Kageler, S.J., 2004. Effects of large herbivore browsing on the functional groups of woody plants in a southern African savanna. Biodiversity and Conservation 13, 2145-2163.
Abstract: This study examined the effect of different large herbivore species and stocking rates in savanna ecosystems of Zimbabwe on the richness and abundances of woody plant functional groups and woody plant functional attributes. Seven fence-lines with different herbivore species and stocking rates on either side of the fence were sampled. Plots were placed on both sides of each fence at each of 18 randomly selected positions. The size and species of each woody plant was recorded for each plot. It was found that the number of species with different functional attributes of spinescence, leaf longevity, fruit type and dispersal mechanism and in the functional groups of palatability were not different on the different sides of the fence. However, there were differences in plant abundances for 26 out of the 35 tests carried out on plant abundances with different functional attributes and functional groups. It was hypothesised that the time needed to change woody plant species richness is hundreds of years in these systems, whereas the time needed to change woody plant abundances is decades.

Sanchez, C.R., Murray, S., Montali, R.J., Spelman, L.H., 2004. Diagnosis and treatment of presumptive pyelonephritis in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J Zoo Wildl Med 35, 397-399.
Abstract: A 37-yr-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) presented with anorexia, restlessness, and dark-colored urine. Urinalyses showed hematuria, leukocyturia, isosthenuria, proteinuria, granular casts, and no calcium oxalate crystals. Bloodwork revealed azotemia. Urine culture revealed a pure growth of Streptococcus zooepidemicus resistant to sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim but susceptible to cephalosporins. A presumptive diagnosis of pyelonephritis was made based on bloodwork, urinalysis, and urine culture. The animal was treated with intravenous ceftiofur, and intravenous and per rectum fluids were given for hydration. The elephant's attitude and appetite returned to normal, the abnormal blood parameters resolved, and urinary calcium oxalate crystals reappeared after treatment, supporting presumptive diagnosis. Follow-up ultrasonography revealed an abnormal outline of both kidneys with parenchymal hyperechogenicity and multiple uterine leiomyomas.

 2003. Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Baruah, K.K., 2003. Nutritional requirements of elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 74-82.

Clauss, M., Frey, R., Kiefer, B., Lechner-Doll, M., Loehlein, W., Polster, C., Rossner, G.E., Streich, W.J., 2003. The maximum attainable body size of herbivorous mammals: morphophysiological constraints on foregut, and adaptations of hindgut fermenters. Oecologia 136, 14-27.
Abstract: An oft-cited nutritional advantage of large body size is that larger animals have lower relative energy requirements and that, due to their increased gastrointestinal tract (GIT) capacity, they achieve longer ingesta passage rates, which allows them to use forage of lower quality. However, the fermentation of plant material cannot be optimized endlessly; there is a time when plant fibre is totally fermented, and another when energy losses due to methanogenic bacteria become punitive. Therefore, very large herbivores would need to evolve adaptations for a comparative acceleration of ingesta passage. To our knowledge, this phenomenon has not been emphasized in the literature to date. We propose that, among the extant herbivores, elephants, with their comparatively fast passage rate and low digestibility coefficients, are indicators of a trend that allowed even larger hindgut fermenting mammals to exist. The limited existing anatomical data on large hindgut fermenters suggests that both a relative shortening of the GIT, an increase in GIT diameter, and a reduced caecum might contribute to relatively faster ingesta passage; however, more anatomical data is needed to verify these hypotheses. The digestive physiology of large foregut fermenters presents a unique problem: ruminant-and nonruminant-forestomachs were designed to delay ingesta passage, and they limit food intake as a side effect. Therefore, with increasing body size and increasing absolute energy requirements, their relative capacity has to increase in order to compensate for this intake limitation. It seems that the foregut fermenting ungulates did not evolve species in which the intake-limiting effect of the foregut could be reduced, e.g. by special bypass structures, and hence this digestive model imposed an intrinsic body size limit. This limit will be lower the more the natural diet enhances the ingesta retention and hence the intake-limiting effect. Therefore, due to the mechanical characteristics of grass, grazing ruminants cannot become as big as the largest browsing ruminant. Ruminants are not absent from the very large body size classes because their digestive physiology offers no particular advantage, but because their digestive physiology itself intrinsically imposes a body size limit. We suggest that the decreasing ability for colonic water absorption in large grazing ruminants and the largest extant foregut fermenter, the hippopotamus, are an indication of this limit, and are the outcome of the competition of organs for the available space within the abdominal cavity. Our hypotheses are supported by the fossil record on extinct ruminant/tylopod species which did not, with the possible exception of the Sivatheriinae, surpass extant species in maximum body size. In contrast to foregut fermentation, the GIT design of hindgut fermenters allows adaptations for relative passage acceleration, which explains why very large extinct mammalian herbivores are thought to have been hindgut fermenters.  Institute of Animal Physiology, Physiological Chemistry and Animal Nutrition, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Veterinaerstrasse 13, 80539, Munich, Germany. clauss@tiph.vetmed.uni-muenchen.de

Clauss, M., Loehlein, W., Kienzle, E., Wiesner, H., 2003. Studies on feed digestibilities in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 87, 160-173.
Abstract: In order to test the suitability of the horse as a nutritional model for elephants, digestibility studies were performed with six captive Asian elephants on six different dietary regimes, using the double marker method with acid detergent lignin as an internal and chromium oxide as an external digestibility marker. Elephants resembled horses in the way dietary supplements and dietary crude fibre content influenced digestibility, in calcium absorption parameters and in faecal volatile fatty acid composition. However, the absolute digestibility coefficients achieved for all nutrients are distinctively lower in elephants. This is because of much faster ingesta passage rates reported for elephants. No answer is given to why elephants do not make use of their high digestive potential theoretically provided by their immense body weight. Differences in volatile fatty acid concentrations between these captive elephants and those reported from elephants from the wild are in accord with a reported high dependence of free-ranging elephants on browse forage. Institute of Animal Physiology, Physiological Chemistry and Animal Nutrition, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany. clauss@tiph.vetmed.uni-muenchen.de

Kajaysri, J., Huayjunteuk, S., Reunpech, S., Thammakarn, C., et, al. The condition of paper thin bone layer and fracture by metabolic bone disease in an orphan elephant. Proceedings of 41st Kasetsart University Annual Conference, 3-7 February, 2003.  508-515. 2003.  Kasetsart University; Bangkok; Thailand.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Roychoudhury, R., 2003. Feeding schedule for elephants of different age groups and jobs. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 83-93.

Sarma, N.K., 2003. Neonatal care, weaning and hand rearing of orphan elephant calves. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 67-69.

Ben-Shahar, R., Macdonald, D.W., 2002. The role of soil factors and leaf protein in the utilization of mopane plants by elephants in northern Botswana. BMC Ecol 15, 3.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) plants form monotypic woodlands that cover extensive areas in northern Botswana. Mopane is also a principal food item in the diet of elephants. Obtrusive damage to mopane plants as a result of elephant feeding may alter the structure of mopane woodlands. Some mopane woodland areas in northern Botswana are subjected to heavy elephant utilization rates whereas other mopane areas are less affected. However, the underlying reason for the concentrated elephant utilization is unknown. RESULTS: Ten mopane plots were subjected to sampling of soil properties that included structure, pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium contents and protein contents. Elevated nitrogen and phosphorus contents in soils correlated with high protein levels in mopane leaves. Protein levels in leaves of mopane plants differed significantly between sites. However, multivariate analyses of environmental parameters and plots suggested that on a regional scale, there was no difference in the extent of elephant damage to mopane plants due to differential protein levels in leaves or any of the underlying soil factors that were examined. CONCLUSIONS: From management perspective, this pattern mitigates the likelihood that an even more prolific elephant population will alter mopane woodland habitats irreversibly.

Cheeran, J.V., 2002. Elephant facts. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 12-14.

Gage, L.J., 2002. Hand-rearing wild and domestic mammals. Iowa State Press, Ames, Iowa, USA.
Abstract: This book contains articles on hand-rearing wild and domestic animals. It is divided into the following topics: domestic animals (orphan rabbits, puppies, domestic kittens, critically ill and orphaned foals, pigs, goat kids and South American Camelids); and wildlife, zoo and marine animals (opossums, sugar gliders, macropods, hedgehogs, sloths, ground and tree squirrels, insectivorous bats, lemurs, tamarins, macaques species, great apes, harbour seals and Northern Elephant seals, sea lions and fur seals, walrus calves, fox kits, black bear cubs, polar bears, raccoons, ferret kits, exotic felids, elephants, nondomestic equids, rhinoceros, black-tailed and white-tailed deer exotic ungulates).

Holdo, R.M., Dudley, J.P., McDowell, L.R., (Lungka, G., 2002. Geophagy in the African elephant in relation to availibility of dietary sodium. Journal of Mammalogy 83, 652-664.
Abstract: We studied the use of mineral licks by African elephants (Loxodonta africana) during the dry season in a Kalahari-sand habitat in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, to investigate the role of geophagy as a mechanism for supplementing low Na+ levels in browse and natural water supplies. Plant, water, and soil macrominerals were measured to evaluate mineral availability for elephants during the dry season. Elephant behavior was monitored at licks to investigate the intensity of geophagy (measured by number of mouthfuls of soil consumed) in relation to fecal-Na+ loss. Female elephants, which probably had greater requirements than did males because of pregnancy and lactation, consumed more mouthfuls of soil and spent a greater part of their activity budget feeding on soil than did males, suggesting that geophagy may be driven by a nutritional requirement. We found the following consistent with the Na+-supplementation hypothesis: (1) unlike other minerals, Na+ in woody plants and natural water supplies may be inadequate to meet the minimum requirements of elephants during the dry season; (2) soils consumed by elephants differed from other soils primarily in their high Na+ content; (3) intensity of geophagy was negatively correlated with fecal Na+; and (4) elephants in non-Kalahari-sand habitats do not appear to create or use licks, probably because they are able to meet their Na+ requirements from ubiquitous Na+-rich water supplies, which do not occur naturally in Kalahari-sand habitats.

Mercy, A.D., 2002. Feeding of Elephant. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 18-20.

Milroy, A.J.W., 2002. A.J.W. Milroy's Management of Elephants in Captivity. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun, New Delhi, India.

Barina, A., Reidl, M., Schmid, L., Schutz, R., Bartos, N., Schwammer, H. Development of an Interactive Elephant Feeding System (EFS). A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  246-249. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Buckely, C., 2001. Captive Elephant Foot Care: Natural Habitat Husbandry Techniques. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 53-55.
Abstract: Many factors, including environment, diet, and management, determine the psychological and physical health of captive elephants.  When these factors are suboptimal, resulting in stress, the captive elephants' response will manifest in disorders of the mind and/or body.  The link between these disorders and an unhealthy environment, inadequate diet, or inferior management techniques is not always obvious; but often is painfully obvious. For the purpose of this chapter, "natural habitat" is defined as a vast space of diverse terrain and natural substrate, complete with wetlands, seeded and volunteer pastures, wooded areas, natural year-round water sources (including spring-fed ponds, washes, streams, and dry creek beds), and a wide range of live vegetation suitable for the species being maintained.

Clauss, M., Ghebremeskel, K. N-6 and n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the Nutrition of Wild Animals. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  252-253. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Clauss, M. Tannins in the Nutrition of Wild Animals. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  251. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Ganslober, U. Behavioural Ecology, Social Relationships, Life History and Evolutionary Constraints in Megaherbivores. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  26-31. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Houston, D.C., Gilardi, J.D., Hall, A.J., 2001. Soil consumption by elephants might help to minimize the toxic effects of plant secondary compounds in forest browse. Mammal Review. 31, 249-254.
Abstract: African Elephants Loxodonta africana regularly eat soil. At some sites, such as Mount Elgon on the Kenya-Uganda border, extensive caves have been excavated in the mountainside by their quarrying activity (Redmond, 1984; Bowell, 1992). The material eaten often has little organic content, and this might better be described as a weathered, soft, friable rock, but for convenience we refer to it here as soil. Such soils have been shown to offer sodium, calcium and other mineral nutrients which may be lacking from their normal plant diet (Weir, 1969, 1972, 1973 Moe, 1992; Bowell, 1992; Eksteen & Bornman, 1990). Elephants living in the cloud forest on the eastern escarpment of Ngorongoro in northern Tanzania regularly visit a number of low cliffs to prise away lumps of soil which they eat. This material does not taste "salty" to the human tongue, and we present here an analysis of this material which suggests that oneof its functions may be to assist the animals in the digestion of forest browse through its ability to detoxify the high concentrations of plany secondary compounds found in tropical forest trees.

Kenny, D.E., 2001. Long-term administration of α-Tocopherol in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Zoo Biology 20, 245-250.
Abstract: After the loss of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in February 1989 at the Denver Zoological Gardens (DZG) with very low circulating serum α-tocopherol, a long-term study was initiated with three Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to evaluate the effect of an oral micellized, water-soluble, natural source d-α-tocopherol supplement. Baseline α-tocopherol levels were evaluated and found to be approximately 3.75-fold less than those reported for semi-free-ranging Asian Nepalese work camp and free-ranging African elephants. The DZG elephants were then administered a liquid d-α-tocopherol (Emcelle®) at 2.2 IU/ kg body weight orally once daily. Serum samples were obtained and analyzed at 1, 2, 8, and 12 months and then annually for 96 months. The oral vitamin E supplement significantly elevated serum levels above baseline and were found to be comparable with levels reported for semi-free-ranging and free-ranging elephants.

Loehlein, W., Kienzle, E., Wiesner, H., Clauss, M. Investigations on the Use of Chromium Oxide as an Inert, External Marker in Captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus): Passage and Recovery Rates. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  250. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Saddler, W., 2001. The Role of Nutrition and Its Possible Impact on Elephant Foot Care. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press, Ames IA, USA, pp. 13-15.
Abstract: Webster defines a nutrient as "something that nourishes or promotes growth and repairs the natural wastage of organic life."  The key to sound nutrition is to provide the proper levels of many different nutrients.  Rarely does providing one nutrient or family of nutrients solve a problem alone.  The best analogy for proper health is still a chain.  So it is with nutrition, all of the nutrients must serve as strong links to allow good overall health.   This chapter will discuss a number of key nutrients that are frequently related to the care of the feet and nails of elephants, but by no means will nutrients alone solve these problems.

Urashima, T., Saito, T., Nakamura, T., Messer, M., 2001. Oligosaccharides of milk and colostrum in non-human mammals. Glycoconj J 18, 357-371.
Abstract: Mammalian milk or colostrum usually contains, in addition to lactose, a variety of neutral and acidic oligosaccharides. Although the oligosaccharides of human milk have been reviewed in several recent publications, those of non-human mammals have received much less attention. This paper reviews the chemical structures and the variety of milk oligosaccharides in species other than humans, including placental mammals (e.g. primates, domestic herbivores, bears and other carnivores, the rat and the elephant) as well as monotremes (platypus and echidna) and marsupials (e.g. wallaby). The gastrointestinal digestion and absorption and the possible biological functions of these oligosaccharides are
also discussed.

Weihs, W., Weisz, I., Wustenhagen, A., Kurt, F. Body Growth and Food Intake in a Herd of Captive Asian Elephants in the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage (Sri Lanka). A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001.  141-145. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 1.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Burkholder, W.J., 2000. Use of body condition scores in clinical assessment of the provision of optimal nutrition. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 217, 650-654.

