pathol

Blake, S., Deem, S.L., Mossimbo, E., Maisels, F., Walsh, P., 2009. Forest elephants: tree planters of the Congo. Biotropica 41, 459-468.
Abstract: The abundance of large vertebrates is rapidly declining, particularly in the tropics where over-hunting has left many forests structurally intact but devoid of large animals. An urgent question then, is whether these 'empty' forests can sustain their biodiversity without large vertebrates. Here we examine the role of forest elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) seed dispersal in maintaining the community structure of trees in the Ndoki Forest, northern Congo. Analysis of 855 elephant dung piles suggested that forest elephants disperse more intact seeds than any other species or genus of large vertebrate in African forests, while GPS telemetry data showed that forest elephants regularly disperse seeds over unprecedented distances compared to other dispersers. Our analysis of the spatial distribution of trees from a sample of 5667 individuals showed that dispersal mechanism was tightly correlated with the scale of spatial aggregation. Increasing amounts of elephant seed dispersal was associated with decreasing aggregation. At distances of < 200 m, trees whose seeds are dispersed only by elephants were less aggregated than the random expectation, suggesting Janzen-Connell effects on seed/seedling mortality. At the landscape scale, seed dispersal mode predicted the rate at which local tree community similarity decayed in space. Our results suggest that the loss of forest elephants (and other large-bodied dispersers) may lead to a wave of recruitment failure among animal-dispersed tree species, and favor regeneration of the species-poor abiotically dispersed guild of trees.

Chafota, J., Owen-Smith, N., 2009. Episodic severe damage to canopy trees by elephants: interactions with fire, frost and rain. Journal of Tropical Ecology 25, 341-345.
Abstract: Elephants (Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach 1797)) can have a major transforming effect on savanna structure through felling, debarking or uprooting trees (Dublin et al. 1990, Laws 1970, Mapaure & Campbell 2002). However, it is difficult to separate their influence from that of other causes of tree mortality, including wind storms (Spinage & Guinness