Gage, L.J., Blasko, D. Husbandry and Medical Considerations for Geriatric Elephants. Elephants: Cultural, Behavioral, and Ecological Perspectives; Program and Abstracts of the Workshop.  9-10. 2000. Davis, CA. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Jnawali, S.R., Wegge, P., Raut, Y., 2000. Importance of tall grasslands in megaherbivore conservation. In: Richard, C., Basnet, K., Sah, J.P. (Eds.), Grassland Ecology and Management in Protected Areas of Nepal. Proceedings of a Workshop, Royal Bardia National Park, Thakurdwara, Bardia, Nepal, 15-19-March,1999. Volume 2: Terai Protected Areas. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu; Nepal, pp. 84-91.
Abstract: In the lowlands of Nepal, tall grasslands once stretched throughout the southern alluvial floodplains, but now they are restricted to the river basins of protected areas. These tall grasslands provide refuge for a large number of wild mammals, including greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), wild elephant (Elephas maximus), tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli), hispid hare (Camprolagus hispidus), hog deer (Axis porcinus), and wild water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). The main objective of this paper is to assess the importance of the tall grassland ecosystem in megaherbivore conservation, with special emphasis on greater one-horned rhinoceros. In this study, which was carried out in Royal Chitwan National Park (RCNP) and Royal Bardia National Park (RBNP), microhistological analyses of animal faeces were used to assess the importance of grasses in conserving rhinoceros. Feeding data of rhinoceros clearly indicated that both the annual and the seasonal diets of rhinoceros in Bardia and Chitwan are dominated by the grass species growing primarily in the tall alluvial floodplain grasslands, which in these protected areas suffer encroachment from woody vegetation. Although the park authority in RBNP has recently initiated programmes of uprooting of woody bushes from phantas and wooded grasslands, which will help to create more open space for the large populations of medium sized ungulates that primarily graze on these habitats, no such interventions have been introduced so far to manage the tall floodplain grasslands. These grasslands are needed to accommodate an increasing number of megaherbivores as well as floodplain-dependent ungulates in both areas. Ironically, the dynamics of the floodplain ecosystem are still poorly understood, since no long-term scientific research has been conducted on its ecological processes. A comprehensive scientific research effort is needed before any management prescription can be made.

Milewski, A., 2000. Iodine as a Possible Controlling Nutrient for Elephant Populations. Pachyderm 28, 78-90.
Abstract: The geography and physiology of iodine deficiency in humans and domestic ungulates suggests that the nutritional content of ground water may hold a key to humane and efficient management of population sizes of elephants. Artificial bore water in dry climates in southern Africa appear to be, on average, a good supplement of this easily leached element, and may have inadvertently boosted the reproductive rates of elephants in several conservation areas. The largest land mammals are likely to be limited by deficiency of iodine, inasmuch as their plant foods are deficient in this element relative to the hormonal requirements associated with exceptional brain size and relatively great thyroid size. Extrapolation from domestic ecosystems suggests that elephants exceed medium-sized wild herbivores in the sensitivity of their reproductive rates to subclinical deficiency of iodine, partly because the rate of loss of iodine from the body is likely to be hyperallometric to those of energy, protein, and water, with increasing body size. Elephants pass food and water rapidly for their body size, but this allows maximal intakes of iodine, which can potentially be further supplemented by absorption through the skin. The great variation in concentrations of iodine between adjacent aquifers suggests a versatile approach to population control. Closure of iodine-rich bore holes in overpopulated areas may reduce rates of sexual maturation, conception, birth, and weaning, with minimum artificial distress to adults or surviving juvenile elephants. Conversely, selection of the bore waters richest in iodine may help to promote population growth in areas recently restocked with elephants. All proboscideans became extinct in the Americas and temperate Eurasia at the end of the Pleistocene, when glacial melting had profoundly depleted iodine, and humans had the means to monopolize the remaining sources of supplementary iodine. The maximal intelligence and fecundity of those megaherbivores which have survived the era of domestication may have made these species depend on supplementation of iodine.

Stokke, S., du Toit, J.T., 2000. Sex and size related differences in the dry season feeding patterns of elephants in Chobe national park, Botswana. Ecography 23, 70-80.
Abstract: Differences in feeding patterns of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) were examined by sex and age during the dry season in a dystrophic savanna-woodland ecosystem in northern Botswana. Adult males had the least diverse diet in terms of woody plant species, but they consumed more plant parts than family units. The diameter of stems of food plants broken or bitten off was also greater for adult males than for females and subadult males. Adult males spent more time foraging on each woody plant than did females. The number of' woody plant species and individuals present were higher at feeding sites of family units than at feeding sites of adult males, indicating that family units positioned themselves at feeding sites with higher species diversity than those of males. It is argued that the most likely explanation for these differences is related to the pronounced sexual size dimorphism exhibited by elephants, resulting in sex differences in browsing patterns due to the allometric relationships that govern the tolerance of herbivores for variation in diet quality.

Theuerkauf, J., Waitkuwait, W.E., Guiro, Y., Ellenberg, H., Porembski, S., 2000. Diet of forest elephants and their role in seed dispersal in the Bossematie Forest Reserve, Ivory Coast. Mammalia 64, 447-460.
Abstract: On 28 days from August to December 1993, we followed fresh tracks of forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) in the heavily exploited semi-deciduous Bossematie Forest Reserve (southeastern Cote d'Ivoire) to study: (1) which ecological type of plant species forest elephants prefer to eat; (2) if the germination success under artificial conditions is representative of natural conditions; and (3) the importance of forest elephants as seed dispersal agents in the regeneration of the Forest Reserve. When comparing the 147 food plants with the flora of the study area, it appeared that elephants selected trees (P < 0.001) and avoided shrubs (P < 0.001) as well as herb and grass species (P=0.002). In contrast to results of studies in more natural forests, the elephants preferred shade tolerant (P=0.024) and avoided light tolerant species (P=0.008). They preferred the fruits (P=0.043) and bark (P < 0.001) of shade tolerant species and avoided the bark of light tolerant species (P=0.008). We estimated that in our study area elephants dispersed seeds at a mean distance of 5 to 12 km and were responsible for the dispersal of at least 66 species (more than 10% of identified spermatophytes in the forest).

Dudley, J.P., 1999. Seed dispersal of Acacia erioloba by African bush elephants in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 37, 375-385.
Abstract: Approximately two-thirds (64%) of all dry season samples of elephant dung analysed during a 3-year study in the Main Camp subregion of Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, contained seed and/or pod materials from camelthorn (Acacia erioloba), a characteristic and dominant tree species in the area. Most seeds were recovered intact and actively germinating seeds were not uncommon. Very little pod mass relative to seed mass was recovered in most instances, with pod fragments recorded from only 56% of all exhaustively sampled elephant dung piles containing A. erioloba fruit materials. Nonetheless, large pod fragments and even entire intact pods were recovered occasionally from elephant dung. Seeds and pods of A. erioloba may comprise 12% or more of total wet-weight dung mass; individual dung piles were found which contained >5000 A. erioloba seeds. Birds and smaller mammals search out and consume A. erioloba seeds present within elephant dung piles. The findings of this study indicate that the potential digestibility of A. erioloba seeds for bush elephants (Loxodonta africana africana) may be much higher than expected from previous studies. In controlled feeding trials with captive bush elephants (age 11-15 years old) maintained on predominantly free-range dry season diets, the estimated efficiency of digestion for A. erioloba seeds consumed in pods was 81% to 96%, with a gut-transit time of between 24.5 and 36.0 h. On the basis of throughput times determined in experimental feeding trials, potential elephant-dispersal distances of 20-50 km are predicted for A. erioloba in the Kalahari Sands landscapes of southern central Africa.

Karunaratne, S.H.P.P., Ranawana, K.B., 1999. A preliminary study on feeding activity patterns and budgets of domesticated elephants (Elephas maximus maximus) in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science, Biological Sciences 27, 61-65.
Abstract: Feeding activity patterns of 3 domesticated elephants were studied for 7 consecutive days. Four food items (I) jak (Artocarpus heterophyllus) leaves and twigs, (II) a browse mixture (excluding jak), (III) Panicum maximum and (IV) a grass mixture (excluding Panicum maximum) were offered separately and feeding activities were observed for 5 each day. Although P. maximum and grass mixture were consumed in large quantities, all 3 elephants spent most of their feeding time on jak and browse mixture (65.4-79.8% of their feeding time). This was mainly because they had a special preference for feeding on the bark of the large twigs of jak and browse and the peeling process was very time-consuming. It is apparent that although grass acts as a filling food, the bark of jak and browse branches serve some specific need of the elephant.

Kunz, C., Rudloff, S., Schad, W., Braun, D., 1999. Lactose-derived oligosaccharides in the milk of elephants: comparison with human milk. Br J Nutr 82, 391-399.
Abstract: Human milk is commonly considered to be unique when compared with the milk of other species with regard to its high content of complex fucosylated and sialylated lactose-derived oligosaccharides. We describe the application of high-pH anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection and TLC to characterize and quantitate neutral and sialylated lactose-derived oligosaccharides in milk from three Asian elephants and human milk. The lactose contents of elephant and human milks were 25-30 g/l and about 66 g/l respectively, whereas total oligosaccharide concentration was about three times higher in elephant milk and comprised up to 40% (10% in human milk) of the carbohydrate content. The ratio neutral: acidic components was different in the milk of the two species; in elephant milk, the N-acetylneuraminic acid-containing oligosaccharides made up almost half of the total amount v. 30% in human milk. Most oligosaccharides in elephant milk were more fucosylated and/or sialylated compared with human milk components. By mild acid hydrolysis, fucose and N-acetylneuraminic acid were cleaved off from complex components, and this resulted in increased amounts of fucose, galactose, N-acetylneuraminic acid, lactose and lacto-N-neo-tetraose. Unique to elephant milk are the high levels of 3'-galactosyllactose (up to 4 g/l) and lacto-N-neo-tetraose which are present in human milk only in trace amounts. Elephant and human milks have high levels and unique patterns of oligosaccharides which may reflect the relative importance of these components in neonatal host defence, in endothelial leucocyte interactions or in brain development.

Sarmah, B.C., Kalita, D.J., Pathak, S.C., 1999. Mineral status of elephant. Indian Veterinary Journal 76, 661-662.
Abstract: The serum concentrations of Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo and Mn were measured by atomic absorption spectrometry in blood samples collected from 20 elephants in 2 reserves (Kaziranga and Manas) in Assam; the results are tabulated. In general, the levels in animals on the 2 reserves were similar, except that the Fe and Cu concentrations were significantly higher in the animals at Kaziranga; differences in the mineral contents of the soil and the plants were suggested as a possible explanation for the variations.

Savage, A., Leong, K.M., Grobler, D., Lehnhardt, J., Dierenfeld, E.S., Stevens, E.F., Aebischer, C.P., 1999. Circulating levels of alpha-tocopherol and retinol in free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 18, 319-323.

Karunaratne, S.H.P.P., Ranawana, K.B., 1998. A preliminary study of the food preference of domesticated elephants (Elephas maximus L) in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science, Biological Sciences 25, 58-64.
Abstract: Food preference of 3 domesticated elephants were studied for 7 days. Four food items, jack (Artocarpus heterophyllus) leaves and twigs, a browse mixture (excluding jack), Panicum maximum and a grass mixture (excluding P. maximum) were offered in separate bundles. Elephants were allowed to feed on these for 24 h and at the end of each feeding trial, food items were separated into 4 groups and weighed. On the basis of the amount consumed and discarded, food preference was calculated using Manly's Alpha index. All 3 elephants used in the experiment showed a preference for P. maximum or the grass mixture.

Paley, R.G.T., Kerley, G.I.H., 1998. The winter diet of elephant in Eastern Cape Subtropical Thicket, Addo Elephant National Park. Koedoe 41, 37-45.

Sarwar, G., Botting, H.G., Davis, T.A., Darling, P., Pencharz, P.B., 1998. Free amino acids in milks of human subjects, other primates and non-primates. Br J Nutr 79, 129-131.
Abstract: Preterm and term transitional milks of human subjects and mature milks of human subjects, non-human primates and non-primates were analysed for free amino acids (AA) using precolumn phenylisothiocyanate derivatization and liquid chromatography. Differences in free AA between three types of human milk were small. Milks of pinnipeds (seals and sea lions) contained the highest levels of total free AA (8634-20,862 mumol/l), while the milks of cows and sheep had the lowest levels of total free AA (1061-1357 mumol/l). The milks of human subjects, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), elephants (Elephas maximus), horses and pigs had intermediate levels of total free AA (3069-7381 mumol/l). Glutamic acid was the most abundant free AA in milks of human subjects (1339-2157 mumol/l), non-human primates (423-2528 mumol/l), elephants (1332 mumol/l), horses (1119 mumol/l), and cows (349 mumol/l). Taurine was the most abundant free AA in milks of pinnipeds (5776-13,643 mumol/l), pigs (1238 mumol/l), goats (1150 mumol/l) and sheep (341 mumol/l). Taurine was the second most abundant free AA in milks of human subjects and non-human primates, while histidine was the second most abundant free AA in milks of pinnipeds. Milks of each species had a distinctive free AA pattern which may reflect the relative importance of the free AA during early postnatal development.

Shrestha, S.P., Ullrey, D.E., Bernard, J.B., Wemmer, C., Kraemer, D.C., 1998. Plasma vitamin E and other analyte levels in Nepalese camp elephants (Elephas maximus).  Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 29, 269-278.
Abstract: Plasma concentrations of -tocopherol (vitamin E) and other analytes in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) inn Nepal were determined during typical work camp management of the elephants.  Elephants foraged for food for 4-6 hr each day under the control of mahouts and were also provided daily with cut forage and supplements of unhusked rice, cane molasses, and salt.  Blood samples were taken monthly for 1 yr without chemical restraint from 26 female elephants in four camps.  Elephants were 6-60+ yr of age.  Mean (+/-SEM) -tocopherol concentration was 0.77+/-0.047 g/ml with a range of 0.23-1.57 g/ml. Subadults had lower concentrations than did older elephants, and there were significant differences in mean concentrations from different camps and in mean monthly concentrations.  Plasma -tocopherol concentration appears to vary widely between individuals, and a single value of <0.3 g/ml is not sufficient to diagnose incipient vitamin E deficiency.  Mean (+/-SEM) plasma retinol (vitamin A) concentration was 0.0063 +/- 0.0003 g/ml with a range of 0.01-0.12 g/ml.  Subadults had higher concentrations than did older elephants, and mean retinal values differed significantly among camps. Beta-carotene was not found in plasma.  Twenty-five other analytes determined or derived were generally similar to those reported in other Asian and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants.  Estimates of nutrient intake, based upon diet composition, suggested that dietary concentrations of zinc and sodium may have been marginal, but the absence of signs of any nutrient deficiencies indicates that dietary husbandry in these elephant camps was generally satisfactory.

Welsch, U., Feuerhake, F., van Aarde, R., Buchheim, W., Patton, S., 1998. Histo- and cytophysiology of the lactating mammary gland of the African elephant(Loxodonta africana). Cell Tissue Res 294, 485-501.
Abstract: The lactating mammary gland of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) has been studied with a panel of morphological techniques focusing on (1) the functional changes during the secretory process, (2) proliferative process [by application of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunohistochemistry] and apoptotic phenomena [by use of the TUNEL technique] in the individual lobules, and (3) components of milk and milk-fat-globule membrane. In the lactating gland, the lobules are variably differentiated; within a lobule, however, the alveoli are usually similarly differentiated. The morphology of their alveoli suggests a classification of the lobules into types 1-3. Lobules of type 1 are composed of immature tubular alveoli with mitotic figures and numerous PCNA-positive nuclei; advanced type 1 alveoli contain abundant glycogen and specific secretory granules. Lobules of type 2 are further subdivided. In type 2a lobules, the epithelial cells of the alveoli form tall apical protrusions, which in part are occupied by small lipid droplets and which are pinched off in an apocrine fashion. The number of lysosomes varies considerably. Type 2b is the most common type, with striking basal membrane foldings, abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum cisterns, large Golgi apparatus, numerous mitochondria, lipid droplets, and protein vesicles with 30- to 90-nm-wide casein micelles. The lipid droplets are pinched off with minimal amounts of cytoplasm. Type 2c is composed of alveoli with a cuboidal epithelium and few signs of secretory activity. Increasing expression of peanut-agglutinin-binding sites parallels the maturation and differentiation of the glandular cells. Type 3 lobules are marked by numerous TUNEL-positive nuclei and large lipid droplets and are apparently degenerating structures. Cytokeratin (CK) 14 is usually present in the myoepithelial cells; CK 19 and CK 7 mark ductal and immature alveolar epithelia. Milk protein content varies between 2.6% and 6.3%, and casein micelles range from 35 to 90 nm in diameter. The diameter of intra-alveolar milk fat globules ranges from 5 to 25 micrometer and the membranes bear a filamentous surface coat composed of membrane-anchored mucins; gel-electrophoretic analysis of these mucins from different individuals demonstrates the presence of mucin MUC 1, which is expressed with considerable genetic heterogeneity.

Cheeran, J.V., Nagaraj, B.N., Animom, M.M., 1997. Preliminary studies on mineral supplements for Asian elephants. Tigerpaper 24, 18-20.

Mircean, M., Giurgiu, G., Oros, A., Kadar, L., Ghergariu, S., 1997. Complex osteodystrophy in an orphan Indian elephant. Revista Romana de Medicina Veterinara 7, 191-199.
Abstract: An Indian elephant calf, rejected by its mother, was fed at first with cow and buffalo milk, and subsequently with bread, bran, rice, barley and fruit. He was initially affected with rickets, leading to osteofibrosis. Forelegs and the mandible were curved, causing difficulty in mastication. Clinical pathology showed a fall in Ca:P ratio to 1.47, and radiology showed thinning of the bone cortex. Intensive treatment with vitamins (B, C, D3 and E), a testosterone compound and amoxicillin made it possible for the animal to stand and walk, but the deformities remained. The elephant was eventually killed.

Roy, A., Krift, I.J.J. Milk replacer for Asian and African elephant calves. Proceedings of the 18th Annual EMA Workshop, Fort Worth Zoological Park.  43-49. 1997. Fort Worth, TX.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Stuart, R.L. Vitamin E Supplementation in the Elephant. The Elephant Managers Association Proceedings of the 18th Annual EMA Workshop, Fort Worth Zoological Park, Fort Worth Texas, November 1-4, 1997.  50-53. 1997. 1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Ullrey, D.E., Crissey, S.D., Hintz, H.F. Elephants: Nutrition and Dietary Husbandry: Nutrition Advisory Group Handbook Fact Sheet 004 September 1997. Nutrition Advisory Group Handbook , 1-18. 1997.
Ref Type: Electronic Citation

Kurt, F., Schmid, J. A comparison of feeding behaviour and body weight in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). First International Symposium on Physiology and Ethology of Wild and Zoo Animals.  1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Meissner, H., vanNiekerk, W., Grant, R., Schultheiss, W., West, N.E. Monitoring food selection and nutritive status of game species to aid range management decisions in game reserves. Rangelands in a sustainable biosphere. Proceedings of the Fifth International Rangeland Congress.  358. 1996. Denver; USA, Society for Range Management. 1995.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: In studies in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, in the wet and dry seasons and including the 1992-93 drought, diet selection and nutritional status of elephants [Elephas maximus], giraffes [Giraffa camelopardalis], buffaloes [Syncerus caffer], blue wildebeest [Connochaetes taurinus], zebras [Equus burchellii], kudu [Tragelaphus strepsiceros] and impala [Aepyceros melampus] were investigated. Elephants selected grasses in the wet season but harvested large proportions of twigs, roots and bark in the dry season. Impala ate 90% grass in the wet season but 33% browse in the dry season. Buffaloes succumbed during the drought once grass was no longer available. Zebra and blue wildebeest competed for grass species and both species occasionally grazed forbs. Dry matter intake was related to quality of diet except in hind gut fermenters. Intake in relation to size was also higher in zebra than in blue wildebeest. Faecal N and P were considered the most useful diet monitoring agents since they distinguished between animal species, seasons and habitats.

Mosley, J. Hand-Rearing a Captive-Born Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus): (I) A Study of Physical Development as a Response to the Rearing Regime, and (ii) Social Interactions. Spooner, N. G. and Sharp, K. The Ninth UK Elephant Workshop.  36-65. 1996. England, The North of England Zoological Society. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Murray, S., Bush, M., Tell, L.A., 1996. Medical management of postpartum problems in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) cow and calf. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 27, 255-258.
Abstract: An 18-yr old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) gave birth to a 120-kg female calf following 22 mo of gestation.  Immediately after parturition, the cow became agitated and aggressive towards the calf.  Before the keepers were able to safely intervene and remove the calf, the cow stepped on the calf's head and right front leg.  Within 30 min, the cow calmed down, allowing the calf's safe reintroduction under close keeper supervision and control.  The cow had a retained placenta, poor mammary development, and low milk production.  The calf's injuries, in combination with the cow's low milk production, impeded the calf's ability to nurse and gain weight.  Within 10 days, the calf lost 10% of its weight.  Serum protein electrophoresis indicated failure of passive transfer of maternal immunoglobulin.  On day 10, the calf received a transfusion of concentrated immunoglobulin extracted and concentrated from the cow's previously banked plasma.  On day 13, the calf developed a urinary tract infection, as diagnosed by white blood cells and bacteria in the urine.  Following immunoglobulin administration and antibiotic therapy, clinical signs slowly resolved and the calf gained weight.  The cow passed the fetal membranes during parturition, but the placenta was retained.  Despite prophylactic systemic antibiotics and vaginal flushing, the cow became depressed and developed a leukocytosis and anemia.  A mucopurulent vaginal discharge and ventral edema were noted on day 3, and milk production was minimal.  Because decreased milk production has been reported as a common sequel to retained placenta, efforts were focused on removing the placenta.  Intermittent oxytocin therapy on days 2-14 did not result in expulsion of the placenta and produced only transient abdominal contractions and minimal increases in milk letdown.  On day 15, 10 mg estradiol cypionate was administered i.m. followed by 200 IU oxytocin i.v.  An additional 10 IU oxytocin was administered i.v. on day 16.  The friable placenta was palpable within the vaginal vault on day 17.  The remaining placenta was removed by gentle traction applied by a modified weighted pressure cuff.  Once the placenta was removed, the cow's clinical problems slowly resolved and the calf continued to gain weight.

Parrott, J.J. Analysis of African elephant mature milk in early lactation and formulation of an elephant calf milk replacer. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.  102-111. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Mature milk samples (n=5) were collected from one African elephant (Loxodonta africana) during early lactation for analysis of nutrient composition. Total solids averaged 11.32% and were significantly lower than previously reported for African elephants. Lactose averaged 2.79% (24.6% dry matter basis), which was also significantly lower than previously reported and indicates African elephants are a low-to-moderate lactose species. Bovine milk contains 1.5-2 times this level, and human milk replacers contain 2.5 times this level of lactose on a dry matter basis. This could represent a significant cause of diarrhea when human milk replacers are used in African elephant calves. Milk fat averaged 4.38% (39% dry matter basis) and ranged from 3.51-5.32%. Protein levels averaged 2.3% (20% dry matter basis). Ash levels averaged 0.53% (4.7% dry matter basis). Vitamin A levels ranged from 28-171 IU/100 g (249-1361 IU/100 g dry matter basis) and vitamin D ranged from 22-69.8 IU/100 g (196-693 IU/100 g dry matter basis). Vitamin E ranged from 0.33-0.88 µg/ml, with the cow supplemented on a diet of 8,000 IU per day. Calcium levels averaged 37.8 mg/100 g (334 mg/100 g) and ranged from 28-43 mg/100 g (257-431 mg/100 g dry matter basis); phosphorus averaged 18.8 mg/100 g (166 mg/100 g dry matter basis) and ranged from 15.9-20.8 mg/100 g (143- 204 mg/100 g dry matter basis). The calcium:phosphorus ratio averaged approximately 2:1. An African elephant calf milk replacer was formulated based on the mature milk analysis of early lactation. The general makeup included: total solids (11.5%), fat (5%), lactose (2.5%), protein (3.3%), ash (0.52%), calcium (65 mg/100 g), phosphorus (42 mg/100 g), vitamin A (75 IU/100 g) and vitamin D (46 IU/100 g). Vitamin E is supplemented separately as 2 IU/kg body weight micellized natural tocopherol (Stuart Products) to insure bioavailability. The milk replacer is produced starting with bovine skim milk powder and bovine whey protein concentrate, mixed to provide the milk proteins necessary in the milk replacer. Fat is then added using a fat premix and coconut oil (coconut oil is approximately 25% of the total fat supplied). A mixture of mineral and vitamin premix completes the formula. The final formulation maintained lactose on the low end of the milk analysis range (20-26% dry matter basis), to minimize the risk of a lactose-induced diarrhea. Protein and fat were maintained at the high end or slightly above the range in the milk analysis to accommodate the lower lactose and still maintain a total solids of approximately 11.5%.

Plumptre, A.J., 1996. Modelling the impact of large herbivores on the food supply of mountain gorillas and implications for management. Biological Conservation. 1996, 75: 2, 147-155; 32 75, 147-155.
Abstract: During the 1980s, the populations of large mammals were increasing in the region of the Virunga volcanoes in central Africa, causing concern about their possible impact on the food supply of the mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei). This was investigated by analysing the overlap in diets and habitat use between the mountain gorilla and the black-fronted duiker (Cephalophus nigrifrons), the bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the African buffalo (Synceros caffer) and the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Expected niche overlap values from random simulations indicated that dietary overlap was unexpectedly low between most species pairings. A computer simulation of the effects of animal competition indicated that African elephants were most likely to affect the populations of mountain gorillas. The other herbivores had little effect on the food supply. The conservation of the mountain gorilla is discussed in the light of these findings.

Schaftenaar, W. Vaginal vestibulotomy in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  434-439. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Due to its dimensions, dystocia in elephants presents a difficult problem.  This paper describes the delivery of a dead calf by surgical intervention.  A vestibulotomy was performed under local anesthesia.  Complications in wound healing resulted in a permanent fistula of the vestibulum.  The difficulties in decision making and the interpretation of clinical signs are discussed.

Warren, K., Bolton, J., Swan, R., Gaynor, W., Pond, L., 1996. Treatment of gastrointestinal tract impaction of a 2-year-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Australian Veterinary Journal 73, 37-38.
Abstract: The case of a 2-year-old Asian elephant (E. maximus) with gastrointestinal impaction caused by ingesting sand and clay is reported. The sand was the basic substrate of the elephant's enclosure at Perth Zoo, Australia, and the clay had been added as a top-dressing. The behaviour was thought to have been the result of salt deficiency in the elephant's diet, and once this had been rectified and the impaction treated, she stopped ingesting sand. There were 3 other elephants in the enclosure and although they ingested sand, they did not suffer from impaction. Segments of Anaoplocephalus sp. [Anoplocephala sp.] were found in her faeces, and this infection had probably been picked up from a 36-year-old elephant in the enclosure which was known to be infected.

 1995. A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India.

Cheeran, J.V., Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 1995. Principles and Practice of Fixing Dose of Drugs for Elephants. In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 430-438.
Abstract: The traditional thumb rule of determining dose in domestic animals has been Cat - 1/2, Dog - 1, Sheep and Goat - 3, Horse - 16, Cattle - 24. However this was valid only for galenicals like Tinctures and Pulvis and also to some extent for pure chemicals used as drugs like potassium iodide, ammonium chloride etc. Development of modern techniques like determination of half life and minimum effective concentration changed the course and pattern of determining the dose of drugs in animals as well as in man. Some drugs which are of low therapeutic margin is, even recommended considering the surface area of the body (e.g. antineoplastic drugs). Wild animals provide not enough number, for experimental purposes to arrive at a proper recommendation. In such circumstances pharmacologists often extrapolate the dose from their "evolutionary cousins" some of which are domestic animals. But unfortunately in elephants such "close cousins" do not exist neither in the wild nor in the domestic category. This makes fixing of dosage all the more difficult. Hence often the dose has been arbitrarily fixed from clinical experiences. The article details the above principles as well as lists of dose of various pharmacological and chemotherapeutic agents used in clinical practice in elephants (Table 1).

Coetzee, H.L., Kotze, S.H., Lourens, N., 1995. Characterization of mucus glycoproteins in the intestinal mucosa of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) following lectin histochemistry. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 62, 187-192.
Abstract: The glycoproteins of the small intestines, caecum and colon of three adult elephants and one recently weaned elephant calf were examined by means of lectin histochemistry. Tissue sections were histochemically stained with peroxidase-labelled concanavalin A (Con A), asparagus-pea (TPA), peanut (PNA) and wheat-germ (WGA) lectins. Con A and TPA showed no binding activity in the intestinal tract of the adult elephants or the duodenum and ileum of the elephant calf, but did show a small amount of binding activity in the caecum and colon of the calf. WGA bound very intensely throughout the intestinal tracts of the adults and of the calf--especially with the goblet cells located in the crypts of Lieberkuhn and the glands of Brunner--decreasing in intensity towards the luminal surface of the intestinal tract. PNA stained the glands of Brunner of the duodenum faintly and the goblet cells of the ileum moderately, with no staining of the caecum and faint staining of the colon. These results show the distribution of Con A-, WGA-, PNA- and TPA-binding sites, and the changes that take place in the type of glycoprotein secreted after a change in the diet of the animal.

Khan, A., 1995. Elephant Conservation Unit: Linking Two Elephant Populations in North-Western India. In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 162-176.

Krishnamurthy, V., Wemmer, C., 1995. Timber Elephant Management in the Madras Presidency of India (1844-1947). In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 456-472.

Mukhtar, A.S., 1995. Nutrient value of elephant (Elephas maximus sumatraensis) forages in the elephant training centre at Lampung. Buletin Penelitian Hutan, No. 589 55-65.

Sivaganesan, N., Kumar, A., 1995. Status of Feral Elephants in Andamans. In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 97-119.

Sivaganesan, N., Johnsingh, A.J.T., 1995. Food Resources Crucial to the Wild Elephants in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, South India. In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 405-423.

Sukumar, R., Ramesh, R., 1995. Elephant Foraging: Is Browse or Grass More Important? In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 368-374.

Williams, L.M., Williams, T., 1995. Please pass up the salt. Sandridge, Bloomington, Ind.USA.
Abstract: Tells the story of Congo, an elephant who lives in the Red Apple Zoo and  who enjoys eating salty snacks, such as pretzels and peanuts. Describes the effect of too much salt on Congo, and discusses what healthy snacks can be substituted for salty ones.

Brown, J.L., Schoeneman, H.M., Raath, J.P., de Vos, V., Bush, M., 1994. Serum concentrations of cationic minerals in free-ranging elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Kruger National Park. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 25, 495-499.
Abstract: Blood samples were collected from 22 free-ranging adult African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Kruger National Park, Republic of South Africa, and analyzed for concentrations of serum sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, copper, zinc, and iron. Fourteen of the animals (males) were anesthetized at the time of sample collection; the remaining samples were obtained from male (n = 4) and female (n = 4) elephants during an annual population control program.  There were no gender differences in mineral concentrations among culled elephants.  Serum calcium, magnesium, copper, and sodium concentrations also were similar between anesthetized and culled animals.  In contrast, serum potassium and zinc concentrations were higher and serum iron concentration was lower in culled elephants than in anesthetized males.

Davis, T.A., Davis, T.A., Garcia-Bravo, R., Fiorotto, M.L., Jackson, E.M., Lewis, D.S., Lee, D.R., Reeds, P.J., 1994. Amino acid composition of human milk is not unique. J Nutr 124, 1126-1132.
Abstract: To determine whether the amino acid pattern of human milk is unique, we compared the amino acid pattern of human milk with the amino acid patterns of the milks of great apes (chimpanzee and gorilla), lower primates (baboon and rhesus monkey) and nonprimates (cow, goat, sheep, llama, pig, horse, elephant, cat and rat). Amino acid pattern was defined as the relative proportion of each amino acid (protein-bound plus free) (in mg) to the total amino acids (in g). Total amino acid concentration was lower in primate milk than in nonprimate milk. There were commonalities in the overall amino acid pattern of the milks of all species sampled; the most abundant amino acids were glutamate (plus glutamine, 20%), proline (10%) and leucine (10%). Essential amino acids were 40%, branched-chain amino acids 20%, and sulfur amino acids 4% of the total amino acids. The amino acid pattern of human milk was more similar to those of great apes than to those of lower primates. For example, cystine was higher and methionine was lower in primate milks than in nonprimate milks, and in great ape and human milks than in lower primate milks. Because the milk amino acid patterns of the human and elephant, both slow-growing species, were dissimilar, the amino acid pattern of human milk seems unrelated to growth rate.

Dierenfeld, E.S., 1994. Vitamin E in exotics: effects, evaluation and ecology. Journal of Nutrition. 124, 2579S-2581S.
Abstract: The pathophysiology and lesions associated with vitamin E deficiency are similar between domestic and exotic species, and circulating plasma concentrations are also similar between comparable groups. However, many ecological variables must be considered for the most relevant comparisons. Tissue values of vitamin E, apart from plasma, are unknown for most exotics. Dietary vitamin E requirements of exotic species and domestics appear to differ; based on natural foodstuff analyses and clinical observations, between 50 and 200 mg vitamin E/kg DM are necessary to prevent vitamin E deficiency, 5- to 10-fold higher than current livestock recommendations.

Ensley, P.K., Osborn, K., Bissonette, S., Deftos, L.J. Osteodystrophy in an orphan Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).  Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  142-143. 1994.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Mainka, S.A., Cooper, R.M., Black, S.R., Dierenfeld, E.S., 1994. Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) milk composition during the first 280 days of lactation. Zoo Biology 13, 389-393.
Abstract: Milk samples (n=10) taken during the first 280 days of lactation from one Asian elephant were examined for nutrient composition including total solids, protein, fat, ash, alpha-tocopherol and retinol levels. Total solids averaged 19.7±2.7% s.d. (range 15.0-23.3%). Percent protein remained fairly stable throughout this portion of lactation and averaged 3.4±0.3 (range 3.0-4.0%). Ash content averaged 0.54±0.03%. Milk fat and fat-soluble vitamin levels varied considerably with a suggestion of a cyclic pattern. Fat content of milk averaged 7.6±2.6% (range 3.9-12.1%); alpha-tocopherol levels averaged 0.33±0.12 µg/ml and retinol levels averaged 0.46±0.1 µg/ml.

Mikota, S.K., Sargent, E.L., Ranglack, G.S., 1994. Medical Management of the Elephant. Indira Publishing House, West Bloomfield MI.

Sadler, W.C., Hopkins, D.T., Miller, R.E., Junge, R.E., Houston, E.W., Read, B., Kuehn, G., Gonzales, B., Miller, M., Kapustin, N., Olson, D. Vitamin E forms for elephants.  Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.  360-370. 1994.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Sukumar, R., 1994. Elephant Days and Nights: Ten Years with the Indian Elephant. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

White, L.J.T., 1994. Sacoglottis gabonensis fruiting and the seasonal movements of elephants in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. Journal of Tropical Ecology 10(pt1), 121-125.

Bechert, U., 1993. Elephant nutrition. Animal Keepers' Forum 20, 139-140.

Bengis, R., 1993. Care of the African elephant Loxodonta africana in captivity. The capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision Support Services : South African Veterinary  Foundation, Pretoria, pp. 506-511.

Dierenfeld, E.S., Traber, M.G., 1993. Vitamin E status of exotic animals compared with livestock and domestics. In: Packer, L., Fuchs, J. (Eds.), Vitamin E in health and disease. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, pp. 345-370.

Dierenfeld, E.S. Elephant nutrition research update.  SSP report.  1993. Wheeling, WV, USA, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums.
Ref Type: Report

Ebedes, H., 1993. The use of long-acting tranquilizers in captive wild animals. The capture and care manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals. Pretoria : Wildlife Decision Support Services : South African Veterinary  Foundation, Pretoria.

Kabigumila, J., 1993. Feeding habits of elephants in Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology 31, 156-164.
Abstract: Observations on the feeding habits of elephants were made from June 1984 to May 1985. The elephants' diet comprised at least 36 plant species ranging in size from big trees to small herbs. Elephants ate mostly sedges (Cyperus immensus in particular) and tree browse during the dry season, and legumes (particularly Trifolium masaiense) and grass (mainly Chloris gayana, Cynodon dactylon and Panicum repens) during the wet season. Elephants browsed on and damaged Acacia xanthophloea. Greatest damage occurred to saplings and was mostly done in the dry season when elephants ate significant amounts of this species. It is concluded that since elephant damage was seasonal, most saplings would recover during the wet season.

Kock, M.D., Martin, R.B., Kock, N., 1993. Chemical immobilization of free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Zimbabwe, using etorphine (M99) mixed with hyaluronidase, and evaluation of biological data collected soon after immobilization. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24, 1-10.
Abstract: Sixteen adult female free-ranging elephants were immobilized in July 1990, using a mean (±SE) dose per animal of 11.6 ± 0.3 mg of etorphine (M99) mixed with a standard dose of hyaluronidase (4500 IU), at the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe, to attach telemetry and infrasound detection collars. The 16 elephants were reimmobilized in December 1990, using higher doses of etorphine (standardized at 15 mg total dose) with hyaluronidase (4500 IU), to remove the collars. The higher doses of etorphine produced more rapid inductions. Biological data were collected on both occasions. Significant differences in selected measures indicative of stress, including lactic dehydrogenase and aspartate transaminase, were seen between immobilizations. Comparisons were made of selected health measures between samples collected in the early winter and late winter/early spring season. Significant differences were seen with total protein, albumin, urea nitrogen, creatinine, calcium, magnesium, inorganic phosphorus, chloride, and alanine transaminase.

Mandal, L., Chakraborthy, N., 1993. Chemical compositions of some vegetable and fruit peels as feed for livestock. Indian Veterinary Journal 70, 1067-1068.
Abstract: Composition of vegetable and fruit peels (brinjal, papaya, cucumber, ashgourd, snakegourd, lady's finger, potato, sweetgourd, ridgegourd, plantain flower, pulbul, green plantain, elephant fruit, pineapple and mango) was studied.

Nath, N.C., Hussain, A., Rahman, F., 1993. Milk characteristics of a captive Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24, 528-533.
Abstract: The physicochemical characteristics of the milk of a captive Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) were determined at 30, 37 and 44 days post partum. The milk was ivory white and aromatic. The mean value for pH was 6.49 and sp.gr. was 1.0296. The mean values of different components in whole milk in g/dl were as follows: TS, 9.81; fat, 1.40; SNF, 8.41; lactose (total reducing sugars), 7.60; total protein, 1.39; casein, 1.00; whey protein, 0.39; beta-lactoglobulin, 0.23; alpha-lactalbumin, 0.17; serum albumin, 0; immunoglobulin, 0; urea, 0.04; calcium, 0.08; sodium, 0.02; potassium, 0.09; inorganic phosphorus, 0.02; and chloride, 0.04. Values for total protein, casein, whey protein, sugar and minerals in this investigation were similar to values reported previously in Indian rhinoceros milk, but not in milk of the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) or black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Comparisons of these values with reported values in milk of domestic horses, elephants (Elephas maximus), cows, buffalo (Bubalis bubalis), goats and sheep revealed similarity only with milk of the horse.

Rietkerk, F.E., Hiddingh, H., Van Dijk, S., 1993. Hand-rearing an Asian elephant Elephas maximus at the Noorder Zoo, Emmen. Iowa State University Veterinarian 32, 244-252.

Tchamba, M.N., Seme, P.M., 1993. Diet and feeding behaviour of the forest elephant in the Santchou Reserve, Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology 31, 165-171.
Abstract: This study reports the diet and feeding behaviour of forest elephants in W. Cameroon. Diet consisted primarily of grass (Pennisetum purpureum). Woody material (leaves and stems) made up the smallest proportion of the diet. 22 species of fruit were eaten of which 7 formed a significant component of the diet: Cucurmis manii, Desplatsia subericarpa, Irvingia gabonensis, Parinari excelsa, Strychnos innocuea, Theobroma cacao and Vitex doniana. The greatest variety of fruit was available during the dry season. The frequent presence of crop seeds in the dung piles indicated that elephant incursions into the farms to feed on crops were regular. Elephants removed bark from 8 species of tree but concentrated on Afzelia bipindensis, Coloncoba welwitschii, Bridelia ferruginea and Terminalia superba. Seventeen species were recorded as browsed. Trees in particular were favoured. Elephants fed mainly by grazing or stripping off fruits. Debarking of trees, breaking of the main stems, and uprooting or pushing over were minor feeding activities.

Tuchili, L.M., Pandey, G.S., Sinyangwe, P.G., Kaji, T., 1993. Anthrax in cattle, wildlife and humans in Zambia. Veterinary Record 132, 487.
Abstract: In Zambia, 265 specimens of various tissues from animals and of surface water (5 samples) submitted over the period from 1987 to 1991 were examined for anthrax. 35 of the 85 were positive; 35 were in domestic animals including 33 cattle, a sheep and a pig from the Western, Southern, Central, Lusaka and North Western Provinces, and 50 in wild animals including 13 hippos, 11 kudus, 5 buffaloes, 4 elephants, 4 pukus, 4 wild dogs, 4 zebras, 3 waterbucks and 2 giraffes from South Luangwa National Park in Eastern Province. One water sample from the park was positive. Of 17 long bones from infected cattle, 5 yielded virulent, pure cultures of Bacillus anthracis. All milk samples examined were negative. Over 100 human deaths from anthrax, usually associated with eating infected meat have been recorded, mainly since 1990 in the Western and North-Western Provinces. Control measured for anthrax in wild animals after environmental contamination, including carcass disposal and adding quaternary ammonium compounds to water-holes, are suggested.

White, L.J.T., Tutin, C.E.G., Fernandez, M., 1993. Group composition and diet of forest elephants, Loxodonta africana cyclotis Matschie 1900, in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. African Journal of Ecology 31, 181-199.
Abstract: Forest elephants were observed opportunistically during 1984-1991 in lowland rain forest in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. Adult females were generally encountered accompanied by one or more offspring, and adult males were generally solitary. Mean group size was 2.8 individuals, and the mean size of a 'family unit' was 3.5 individuals. Associations of more than 8 elephants were exceptional. Group sizes of elephants at Lope were smaller than those recorded for savanna elephants in E. Africa and those of Asian elephants living in Malaysian rain forest. The diet of elephants at Lope was diverse, including a minimum of 307 items. The bulk of the diet in terms of number of species and quantities eaten, came from leaves and bark (70% of all items recorded). Trees represented 73% of the species eaten. In contrast to savanna-living populations, fruit was an important part of the diet. Fruit of at least 72 species was eaten and the remains of at least 1 species of fruit was found in 82% of 311 fresh dung piles searched over a 1-year period.

Ananthasubramaniam, C.R., 1992. Some aspects of elephant nutrition. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 86-90.

Chakraborty, A., Chaudhury, B., 1992. Pathology of Fasciola jacksoni infestation in elephants. Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology 16, 98-101.
Abstract: Fasciola jacksoni infection was discovered in 2 out of 3 elephants autopsied at Assam State Zoo, India, during 1985 to 1989. The parasites were attached to biliary epithelium. Microscopy demonstrated that the biliary epithelium was distorted by necrotic tissue which contained erythrocytes and ova of F. jacksoni. The epithelium was analyzed by X-ray microanalysis, which showed that the infected epithelium contained aluminum, silicon, calcium and iron, while non-infected, normal biliary epithelium contained only phosphorus and sulfur. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that both the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the parasite possessed spines.

Krishnamurth, V., 1992. Care and management of elephant calves in captivity. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 82-85.

Ruggiero, R.G., 1992. Seasonal forage utilization by elephants in central Africa. African Journal of Ecology 30, 137-148.
Abstract: Foraging by adult African elephants was studied in the Terminalia/Combretum woodlands of Manovo-Gounda-St Floris National Park, Central African Republic where dominant grasses were Hyparrhenia rufa and Andropogon gayanus. Elephants spent nearly 17 h/d feeding and had a mean daily intake of nearly 7% of liveweight and tended to feed more at night than during the day. Seasonal variation in feeding time, browsing and grazing rates, weight per trunkful, and defaecation were used to estimate forage intake and gross assimilation efficiency. Daily forage consumption was consistent with the range reported in previous literature, but gross assimilation efficiency was lower indicating relatively poor forage quality during the dry season. The grass:browse ratio in the diet was 3.5:1 DW calculated on an annual basis. Combined with increased human disturbance and decreased forage availability during the dry season, elephants experienced nutritional stress resulting in loss of condition. Defaecation rates, which may be useful for estimating elephant numbers or occupance, are discussed and show that extrapolating numbers of forest elephants from data gathered from savanna populations must be treated with caution due to the differential proportions of grass and browse in their diets.

Sreekumar, K.P., Nirmalan, G., 1992. Fatty acid composition of plasma lipids in the Indian elephant (Elephas maximus). In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 51-53.

Sukumar, R., Ramesh, R., 1992. Stable carbon isotope  ratios in  Asian elephant collagen : Implications for  dietary  studies. Oecologia 91, 536-539.

Teunissen, M.J., de Kort, G.V., Op den Camp, H.J., Huis in 't Veld, J.H., 1992. Production of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes during growth of the anaerobic fungus Piromyces sp. on different substrates. J Gen Microbiol 138 (Pt 8), 1657-1664.
Abstract: Piromyces sp. strain E2, an anaerobic fungus isolated from an Indian elephant (hindgut fermenter) was tested for its ability to ferment a range of substrates. The fungus was able to use bagasse, cellobiose, cellulose, fructose, glucose, lactose, mannose, starch, wheat bran, wheat straw, xylan and xylose. Formate and acetate were the main fermentation products after growth on these substrates. The amount of carbon found in the fermentation products of cultures, in which substrate digestion was complete averaged 88.5 mM, or 59% of the carbon offered as substrate. No growth was observed on other substrates tested. Lactose, starch, cellobiose and filter paper cellulose were good inducers of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes. Cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes were produced constitutively by Piromyces strain E2, although enzyme activities were generally lower after growth on glucose and other soluble sugars. Complex substrates (bagasse, wheat bran, and wheat straw) were good inducers for xylanolytic enzymes but not for cellulolytic enzymes. The extracellular protein banding pattern after SDS-PAGE was therefore only slightly affected by the growth substrate. Identical beta-glucosidase and endoglucanase activity patterns were found after growth on different substrates. This indicated that differences in enzyme activities were not the result of secretion of different sets of isoenzymes although it remains possible that the relative amount of each isoenzyme produced is influenced by the growth substrate.

Wallace, C., Ingram, K.A., Dierenfeld, E.S., Stuart, R.L. Serum vitamin E status of captive elephants during prolonged supplementation of micellized natural alpha-tocopherol. Proc Joint Meeting AAZV /AAWV.  345-350. 1992.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

deVilliers, P.A., Pietersen, E.W., Hugo, T.A., Meissner, H.H., Kok, O.B., 1991. Method of sampling food consumption by free-ranging elephant. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 21, 27.
Abstract: A method is proposed to sample food consumption of free-ranging elephant bulls by tracking in private game reserves bordering the Kruger National Park. Plant communities that characterize these reserves are: Combretum apiculatum with various Grewia spp. dominating the shrub stratum; a woodland community dominated by Colophospermum mopane in the tree and shrub stratum; and mixed C. apiculatum-C. mopane woodland where both species occur in the tree as well as the shrub stratum. As a result of overgrazing, the grass stratum in the whole area is in a retrogressive state of succession with Digitaria eriantha dominating on the better drained soil and Panicum maximum occurring on the heavier soils in association with various tree species. Estimation of bite sizes of leaves, bark, branches, roots and grasses, formed the basis of the technique and was sufficiently accurate for general application in the veld. Two- and 3-dimensional measurements of leaves and bark eaten could be determined directly from branches or roots. In other cases, indirect measurements were taken from similar plant structures in the immediate vicinity. Significant correlations were obtained between the measurements and mass of these plant structures. By combining frequency indexation, linear measurements, and sample weighing, a representative subsample can be determined for use in chemical analyses of food plants.

Ghebremeskel, K., Williams, G., Brett, R.A., Burek, R., Harbige, L.S., 1991. Nutrient composition of plants most favoured by black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in the wild. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 98, 529-534.

John, M.C., Suramanian, R., 1991. The elephant. Zoos' Print Journal 1-4.

Kozaki, M., Oura, R., Sekine, J., 1991. Studies on digestion physiology of herbivorous feral animals. 2. The comparison of intake of total digestible nutrients among diverse sizes of ruminant and monogastric animals. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture -Tottori-University 27, 61-68.
Abstract: Digestion trials were carried out on elephant, zebra, giraffe, eland, blackbuck, zebu cattle, Japanese serow, sika deer, muntjac and Japanese Black steer during 3 different seasons of the year. Digestibility of organic matter was about 0.6 for all animals except elephant, muntjac and blackbuck. Crude protein (CP) digestibility correlated (P<0.01) with CP concentration in the feed ration. Acid detergent fibre digestibility ranged from 0.3 to 0.4 in ruminants compared with 0.1 to 0.2 in monogastric animals. No seasonal effects on digesta were observed.

Papas, A.M., Cambre, R.C., Citino, S.B., Sokol, R.J., 1991. Efficacy of absorption of various vitamin E forms by captive elephants and black rhinoceroses. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 22, 309-317.
Abstract: A biochemical vitamin E deficiency may exist in captive elephants (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana) and black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) because plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations apparently are lower in these animals than in their free-ranging counterparts.  Analysis of serum or plasma from 35 elephants and 11 black rhinoceroses from 11 zoological institutions and one private owner confirmed common occurrence and persistence of low circulating alpha-tocopherol levels.  Concentrations averaged <0.3 micrograms/ml despite prolonged supplementation with D,L-alpha-tocopherol acetate, the most common vitamin E supplement for animal diets.  Further experimental work demonstrated that supplementing the diet with D,L- or D-alpha-tocopherol acetate or D-alpha tocopherol to provide up to 62 IU/kg body weight (BW) in elephants and 23 IU/kg BW in black rhinoceroses increased circulating blood alpha-tocopherol by <0.2 micrograms/ml.  Apparently, elephants and black rhinoceroses absorbed these fat-soluble or water-dispersible forms of vitamin E poorly.  In contrast, the water-soluble form, D-alpha-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1,000 succinate (TPGS) was absorbed well, as indicated by rapid increases in circulating blood alpha-tocopherol (0.3 to 1.9 micrograms/ml) from several-fold lower TPGS doses in the diet (4.8 or 6.6 IU/kg BW in elephants and 1.5 or 3.9 IU/kg BW in black rhinoceroses). There is a marked difference in the bioavailability of TPGS versus other vitamin E forms in captive elephants and black rhinoceroses, suggesting that there are major species differences in the utilization of various forms of vitamin E.

Teunissen, M.J., Op den Camp, H.J., Orpin, C.G., Huis in 't Veld, J.H., Vogels, G.D., 1991. Comparison of growth characteristics of anaerobic fungi isolated from ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores during cultivation in a defined medium. J Gen Microbiol 137 (Pt 6), 1401-1408.
Abstract: Anaerobic fungi were isolated from rumen fluid of a domestic sheep (Ovis aries; a ruminant) and from faeces of five non-ruminants: African elephant (Loxodonta africana), black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) and mara (Dolichotis patagonum). The anaerobic fungus isolated from the sheep was a Neocallimastix species and the isolates from non-ruminants were all species similar to Piromyces spp. A defined medium is described which supported growth of all the isolates, and was used to examine growth characteristics of the different strains. For each fungus the lipid phosphate content was determined after growth on cellobiose and the resulting values were used to estimate fungal biomass after growth on solid substrates. The ability of isolates from ruminants and non-ruminants to digest both wheat straw and cellulose was comparable. More than 90% and 60%, respectively, of filter paper cellulose and wheat straw were digested by most strains within 60-78 h. Growth of two fungi, isolated from rumen fluid of a sheep (Neocallimastix strain N1) and from faeces of an Indian rhinoceros (Piromyces strain R1), on cellobiose was studied in detail. Fungal growth yields on cellobiose were 64.1 g (mol substrate)-1 for N1 and 34.2 g mol-1 for R1. The major fermentation products of both strains were formate, lactate, acetate, ethanol and hydrogen.

Teunissen, M.J., Smits, A.A.M., Op den Camp, H.J.M., Huis in't Veld, J.H.J., Vogels, G.D., 1991. Fermentation of cellulose and production of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes by anaerobic fungi from ruminant and non- ruminant herbivores. Arch. Microbiol. 156, 290-296.
Abstract: Four anaerobic fungi were grown on filter paper cellulose and monitored over a 7-8 days period for substrate utilization, fermentation products, and secretion of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes. Two of the fungi (N1 and N2) were Neocallimastix species isolated from a ruminant (sheep) and the other two fungi were Piromyces species (E2 and R1) isolated from an Indian Elephant and an Indian Rhinoceros, respectively. The tested anaerobic fungi degraded the filter paper cellulose almost completely and estimated cellulose digestion rates were 0.25, 0.13, 0.21 and 0.18 g.l-1.h-1 for strains E2, N1, N2, R1, respectively. All strains secreted cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes, including endoglucanase, exoglucanase, beta-glucosidase and xylanase. Strain E2 secreted the highest levels of enzymes in a relatively short time. The product formation on avicel by enzymes secreted by the four fungi was studied. Both in the presence and absence of glucurono-1,5-delta-lactone, a specific inhibitor of beta-glucosidase, mainly glucose was formed but no cellobiose. Therefore the exoglucanase secreted by the four fungi is probably a glucohydrolase

Chandra, M.S., Ravoof, A., Khan, I.A., 1990. Feeding behavior of domesticated elephants. Myforest 26, 239-242.

Dierenfeld, E.S., 1990. Vitamin E levels measured in rhino browse plants. Rhino Cons. Newslett. 1, 1-2.

Dolensek, E.P., Combs, S.B. Vitamin E deficiency in zoo animals. Proc.4th Ann.Scholl Conf.Nutrition of Captive Wild Animals.  1990.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Kozaki, M., Oura, R., Sekine, J., 1990. Studies on digestion physiology of herbivorous feral animals. 1. Nutrient digestibility of ruminants and monogastric animals. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture -Tottori-University 26, 161-165.
Abstract: The digestion trial was carried out on wild herbivores such as elephants, giraffes, elands, zebras, blackbucks and muntjacs kept in a zoo. Digestibilities of organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) were estimated using acid detergent lignin (ADL) as an index. Digestibilities of OM and CP increased as the liveweight of the animals decreased. Monogastrics (elephants, zebras) had lower digestibility of ADF than ruminants. Intake of total digestible nutrients (TDN) (%OM and per 100 kg liveweight) increased with liveweight, but intake of TDN based on metabolic weight was not different among species and averaged 39±5 g/kg0.75.

Meissner, H.H., Spreeth, E., de Villiers, P.A., Pieterson, E.W., Hugo, T.A., Terblanche, B.F., 1990. Quality of food and voluntary intake by elephants as measured by lignin index. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 20, 104-110.
Abstract: The study was conducted on free roaming male elephants in private game reserves bordering the Kruger National Park.  The aim was to obtain information on quality of diet selected during different seasons of the year, to determine voluntary intake and to estimate energy requirements which can be used in calculating carrying capacity.  Food selection was observed visually, faeces voided were measured in toto over 24 h (spoor tracking), and digestibility was estimated by lignin index.  Voluntary intake was calculated by dry matter (DM) excreted divided by the indigestible DM fraction.  Crude protein of the plant material selected by elephants ranged from 6,7% in the dry season to 10,7 in the wet season, DM digestibility ranged from 29,7% to 44,7%, and food DM intake from 67 kg to 54 kg/day.  Seasonal effects were significant.  A negative association was found between digestibility and intake (r = 0,79), indicating that the intake of the elephants increased towards the dry season.  Estimates of energy requirements correspond closely to published estimates.

Papas, A.M., Cambre, R.V., Citino, S.B., Baer, D.J., Wooden, G.R. Species differences in the utilization of various forms of vitamin E. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Zoo Vet.  186-190. 1990.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Sheldrick, D., 1990. Raising baby orphaned elephants: part II. Swara 13, 23-27.

Sheldrick, D., 1990. Raising baby orphaned elephants. Swara 13, 13-17.

Spala, P., Vahala, J., Kralove, D., Hradecky, P., 1990. Lameness in young African elephants (Loxodonta africana) caused by inadequate nutrition. Zoologische Garten 60, 244-247.
Abstract: Lameness was observed in a group of 4 African elephants 2-3 years old within 1 year after arrival at a zoo in Czechoslovakia. The elephants developed leg disorders in the tarsal, stifle, carpal and elbow joints. The joint ligaments became loose and occasional crepitation from slipping of the joint surfaces was noted during walking. Although the elephants frequently shifted weight, there was no visible swelling or pain in the affected joints. Analysis of the feed intake and nutrient utilization showed excessive intake of digestible protein and energy and low intake of crude fibre. Appropriate adjustments in the feed led to a rapid improvement of the clinical status in all 4 elephants.

Sukumar, R., 1990. Ecology of the Asian elephant in southern India. II. Feeding habits and crop raiding patterns. Journal of Tropical Ecology 6, 33-53.

Beekman, J.H., Prins, H.H.T., 1989. Feeding strategies of sedentary large herbivores in East Africa with emphasis on the African buffalo, Syncerus caffer. African Journal of Ecology 27, 129-147.
Abstract: The feeding behaviour of African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) Burchell's zebra (Eguus burchelli) and African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was observed from Mar. 1983 to Dec 1984 in Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania. During the dry season in particular, elephants were time-limited and switched from grazing to browsing presumably to alleviate an energy intake shortage. Zebras and wildebeest spent a high proportion of day time grazing with very little resting time during the dry season. It was suggested that if zebra and wildebeest feeding was time-limited in the dry season it was due to predation risk at night. Buffaloes were resource- not time-limited and showed 2 foraging strategies; bulk or selective feeding. On a yearly basis all 4 species spent approx. 80% of the day time foraging and moving.

Dierenfeld, E.S. Vitamin E in elephants -- A research update. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 10.  60-63. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Fong, T. Alling elephant is put to sleep at Denver Zoo. The Rocky Mountain News Feb. 12. 1989.
Ref Type: Newspaper
Abstract: Full text: Vicky the elephant is dead.  The Denver Zoo's only African elephant was given a lethal injection yesterday, 24 hours after she suddenly sat down, let out a cry, rolled onto her left side and never got up again.  "She made several feeble attempts to move," said Richard Cambre, the zoo's veterinarian.  "We made her peaceful and comfortable but she did not get up." Vicky collapsed once before, on Jan. 17, but with the help of Mimi, a 32-year-old Asian elephant, she got on her feet again. At the time, veterinarians thought Vicky had suffered a bad reaction to a tranquilizer and was suffering a liver ailment. However, Cambre said that subsequent blood test showed that she had a severe vitamin E deficiency that contributed to muscle degeneration in her hind legs and she was given a new alcohol form of the vitamin as a supplement with her grain.  After she collapsed yesterday, more blood tests showed that Vicky had no vitamin E, despite the supplement.  Although zoo officials decided to let her have the night to try to get up again, they reluctantly decided to put her to sleep.  In the meantime, Vicky's death may do some good.  Her skeleton has been donated to the Denver Museum of Natural History.  The skeleton won't be put on display but will be used for muscle and bone research and classes on comparative anatomy of animals.  The zoo also would have it for classes.  Vicky's organs will be sent to research labs and zoos around the country that have need of them.  Tissue samples from her body will also remain with the Denver Zoo for analysis and research on the strange vitamin E deficiency that has already killed three other elephants in Canada and the U.S. in the past year.

Fujikura, T., Oura, R., Sekine, J., 1989. Comparative morphological studies on digestion physiology of herbivores. 1. Digestibility and particle distribution of digesta and feces of domestic and feral animals. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture -Tottori-University 25, 87-93.
Abstract: Digesta was collected from a Japanese Black steer 30 months old and feed and faeces samples were collected from a sheep, goat, camel, wallaby, elephant, horse and koala. The composition of feeds and intakes for each animal is given in tables. Digestibilities of particle distribution of DM and acid detergent fibre are discussed and compared between animals.

Hegel, G.V., Hanichen, T., Mahnel, H., Wiesner, H., 1989. Warts (papilloma/sarcoid) in elephant. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 31, 201-205.
Abstract: Warts ( Papilloma, Sarcoid) in  Elephants  ( Hegel,G.)1989; translated from German by Gerda Martin. Papilloma virus - from the group Papova virus - is considered  an etiological agents of wart- like skin changes in cattle, sheep, mountain goat, and rabbit. (ROSENBERGER,1970; ROLLE and MAYR, 1984). Equine sarcoid (PALMER. 1985) found in horses is most likely caused by bovine papilloma virus. The alternate name is based on clinical and morphological differences in the actual papilloma. In the initial stage, the sarcoid is similar to that of the papilloma; however in later stages, tumorous decay on the surface of the epidermis, and proliferation of the mesenchymal part of the tumor in the subcutis dominate (DIET and WIESNER, 1982). Wart- like changes in the skin of elephants as described by PILASKI et al (1987, 1988), proved to be caused by Herpes virus.  Such skin changes in elephants are not rare and require treatment since size and volume of the excrescences  may cause functional disturbances in the patient. Even if the animal's  general   well being  is not impaired, the importance of esthetics and hygiene should not be disregarded in a place where there are spectators and visitors (zoo, circus). The following paper reports findings of wart- like skin changes in elephants. Observations and Therapy In the elephants  kept in the Hellabrunn  Zoo, no case of papilloma or similar skin tumors had occurred since 1972. First case: In 5-28 - 1987, a ca. 18 month old female L.a. named " Sabi" arrived In Hellabrunn. This animal had a wart- like thickening of 1 cm at the dorsal end of the trunk. After 8 weeks, more of those such skin changes appeared on trunk and lower lip without  impairment in general well being. Treatment consisted of  one daily, subcutaneous injection of 1 amp. Chelidonium D7 (DHU Chelidonium majus L.), and application of fresh ??Schoellkraut  juice dabbed onto the warts but was unsuccessful.  After a change of treatment was made: 10 drops of Thuja D4 (DHU Thuja occidentalis L) and 20 drops Acidum nitricum D12 (DHU Acidum nitricum), orally, once a day, at separate times of the day, there remained, after 2 weeks, a wart on the lower lip the size of a cherry pit, and the before mentioned  wart on the dorsal end of  the trunk had now grown to the size of a cherry. Even the strength of Thuja LM 6 (DHU Thuja occidentalis L.)  20 drops, oral, the growth of the wart on the dorsal end of the trunk, now with a diameter of 5 cm, could not be stopped: Exstirpation had to be performed. Frequent  sucking had promoted strong ulceration.  A secondary infection  had set in,  the surface showed granular  tissue exuding blood and pus.

On 10 -  6 -  1987 the growth was exstirpated and tissue was sent for virolog. and histolog. examination. In addition, tissue was removed from a fresh small wart for vaccine. During the operation the animal was immobilized (anesthetic: 0.3 ml Immobilon* (large animal Immobilon Rc* - Vet. Ltd.),  10mg Xylacin, 150 IE Hyaluronidase i. m.). There were no complications during recovery. Two  weeks post op., the first vaccination was given, followed by a second vacc. four weeks there after, of 5.0 ml, subcut.., of an auto vaccine developed by the Institute for Medical Microbiology, Dept. of Infectious and Epidemic Medicine. In February 1988, there occurred another bout with wart- like growth on the ventral part of the trunk, lower jaw, shoulders and feet, some with a diameter of 15 mm.  From the sedated young animal tissue was taken from several newly grown warts for the manufacture of auto vaccine (sedation: "Hellabrunner Mischung" / 150 IE Hyaluronidase). After 10 days, the first vaccination was given, and by the time of the second vacc." Sabi" was free of externally visible skin changes.

On 6. 6. 1988, "Sabi" fell ill again. Over night she was covered with 48 warts,  with  diameters from 2mm - 15 mm on trunk and head, and 10 more on the chest.The attempt to "ice"  the warts with liquid nitrogen was not successful. Instead, coagulation of ca. 20 of the larger warts was used. The monopolar coagulation electrode of the Erbotom F 2 (Erbe Elektromedizin) coagulates reaching deeply  into the healthy zone of the surrounding tissue. As before, tissue for the manufacture of the auto vaccine was taken, as well as  0.5 ml of blood from the ear vein for the manufacture of a "own- blood"  nosode. (Large animal, premedication: 20 mg Xylazin i.m., 20 minutes later : 0.5 ml Immobilon R (large animal Immobilon R c - Vet Ltd.) and 150 IE Hyaluronidase i.m. The following day, "Sabi" was given the "own- blood" nosode at a strength of C5 (20 drops daily).In addition, she was vacc. once again. Since "Sabi" was free of warts at the time of the second vaccination -   given 4 weeks after the first - the "own- blood" treatment was discontinued. Shortly there after, however, several new warts cropped up (diameter ca. 1 cm), so that the "own- blood"  treatments were continued. Since that time "Sabi" has had no recurrences.Second case : The Indian elephant cow (E. maximus) , named "Dirndl" , age ca. 22 years, had been kept in the box next to "Sabi" since "Sabi's" arrival. They kept trunk contact. On 5-2-1988, "Dirndl" showed on the distal trunk a substantially increased raised area ca. 2 x 2 cm oozing blood. It seemed to be an injury from a metal rope used in off limiting. The wound was disinfected and treated twice a day with chloromycetin spray with Gentian violetR (Parke Davis).  After  one week  the growth had increased substantially  and on the surface,  it had a cauliflower-like ulcerated  appearance.Upon light touch or movement of the dorsal  trunk, blood appeard spontaneously.   Four days later, the growth was exstirpated, while the animal was standing. (Sedation: 2.2 ml Hellabrunn mixture / 150 Hyaluronidase i. m.) . The attempt to close the skin of the trunk over the wound failed because the tension in that area was too great.  The surface of the wound was cauterized and treated with ChloromycetinSpray with Gentian violet R (Parke Davis). Tissue for pathological and histological examination was sent out.  One week after the operation,  the area of the wound was  highly swollem and the wound was infected. Treatment: Several times a day, an  ablution with a 0.1 % Rivanol solutionnR (Asid - 2 Aethoxy-6.9-diamin  acridinlactat)  and application of Sulfonamid-Codliver oil salve (WDT = Sulfadimidin- Sodium- cod liver oil).  In addition, analogous to "Sabi" , once daily 20 drops of "own-blood" nosode,  potency C 5  given orally. Three weeks post. op., there could be clearly distinguished a limited relapse, an area of  6 x 9 cm rising  ca. 2 cm  above the healthy skin of the trunk. The surface looked like the first growth.  It was extirpated under general anesthetic  (Premed.:80 mg Xylazin i. m., 20 min. later: 1.8 ml ImmobilionR and 150 IE Hyaluronidase). In addition, the whole wound was coagulated  by monopolar coagulation electrode as above. Daily for 4 weeks, the wound  was brushed with a 1:5 wood tar -alcohol - solution.There were no complications during recovery. After 5 weeks , all that could be seen was a ca. 1.5 cm long small scar on the skin of the trunk.

Histomorphological Findings:  Fixation with formalin, embedding in paraffin; stain: Hemalaun-Eosin, connective tissue stain  in the manner of Masson. The histomorphological  findings based on the tissue samples of "Sabi" and "Dirndl"  are the  same, and agree  with the findings of 3 other skin tumor tissue taken from elephants of different origin (tab. 1). The tumors  consist mainly of fibroplastic cells  with more or less  abundant collagen fibers and blood vessels. The boundaries from the adjacent corium and lower skin is largely indistinct.  In all larger neoplasties , the covering epidermis has been preserved  at margins only due to superficial ulceration.  Here the P. acuta aseptica diffusa borders  are irregular and strongly profiled, the epithelium is acanthoid and hyperkeratotic. The nuclei of tumor cells  are considerably anisomorphic, some have gigantic nuclei. Mitosis is frequent. Due to the ulcerated epidermis , there is deep infiltration with infectious cells. Virological findings: From the extirpated tissue taken from the African Elephant "Sabi" ca. 3 g was homogenated, in addition, the cells were "opened" by defrosting and ultrasound, and the "cleared" tissue suspension was analyzed  for free virus particles after concentration and negative-contrasting with  electron microscopy .  At the same time, small tissue samples of 2 mm  from deeper epidermis layers  were fixed as usual for the ultrahistological exam , embedded in epoxy  resin, and ultra thin slices were scanned by the electron microscope. No papilloma virus was found  in the concentrated, cell free tissue extract or  the ultrathin slices of tissue samples .No virus particle of  any kind was found.

Discussion
To  show papilloma by culturing cannot be done since  no species of this genus can  be propagated  in cell cultures  with the exception of its original host. The failed  attempt to prove their presence with the electronmicroscope does not exclude a papilloma virus etiology in tumors. When virus particles are viewed in higher concentrations, the electron microscopic  proof is successful. Using ultrahistologyical methods the particles in cell nuclei can only be found when the few cells  of specific skin cells  are in the virus propagation stage. In the case of virally induced papilloma however, a true virus propagation is not necessary. In the last few years, it was found that equine sarcoid  can be caused  by bovine papilloma virus. But it was only the genome of the virus which could be isolated by means of gene technology (ALTMANN, 1980; HAUSEN, 1980); the virus itself could not.  The oncogenetic potency of the virus in heterologic hosts , without true virus production, has been established.  A broader spectrum of hosts  for , at least , the papilloma virus in cattle seems to be the case.  And a bovine papilloma induced skin fibromatose in  (a) horse has been reported (LANCASTER, 1979). This virus can also appear in wild 'cud chewers, perhaps even carnivores. It is in part also related to the human papilloma virus. The possibility of transfer to humans (LANCASTER 1982) as well as other mammals such as elephants  has not been proved but is probable. In comparing the histological findings of the 5 skin growths with those of the viral fibropapilloma in cattle and horse (called equine sarcoid here), the relative immaturity of the tumorous tissue is evident. It compares to the so- called sarcoid in horses. The sarcoid-like structure and the indistinct  separation from healthy tissue  speaks for a virus etiology and  morphologically a relapse can be expected. This occurred in both of the clinically described cases.

A differential diagnosis excludes a Herpes virus infection, as described by PILASKI et al. (1987, 1988) in elephants on the basis of different histological findings. Inclusions could not be found in any of the cases. The warts on the elephants were clinically similar to the well known sarcoids in horses (DIETZ and WIESNER, 1982). The two sick animals were in "trunk contact" occupying adjacent boxes. Almost one year after the arrival of  "Sabi" who had warts, "Dirndl" fell sick. That points to the infectious nature of warts. The relapse after the first operation on "Dirndl" suggests that the extirpation of the growths was not complete. This may be related to the fact that the animal was standing  and only sedated. In contrast , the extirpation of the "relapse" was carried out on a fully immobilized animal and with the use of the Erbotom F 2  for coagulation including the adjacent tissue.  We know of various 'wart therapies' in human medicine with differing success. The various treatments employed in the one and one half years of "Sabi's" illness can be labled neither successful, nor unsuccessful. The use of auto vaccine which is analogous  to a "stable specific " vaccine in the treatment of papilloma in cattle, could  perhaps have triggered the recurrence of warts at the  conclusion of the vaccination treatments. That would favor the etiology of a virus 'picture.' The influence of the 'burn' or extirpation of a single or more growths which returned, in the surrounding growths cannot be determined. It remains inconclusive if the use of the "own- blood" nosode C 5 aided the successful therapy , since the necessity  to fight a recurrence had not yet occurred.

Kalemera, M.C., 1989. Observations on feeding preference of elephants in the Acacia tortilis woodland of Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology 27, 325-333.
Abstract: The dry season feed preferences of elephants [Loxodonta africana] were recorded in the Acacia tortilis (Forsk) Hyne woodlands of Lake Manyara National Park in northern Tanzania from 1980 to 1981. At least 35 plant species were eaten varying from trees to small herbs. Elephants mainly browsed in the woodland but also grazed at the lake shore. Feeding on woody species appeared to be in proportion to abundance. The relatively higher amount of grazing during the dry season was related negatively to periods of high rainfall. When rainfall was low, lake levels dropped increasing the availability of lake-shore grassland whereas during years of high rainfall the grassland was flooded and elephants resorted to browsing as a major form of foraging.

Kuntze, A., 1989. Dermatopathies in elephants and their treatment. Kleintierpraxis 34, 405-415.

National Research Council, 1989. Nutrient requirements of horses. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

Papas, A.M., Cambre, R.C., Citino, S.B. Vitamin E: Considerations in practical animal feeding and case studies with elephants and rhinoceros. Proc.8th Ann.Scholl Conf.Nutrition of Captive Wild Animals.  59-72. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Roehrs, J.M., Brockway, C.R., Ross, D.V., Reichard, T.A., Ullrey, D.E., 1989. Digestibility of timothy hay by African elephants. Zoo Biology 8, 331-337.
Abstract: Two juvenile, female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were used in summer and winter trials to determine the apparent digestibility of timothy (Phleum pratense) hay. After 12-14 days of dietary adjustment, dry matter intake and fecal excretion were quantitatively measured for 7 days.  Dry matter of timothy hay contained 8.6 and 7.7% crude protein, 57.3 and 44.0% acid detergent fiber, and 6.5 and 6.4% ash during the summer and winter trials, respectively.  Estimates of apparent digestibility during summer and winter, respectively, were 39 and 35% for dry matter, 43 and 32% for gross energy (GE), 45 and 30% for crude protein (CP) and 36 and 24% for acid detergent fiber (ADF).  While GE and CP digestibility estimates tended (P < .09) to be greater in the summer trial, only the digestibility of ADF was different (P < .05) between summer and winter.  Dry matter intake was 1.4-1.6% of body weight (BW), providing an average of 144 kcal of digestible energy per kg BW^0.75.  This value is similar to that (155 kcal per kg BW^0.75) used for estimating digestible energy requirements for maintenance of light-breed horses.

Schmidt, M.J. Zinc deficiency, presumptive secondary immune deficiency and hyperkeratosis in an Asian elephant: A case report. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  23-31. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Zinc deficiency in an Asian elephant caused a secondary immune deficiency, and skin lesions which included superinfected vesiculobullae above the toenails and hyperkeratosis on the extensor surfaces of both elbows and on the tail.  The elephant responded to therapy with an immune stimulant drug, but the chronic recurring skin lesions did not heal until after zinc supplementation was added to the diet. Additional excerpt: Dramatic improvement was noted within two weeks after the elephant was started on 2 g zinc carbonate per day. Lesions resolved by eight weeks. Subsequently, the dietary zinc level was adjusted from 21.56 mg/kg of feed to 53.6 mg/kg of feed on a dry matter basis.

Sreekumar, K.P., Nirmalan, G., 1989. Mineral status in the blood of Indian elephants. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 59, 1253-1258.
Abstract: Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper and zinc have been estimated in the sera of Indian elephants (babies, tuskers and adult females) and the iron:copper ratio calculated. But for the higher level of calcium in baby elephants compared to that in adult females, no influence of age or sex could be detected in the distribution pattern of major elements. Baby elephants had a lower level of copper than adult females. The iron:copper ratio was higher in baby elephants than in tuskers.

Sukumar, R., 1989. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Sukumar, R., 1989. The main study area and study methods. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 39-59.

Sukumar, R., 1989. Movement and habitat utilization. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 60-68.

Sukumar, R., 1989. Crop raiding by elephants. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 108-133.

Sukumar, R., 1989. Feeding and nutrition. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 69-85.

Sukumar, R., 1989. Impact on vegetation and carrying capacity. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 86-107.

Tieszen, L.L., Boutton, T.W., Ottichilo, W.K., Nelson, D.E., Brandt, D.H., 1989. An assessment of long-term food habits of Tsavo elephants based on stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of bone collagen. African Journal of Ecology 27, 219-226.

Ullrey, D.E. Is vitamin E really the key to sexual satisfaction? Proc.8th Ann.Scholl Conf.Nutrition of Captive Wild Animals.  49-57. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Viljoen P.J., 1989. Habitat selection and preferred food plants of a desert-dwelling elephant population in the northern Namib Desert, South West Africa/Namibia. African Journal of Ecology 27, 227-240.
Abstract: The habitat selection and woody food plant preferences of a desert-dwelling elephant population in the extremely arid N. Namib Desert region of South West Africa/Namibia are discussed. The river course habitat was clearly the best available habitat and also the only habitat upon which the elephants could depend for long-term survival. Flood plains, however, seemed to be the preferred habitat type, but were only available during the wet season. With the exception of the mountains and rocky plains, all the other habitat types were used on an opportunistic short-term basis only, while the gravel plains were mostly avoided. Desert-dwelling elephants had a definite preference for certain woody plant species, irrespective of plant availability or size. Colophospermum mopane, Tamarix usneoides and Combretum imberbe appeared to be the most important woody food plants in terms of forage bulk. The relatively opportunistic habitat selection and unspecialized nature of the diet of these elephants make them well suited to the adversities of their arid environment.

de Villiers, P.A., Kok, O.B., 1988. Food ecology aspects of elephants in Etosha National Park. Madoqua 15, 319-338.
Abstract: Plant surveys were conducted in the Etosha National Park, South West Africa, to determine the relative availability of elephant (Loxodonta africana) food. Based on utilization studies, marked seasonal variation, with Colophospermum mopane as the single most important component, occurred in the diet of elephants. Trees and shrubs were used mainly during the cool and warm dry seasons, while grasses and herbs, particularly Eragrostis annulata and Urochloa brachyura, dominated during the wet season. The frequency of intake of woody plant parts increased during the warm dry season. Seasonal movements of elephants were characterized by their concentration around watering places during the dry seasons, while daily activities were influenced to a large extent by the availability of sufficient shade. Judged by the extent of tree damage, carrying capacity, general condition and age composition of elephant herds and other criteria, the south central area of Etosha apparently satisfies the present habitat requirements of elephants

Dierenfeld, E.S., Dolensek, E.P., 1988. Circulating levels of vitamin E in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Zoo Biology 7(2), 165-172.
Abstract: Circulating levels of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) were examined via high-performance liquid chromatography in four female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at the New York Zoological Park between 1983 and 1987.  Plasma vitamin E averaged 0.08 micrograms/ml in 1983, and was considered deficient.  Over a four-year period of dietary supplementation ranging from 0.7 to 3.7 IU vitamin E/kg body mass (approximately 50 to 250 IU/kg diet as fed), mean plasma alpha-tocopherol increased to 0.6 micrograms/ml.  Plasma and dietary vitamin E were found to be significantly correlated (p < 0.025) in these animals.  Serum of plasma vitamin E measured in an additional 20 elephants from eight other zoological institutions in the United States and Canada averaged 0.5 microgram/ml, but values were not significantly correlated (P > 0.05) with calculated dietary levels of the vitamin.  To achieve the mean value for circulating alpha-tocopherol in captive elephants (0.5 micrograms/ml), feed must provide at least 1.0, and more like 2.0 to 2.5 IU vitamin E/kg body mass (approximately 130 to 167 IU/kg diet).

Heard, D.J. Nutritional disorders of neonatal and juvenile elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 9.  128-132. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Koen, H., 1988. Trace elements and some other nutrients in the diet of the Knysna elephants. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 18, 109-110.
Abstract: Trace elements and some macro nutrients in the diet of the Knysna elephants are investigated. Marginal copper levels in the forest and fynbos vegetation types available to the elephants may contribute to the inability of the herd to increase.

Nair, P.V., Jayson, E.A. Habitat utilization by large mammals in teak plantations and natural forests. Final report of project Wild 05/83 (April 1983 to September 1985). KFRI-Research-Report. No. 56 (Summary , ii-11. 1988. Peechi; India, Kerala Forest Research Institute.
Ref Type: Report
Abstract: An analysis was made of transects laid out in 1-, 3-, 16- and 62-year-old teak (Tectona grandis) plantations and adjoining moist deciduous natural forest in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. The data were used to estimate resource availability (in terms of the abundance of grasses, herbs, shrubs and trees), animal abundance, the extent of animal visits, and type and amount of animal damage. Feeding trials were done on captive spotted deer, sambar and elephants (3 of the most common animal species) to determine foraging preferences. The most abundant grasses and forbs in plantations were Brachiaria remota, Mimosa pudica and Commelina sp. Other herbaceous plants and some shrubs were present in different abundances in plantations of different ages. Survival of planted teak seedlings was very low in the 1-yr-old plantation. There was extensive damage in the 3-yr-old plantation, where the maximum elephant damage was recorded. Damage to all plantations was mainly by elephants, but they also used natural forests, so it is suggested that damage could be reduced by mixing stretches of natural forests with different aged plantations.

Sukumar, R., Gadgil, M., 1988. Male-female differences in foraging on crops by Asian elephants. Animal Behaviour 36, 1233-1235.

Ullrey, D.E., Williams, K.J., Ku, P.K., Lewandowski, A.H., Sikarskie, J.G. Pharmacokinetics of biotin in horses and elephants. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  203-204. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Ullrey, D.E., 1988. An overview of elephant nutrition. Proc. Ninth Annual Elephant Workshop 122-127.

Van Der Merwe, N.J., Thorp, J.A.L., Bell, R.H.V., 1988. Carbon isotopes as indicators of elephant diets and African environments. African Journal of Ecology 26, 163-172.
Abstract: 13C:12C ratios of bone collagen were used to study the diets of African elephants in 12 wildlife refuges. These represent most of the habitats in which elephants live, including such diverse plant communities as primary rain forest, savanna woodland and desert. gamma13C values in bone collagen were linearly related to tree density. When converted into relative amounts of dietary browse (C3 plants) and grazing (C4 plants), the grass content was systematically under-represented, presumably due to inefficient metabolism. This does not affect the relation between elephant diet and tree density, which has implications for the study of elephant-woodland interactions, and for reconstructions of past African environments.

Hackenberger, M.K. Diet digestibilities and ingesta transit times of captive Asian (Elephas maximus) & African (Loxodonta africana) elephants.  1987. Guelph, University of Guelph.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation

Sukumar, R., Bhattacharya, S.K., Krishnamurthy, R.V., 1987. Carbon isotopic  evidence for different feeding patterns  in  an Asian  elephant population. Current Science 56, 11-14.

Brush, P.J., Anderson, P.H., 1986. Levels of plasma alpha-tocopherol (Vitamin E) in zoo animals. International Zoo Yearbook 24/25, 316-321.

Hackenberger, M.K., Burton, J.H., Atkinson, J.L., Dickson, K.M. Rate of ingesta passage within captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop. 7, 48-58. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Niemuller, C. Energy metabolism and nitrogen retention in captive infant Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop. 7, 43-47. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Okula, J.P., Sise, W.R., 1986. Effects of elephant browsing on Acacia seyal in Waza National Park, Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology 24, 1-16.

Robinson, P.T., Schmidt, M., 1986. Dentistry in zoo animals: Dental diseases of elephants and hippos. In: Fowler, M.E. (Ed.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, pp. 544-547.

Ullrey, D.E., Jacobson, E.R., Kollias, G.V., Ku, P.K., Whetter, P.A., 1985. Kwashiorkor and marasmus in baby elephants. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 84-85.

Siegel, R.K., Brodie, M., 1984. Alcohol self-administration by elephants. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 22, 49-52.
Abstract: The anecdotal and historical literature describing intoxication in elephants from femented fruit of alcoholic beverages is reviewed.  Seven African elephants readily self-administered 7% unflavored alcohol solutions, and the results included separation from herd groupings and changes in the frequency and/or duration of several behaviors as scored according to a quantitative observational system.  Alcohol decreased feeding, drinking, bathing and exploration for most animals.  Inappropriate behaviors such as lethargy and ataxia increased for all elephants.  Results are discussed in terms of stress-induced drinking and intoxication.

Clemens, E.T., Maloiy, G.M.O., 1983. Nutrient digestibility and gastrointestinal electrolyte flux in the elephant and rhinoceros. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology [A] 75, 653-658.
Abstract: 1.  Nutrient digestibility and absorption-secretion were studied in elephants and rhinoceros.  2.  Prehension and diet selection are discussed.  3.  Rhinoceros select less fiber, which may account for their greater digestive efficiency.  4. Foregut digestion and fermentation are most evident in the rhinoceros, while elephants possessed greated caecal-colonic digestion.  5.  Relative to rhinoceros, elephants demonstrated greater intestinal VFA absorption and less sodium-potassium flux.

Dmytriw, R., Olson, D., 1983. A discussion of an ankle abnormality in a young African elephant at the Indianapolis Zoo. Animal Keepers' Forum 10, 20-22.

Greenberg, J., 1983. Natural highs in natural habitats. Science News 124, 300-301.

Hackenberger, M.K. Diet digestibilities and ingesta transit times of captive Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 4.  1983.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Rees, P.S., 1983. Synchronization of defaecation in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Zoology (Lond) 201, 581-585.
Abstract: The ecological significance of defaecation in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) has been discussed from a number of points of view.  Dropping counts have been used to investigate population size and movements (Wing and Buss, 1970; Law, Parker and Johnstone, 1975); the chemical composition of dung has been examined (Dougall, 1963; Weir, 1972);  and dung decomposition and its role in nutrient cycles has been examined (Coe, 1972) and food consumption of wild elephant herds has been calculated from data on gross assimilation efficiency and drug production (Coe, 1972;Rees, 1982).  This paper presents evidence of a synchronization of defaecation in elephants and discusses its possible ecological significance.

Sanford, J. Rehabilitation of an emaciated elephant. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 4.  81-85. 1983.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Schryver, H.F., Foose, T.J., Williams, J., Hintz, H.F., 1983. Calcium excretion in feces of ungulates. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology [A] 74, 375-380.
Abstract: 1. Fecal excretion of calcium was examined in 122 individual ungulates representing 7 species of Equidae, 3 species of Tapiridae, 3 species of Rhinocerotidae, 2 species of Elephantidae, 2 species of Hippopotamidae, 12 species of Bovidae, 2 species of Cervidae, 3 species of Camelidae, and 1 species of Giraffidae.  2.  Animals were fed timothy hay, a low calcium diet, or alfalfa hay, a high calcium diet.  3.  In a few cases straw or prairie hay was used instead of timothy hay.  4. Samples of feces were obtained from individuals daily for 4 days following a 20 day dietary equilibration period.  5.  Feces of equids, tapirs, rhinoceros, and elephants had lower calcium concentration and a lower Ca P ratio than feces of ruminants when the animals were fed diets of equivalent calcium content. 6.  The findings suggest that the non-ruminant ungulate equids, tapirs, rhinoceros and elephants absorb a larger proportion of dietary calcium than ruminants do. "'...the non-ruminant ungulate equids, tapirs, rhinoceros and elephants absorb a larger proportion of dietary Ca than ruminants do.'" (EIG annotation, quoted from paper)

Wallach, J.D., Boever, W.J., 1983. Perissodactyla (equids, tapirs, rhinos), Proboscidae (elephants), and Hippopotamidae (hippopotamus). In: Wallach, J.D., Boever, W.J. (Eds.), Diseases of exotic animals. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, pp. 761-829.

Ananthasubramaniam, C.R., Chandrasekharan, K., Surendran, P.U., 1982. 1.Studies on the nutritional requirements of the elephant Elephas maximus.  2. Prediction of body weight from body measurements. Indian Veterinary Journal 59, 227-232.

Barnes, R.F.W., 1982. Elephant feeding behavior in Ruaha National Park, Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology 20, 123-136.

Clemens, E.T., Maloiy, G.M.O., 1982. The digestive physiology of three East African herbivores: the elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus. Journal of Zoology (Lond) 198, 141-156.
Abstract: Studies were conducted to compare structural and physiological differences in the digestive functions of three 0. species of large ungulates; the elephant (Loxodonta africana), the Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) and the Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius).  Major differences were noted in the composition of ingesta and the sites of bacterial fermentative activity.  Comparisons are also made as to the influence of feeding behaviour on digestive functions, and as to the similarities of their digestive systems to that of domestic animals.

Eltringham, S.K., 1982. Elephants. Blandfort Books,Ltd., United Kingdom.

Hackenberger, M.K., Atkinson, J.L. Digestibility studies with captive Asiatic and African elephants. AAZPA Reg.Conf.Proc.  129-137. 1982.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Rees, P.S., 1982. Gross assimilation efficiency and food passage time in the African elephant. African Journal of Ecology 20, 193-198.
Abstract: The amount of food consumed and dung voided by two captive African elephants was measured over a period of 7 days.  The mean gross assimilation efficiency of the two elephants was calculated to be 22.4%.  The food passage time was 21.4 and 46 h for one elephant.  Previous estimates of food consumption by wild elephants, based on an earlier, higher estimate of assimilation efficiency, are considered to be too high and have been recalculated.

Reichard, T.A., Ulrey, D.E., Robinson, P.T. Nutritional implications of dental problems in elephants. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.  73-74. 1982.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Sever, Z., 1982. An unusual methold of feeding behavior in captive African elephants. Elephant 2, 140-143.
Abstract: An unusual feeding behavior was observed in a small herd of African elephants at the Safari Park, Ramat Gan, Israel. An elephant was observed to insert her trunk into the rectum of other elephants in order to obtain undigested food.  This behavior was studied in relation to the hierarchy of the elephants within the herd.  Half a year of observation led us to conclude that the elephant higher in hierarchical level would insert her trunk into the rectum of elephants lower in the hierarchy.  The reverse was not observed.

Smith, T.P., Jollie, K.G., Mohr, J.L. Gut protozoans of zoo elephants. Journal of Protozoology 29, 482. 1982.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: Latteur has studied gut ciliates from Elephas and Loxodonta at Antwerp zoo and we have taken part in autopsies of Elephas (San Francisco) and Loxodonta (Brookfield Zoo, Chicago) and have sample manure of Cambodian Elephas (Los Angeles).  In general the gut microfaunas of captive elephants appear to be less varied than those of wild elephants.  A 19-year-old male Loxodonta, previously medicated, had numerous small flagellates, but only paraisotrichid ciliates of which six forms were recognized. Because all the adult Kenyan microfaunas were more complex, we regard this as reduced and selected by medication.  If, as seems likely, the bacterial flora was similarly affected, medication may have made significant changes in the nutrition of a mammal dependent on microbial action on cellulose.

Van Hoven, W., 1982. African elephant and hippopotamus: the results of nutritional research. Proceedings of the 2nd Dr. Scholl Conference on Nutrition of Captive Wild Animals 47-62.

Short, J.C., 1981. Diet and feeding behaviour of the forest elephant. Mammalia 45, 177-185.

Van Hoven, W., Prins, R.A., Lankhorst, A., 1981. Fermentative digestion in the African elephant. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 11, 78-86.
Abstract: In an investigation into the nature of gastrointestinal fermentation in adult African elephant ( Loxodonta africana L.), the following parameters were determined in various intestinal compartments: volume, pH, concentrations of sugars, bicarbonate, volatile fatty acids (VFA), lactic acid and protozoa.  The composition of the digesta was determined by the proximate analysis and the procedure of van Soest.  Concentrations of minerals were analyzed in the caecal and colonic fluids.  Rates of gas production, composition of the fermentation gas, rates of lactate breakdown, and cellulolytic and amylolytic activity in the gut contents were measured using in vitro incubations.  The results show that there is microbial fermentation of sugars, starch and protein from the food in different compartments of the gastrointestinal tract, with most activity occurring in the caecum and colon. Cellulose digestion, however, is surprisingly small.  Despite the low rate of fermentation in the gut the elephant is likely to cover a large part of its energy requirement from the metabolism of VFA arising from the hindgut fermentation.  In English with Afrikaans summary.

Ananthasubramaniam, C.R., 1980. A note on the nutritional requirements of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus). Elephant 1, 72-73.
Abstract: Abstract.  In this preliminary study, data were collected with regard to the high concentration of cobalt in palm leaf and of vitamin B₁₂ in the blood plasma of the elephant.  This suggests microbial synthesis and absorption of vitamin B₁₂ in the elephant intestine.

Oftedal, O.T., 1980. Milk composition and formula selection for hand-rearing young mammals. Proc. 1st. Dr. Scholl Conf. Nutr. Captive Wild Animals 67-83.

Racine, R.A., 1980. Behavior associated with feeding in captive African and Asian elephants. Elephant Supplement 1, 57-71.
Abstract: Abstract.  Elephants' use of their trunks during feeding in captivity is described.  African and Asian elephants differ not only in trunk morphology but also in trunk behavior.  African elephants generally pick up objects using a "pinch" while Asians rely mostly on a "grasp."  Asians normally use their feet to secure objects while Africans use their tusks.  The first documented case of Africans using their feet is reported. Laterality or "handedness" is also reported for the first time in elephants.  A survey of several zoos and circuses showed this phenomenon to be widespread in captivity.  A female African elephant who was intensively studied showed lateral preferences for may different components of her feeding behavior.

 1979. Drunken animals. Omni October, 58.

Ananthasubramaniam, C.R. Nutritional requirements of elephants. State Level Workshop on Elephants.  26-34. 1979. India, College of Veterinary and Animal Sicences, Kerala Agricultural University.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Bhaskaran Nair, V., Ananthasubramaniam, C.R., 1979. Studies on the nutritional requirements of the elephant (Elephas maximus). Indian Veterinary Journal 56, 667-671.

Brown, I.R.F., White, P.T., 1979. Serum electrolytes, lipids, and cortisol in the African elephant, Loxodonta africana. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology [A] 62, 899-901.
Abstract: 1. Serum electrolytes were measured in the African elephant from the game parks of Uganda.  The overall mean for sodium was 136.5 ± 5.6 mmol/l (n = 132) and for potassium 6.24 ± 0.86 mmol/l (n = 105).  There was, however, some evidence for a seasonal variation in these values.  2. Serum lipid levels were considerably lower in the elephant than in man.  The overall mean cholesterol was 1.58 ± 0.50 mmol/l (n = 84) and triglyceride 0.59 ± 0.29 mmol/l (n = 61).  Some geographical variation was observed in the triglyceride results.  3.  Serum cortisol levels were variable and ranged from 66 to 825 mmol/l in 33 elephants.

Kuntze, A., Hunsdorff, P., 1979. Further haematological and biochemical findings (Ca, inorganic P, Mg, Na, K, Fe, glucose, enzymes) with reference to iron deficiency anaemia in young elephants (Elephas maximus)]. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 13, 147-150.
Abstract: Summary:  Regular haematological checks were applied to young elephants with anaemia to study the therapeutic effects of oral and parenteral iron medication.  Additional serum electrolyte values are reported, with some of them discussed.  They are relating to calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, glucose, SGOT, SGPT, and alkaline phosphatase

Monfort, A., Monfort, N., 1979. Efficiency of assimilation and energy budget of the young African elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach). Mammalia 43, 543-557.
Abstract: In the present article, the experiments on the digestive efficiencies of young African elephants are described.  Two tame elephants, 27 and 31 months old, were confined in paddocks and were fed with rations consisting of the same plant species that they would select if they were free.  During the study period, the amount of food and energy ingested and rejected was determined.  On the average, the gross assimilation rate was 42.1% for the two animals: 38.3 +/- 4.4% and 45.6 +/- 2.8%  respectively.  Under estimate of the gross assimilation rate and of dung production in natural conditions, it should be possible to estimate the feeding pressure on the home range.  On the basis of the results, we have established an energy budget for the young African elephant in full growth.

Nirmalan, G. Physiological peculiarties of elephants. State Level Workshop on Elephants.  21-24. 1979. India, College of Veterinary and Animal Sicences, Kerala Agricultural University.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Olivier, R.C.D. On the ecology of the Asian elephant with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka.  1978.  Sidneu Sussex College, Cambridge.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation

Cmelik, S.H.W., Ley, H., 1977. A further contribution to the knowledge of the blood lipid fractions from the African elephant Loxodonta africana. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology [B] 58, 205-209.
Abstract: 1. Plasma lipids from 5 African elephants were extracted and fractionated into cholesterol esters, free fatty acids, triglycerides, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phophatidylinositol, sphingomyelin, and glycosphingolipids.  The fatty acids of various individual fractions were investigated by gas-chromatography.  2.  All animals, except one, had a high linoleic acid content in cholesterol esters indicating an adequate supply of linoleic acid in the diet.  3.  Phosphatidylcholine had a strong saturated character originating from the presence of unusually high quantities of stearic acid.  4.  Phosphatidylethanolamine was present in small quantities and was characterized by a low content of arachidonic acid.  5.  Sphingomyelin did not contain any long chain saturated acids.  Instead it contained 10.2-47.0% of a long chan acid which was most likely monounsaturated.  6. The presence of significant quantities of glycosphingolipids was established.

Guy, P.R., 1977. Coprophagy in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). East African Wildlife Journal 15 , 174.

Malpas, R.C., 1977. Diet and condition and growth of elephants in Uganda. The Journal of Applied Ecology 14, 489-504.

Vancuylenberg, B.W.B., 1977. Feeding behavior of the Asiatic elephant in south-east Sri Lanka in relation to conservation. Biological Conservation 12, 33-54.

Bartelmus, C., Giesecke, D., Hoppe, P., 1976. Vitamin A storage in the liver of certain African wild ruminants and elephant. Koedoe 19 , 27-30.

Field, C.R., Ross, I.C., 1976. The savana ecology of Kidepo Valley National Park. II. Feeding ecology of elephant and giraffe. East African Wildlife Journal 14, 1-15.

Guy, P.R., 1976. The feeding behavior of elephants Loxodonta africana in the Sangwa area, Rhodesia. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 6, 55-63.

Guy, P.R., 1975. The daily food intake of the African elephant Loxodonta africana in Rhodesia. Arnoldia 26, 1-6.

Williamson, B.R., 1975. The condition and nutrition of elephants in Wankie National Park. Arnoldia 7, 1-20.

Cmelik, S., Ley, H., 1974. Fatty acid composition of some cellular and subcellular elements of the elephant adrenal gland. Hoppe-Seyler's Z. Physiol. Chem. 355, 797-802.
Abstract: Lipids from the cortex and medulla of the elephant adrenal gland were extracted with chloroform/methanol, and purified over Sephadex G-25.  The total lipids, excluding gangliosides were fractionated by a combination of Unisil columns and preparative silica gel G plates and various fractions analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography for their fatty acid components.  Results show that nearly 70% of the total lipids in both parts of the gland consist of cholesterol esters differing in the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Phospholipids from the cortex and medulla show an identical fatty acid pattern and are characterized by a considerable amount of arachidonic acid.  Mitochondrial and microsomal lipids of the whole adrenal gland were extracted, purified and fractionated in the same way.  35% of the mitochondrial lipids consisted of cholesterol esters with C18:1, C16:0 and C20:3(omega 6) as predominant fatty acids.  Triglycerides did not contain any higher polyunsaturated fatty acids.  In the phospholipids the predominant fatty acids were C18:0, C18:1, C20:4(omega 6) and C16:0.  Microsomal lipids yielded 13% cholesterol esters with very few polyunsaturated fatty acids and a considerable amount of C12 and C14 acids.  Unlike the mitochondria, microsomes did not contain any triglycerides. Phospholipids of the microsomes were rich in arachidonic acid and contained polyunsaturated acids not present in other fractions.  The presence of larger quantities of C16:1 and C16:2 acids in the adrenal gland suggests the possible existence of the omega 7 pathway, although no other metabolites were identified.  The fatty acid pattern excludes the possibility of an essential fatty acid deficiency.

Veylon, R., 1974. Do African elephants suffer from a deficiency in essential fatty acids? Nouvelle Presse Medicale 3, 42.

McCullagh, K.G., 1973. Are African elephants deficient in essential fatty-acids? Nature 242, 267-268.

Siegel, I.M., 1973. Orthotic treatment of tibiotarsal deformity in an elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 163, 544-545.

Coe, M., 1972. Defaecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana africana (Blumenbach)). East African Wildlife Journal 10, 165-174.
Abstract: A study of defaecation in the African elephant was carried out at the Voi headquarters of the Tsavo (East) National Park.  Four orphaned animals aged between 1 and 10 years were observed for 4 days and 3 nights.  During the day the time and weight of each individual's defaecation was recorded while at night only the time of defaecation.  Details of all records are presented.  Analysis has shown that the amount of dung produced with each defaecation bears a similar characteristic to that of the growth curves of these animals.  The rate of defaecation does not vary significantly with age. Records of defaecation arranged by time demonstrate an apparent periodicity with a low peak mid-morning and a high peak mid-afternoon.  The potential use of this information in feeding and population studies is discussed.

Maglio, V.J., 1972. Evolution of mastication in the Elephantidae. Evolution 26, 638-658.

Peters, J.M., Maier, R., Hawthorne, B.E., Storvik, C.A., 1972. Composition and nutrient content of elephant (Elephas maximus) milk. Journal of Mammalogy 53, 717-724.
Abstract: Gross composition and nutrient content were determined for milk samples from four cows of a captive family of Indian elephants during the course of eight calvings at the Portland Zoo in Oregon.  The milk had a lower concentration of fat than that frequently reported for this species and showed a unique fatty acid composition with respect to the large amounts of capric acid (10:0) present.  Data for amino acid analyses are given as well as values for ascorbic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, and pyridoxine.  Vitamin A and carotene were shown to be almost non-existent.

Crompton, W.G., 1970. Elephant, exercise and the ban on public feeding. International Zoo Yearbook 10, 148-151.

Dillman, J.S., Carr, W.R., 1970. Observations on arteriosclerosis, serum cholesterol and serum electrolytes in the wild African elephant. Journal of Comparative Pathology 80, 81-87.

McCullagh, K.G., Widdowson, E.M., 1970. The milk of the African elephant. British Journal of Nutrition 24, 109-117.
Abstract: 1. Analyses have been made of milk collected from thirty wild African elephants immediately after they were shot. 2.  The milk contained an average of 5.1% protein, 9.3% fat and 3.6% lactose.  The concentration of lactose decreased and the concentration of protein and fat increased with advancing lactation.  Inorganic constituents were present in approximately the same proportions as in bovine milk.  3.  The contribution of capric acid to the total fatty acids, previously shown to be extremely high, increased with advancing lactation.  4.  The significance of these findings to the preparation of milk for rearing young elephants by hand is discussed.

Wallach, J.D., 1970. Nutritional diseases of exotic animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 157, 583-599.

De Leon, V. Zoo elephants in general Part I. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zookeepers.  1969.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

McCullagh, K.G., Lincoln, H.G., Southgate, D.A.T., 1969. Fatty acid composition of milk fat of the African elephant. Nature 222, 493-494.

McCullagh, K.G., 1969. The growth and nutrition of the African elephant I. Seasonal variations in the rate of growth and the urinary excretion of hydroxyproline. East African Wildlife Journal 7, 85-90.

McCullagh, K.G., 1969. The growth and nutrition of the African elephant II.  The chemical nature of the diet. East African Wildlife Journal 7, 91-97.
Abstract: The stomach contents of 148 elephants, cropped at different times of the year, were analyzed chemically as part of a programme of elephant research taking place in 1966 and 1967.    On average these samples contained 8.4 g of protein, 1.5 g of fat, 43.5 g of carbohydrate, 35.7 g of fibre and 11.0 g of mineral material in 100 g of their dry matter. The percentage of protein during the dry season was less than half its value during the wet season and calculations suggest that these animals may be deficient in protein at this time.    Calculations suggest that the intake of calcium is higher during the dry season than during the wet season, although it is argued that this is not a factor in inducing damage to trees.    Analysis of the quality of the dietary fat showed it to contain relatively small amounts of essential poly-unsaturated fatty acids.

Reuther, R.T., 1969. Growth and diet of young elephants in captivity. International Zoo Yearbook 9, 168-178.

Short, R.V., 1969. Notes on the teeth and ovaries of an African elephant of known age. Journal of Zoology (Lond) 158, 421-425.
Abstract: A captive female African elephant, known to be 27 years old, died as a result of trauma.  Her growth rate was similar to that of other captive African elephants, and slightly greater than that of wild animals.  The 5th molar was in full wear, and the 6th was just coming into wear.  There was extensive dental caries of the labial, lingual and occlusal surfaces of the 5th molars, presumably due to the unnatural diet.  The ovaries contained a large number of cystic follicles, and at least 50 regressing corpora lutea.  These abnormalities are probably related to the fact that the elephant had never been mated.

Sikes, S.K., 1969. Habitat and cardiovascular diseases, observations made on elephants (Loxodonta africana) and other free-living animals in East Africa. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 32, 1-104.
Abstract: A field survey to investigate the ecology of cardiovascular disease in free-living East African wild animals is described.  Its aim was to assess the susceptibility of such animals to arteriosclerosis, and particularly to atherosclerosis, and to examine in greater detail the ecology of cardiovascular disease in a single, naturally-susceptible species in relation to dietary change and stress in naturally occurring situations.  A total of 201 specimens, representing 43 species of mammals and 25 of birds, was examined: 37 species of mammals had uncomplicated lipid deposits in the arterial intima, thought to represent a normal physiological occurrence; ten had atheroma-like lesions of the intima, and a number had medial sclerosis and/or other arteritides.  Twenty species of birds had intimal lipid deposits.  The African elephant was selected for special study.  The ecology of its cardiovascular disease patterns was studied in three different habitat types: one "natural" (the "control") and two degenerate ("stressed" or "disturbed").  Atherosclerosis and medial sclerosis were not found in elephants living in the "natural" habitat type, but were correlated with habitat degeneration in the other two "stressed" or "disturbed" ranges, where potential "stress" factors included excessive continuous exposure to sunlight, dietary changes, frustration of the migratory habit, disrupted calving patterns, and over-population.  Neither disease was found to be directly related to age, and each had a distinct intra-arterial development pattern: the aetiology of each is therefore thought to be basically independent, although in advanced cases interaction had occurred.  Incidental original observations include comparisons, in various species, or the functional anatomy of the arterial supportive thickenings at ostia, bifurcations and regions of mechanical strain in relation to the normal intra-aortic distribution of intimal lipid deposits; a note on the nutrition of the Spring hare; a note on the formulation of a new field technique for assessing relative age in the African elephant; notes on abnormalities other than cardiovascular disease, and discussion on ecological data collected which may have practical relevance to current problems of wildlife management.

Young, E., Oelofse, J., 1969. Management and nutrition of 20 newly captured young African elephants, Loxodonta africana, in the Kruger National Park. International Zoo Yearbook 9, 179-184.

Anderson, I.L., 1968. Tutu poisoning in two circus elephants. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 16, 146-147.

McCullagh, K.G., 1968. Essential fatty acids and atheroma. The Lancet 2, 353.

Sikes, S.K., 1968. Observations on the ecology of arterial disease in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Kenya and Uganda. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 21, 251-273.
Abstract: Complete aortae, and samples of selected arteries, were recently collected for detailed study from forty African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Kenya and Uganda.  In every case a wide range of additional data was obtained, relating to the status of each individual elephant from which the material was collected and its ecological background.  These elephants were collected from three distinct habitat types, and a correlation is indicated between the occurrence of certain arterial abnormalities which have been found in the elephants and ecological differences in the habitat types.  It seems possible that the effects of the modern human pressures, which frequently directly affect the vegetational cover, soil character and animal migrations in a given environment, may also indirectly influence the behaviour patterns and physiological rhythms of the elephants.  Such combined pressures may also result in nutritional imbalance, influencing calcium and lipid metabolism, and producing associated changes in the arterial structure.

Dittrich, L., 1967. Contribution about the propagation and raising of the Indian elephant Elephas maximus in captivity with a review of elephant births in European zoos and circuses. Zoologische Garten 34, 56-92.

McCullagh, K., Lewis, M.G., 1967. Spontaneous arteriosclerosis in the wild African elephant. The Lancet 2, 492-495.
Abstract: Two distinct lesions which arise spontaneously in the arteries of wild African elephants resemble uncomplicated arteriosclerosis and Monckeberg's sclerosis in man.  Such lesions can develop in the absence of dietary or tissue lipid.

Bolwig, M., Hill, D.H., Philpott, M., 1965. Hand-rearing of an African elephant, Loxodonta africana. International Zoo Yearbook 5, 152-154.

Bellinge, W.H.S., 1964. Some notes on the rearing of young African elephants. East African Wildlife Journal 2, 71-74.

Dougall, H.W., Sheldrick, D.L.W., 1964. The chemical composition of a day's diet of an elephant. East African Wildlife Journal 2, 51-59.

Bax, R.N., Sheldrick, D.L.W., 1963. Some preliminary observations on the food of elephants in the Tsavo Nationa Park (East) of Kenya. East African Wildlife Journal 1, 40-53.

Dougall, H.W., 1963. On the chemical composition of elephant faeces. East African Wildlife Journal 1, 123.

Ben Shaul, D.M., 1962. The composition of milk of wild animals. International Zoo Yearbook 4, 333-342.

Gopalan, S., 1962. Elephants - Their Capture, Care and Management. The Manager, Publications, Government of India Press, Delhi. 8., Delhi.
Abstract: Note: Dr. S. Chandrasekharam Pillai's notes revised by Dr. S. Gopalan of Madras Forestry Dept.

Buss, I.O., 1961. Some observations on the food habits and behavior of the African elephant. Journal of Wildlife Management 25, 131-148.

Evans, G.H., 1961. Elephants and Their Diseases: A Treatise on Elephants. Government Printing, Rangoon, Burma.

Fowler, M.E., 1960. Scurvy in an elephant. The Cornell Veterinarian 1.

Gill, J., 1960. Rate of passage through the digestive tract of Indian elephants (Elephas maximus) under zoo conditions. Acta Physiologica Polonica 11, 272-289.

Simon, K.J., 1959. Preliminary studies on composition of milk of Indian elephants. Indian Veterinary Journal 36, 500-503.

Taylor, J.I., 1955. The rearing of an African elephant in captivity. Veterinary Record 67, 301-302.

Ferrier, A.J., 1947. The care and management of elephants in Burma. Steel Brothers, London.

Pfaff, G., 1940. Diseases of Elephants. Superintendent, Govt. Printing and Stationary, Burma, Rangoon.

Markuze, Z., 1939. Vitamins of elephant's milk. Biochemical Journal 33, 198-200.
Abstract: 1. Elephant's milk has a lower content of fat-soluble vitamins (A and D) than has cow's milk.  2. Its vitamin B₁ content exceeds that of cow's milk, being 25 I.U. per 100 ml, as compared with 10 I.U. for the latter.  3.  Elephant's and cow's milks have approximately the same content of vitamin B₂ complex.  4.  Elephant's milk contains 7.72 mg per 100 ml of ascorbic acid, as compared with 2.12 mg in cow's milk.

Morris, R.C., 1935. Death of 14 elephants (Elephas maximus Linn.) by food poisoning. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 37, 722-723.

Milroy, A.J.W., 1922. A short tretise on the management of elephants. Government Printer, Shillong.

Evans, G.H., 1910. Elephants and Their Diseases: A Treatise on Elephants. Government Printing, Rangoon, Burma.

Doremus, C.A., 1882. On the composition of elephant's milk. Journal of the American Chemistry Society 4, 157-159.

Doremus, C.A., 1882. Analysis of elephant's milk. Medical News (Philadelphia) 40, 282.

Doremus, C.A., 1881. On the composition of elephant's milk. Journal of the American Chemistry Society 3, 55-59.

Cobbold, T.S., 1875. On the destruction of elephants by parasites; with two new species of entozoa and on the so-called earth-eating habits of elephants and horses in India. Veterinarian (Lond) 21, 756-757.

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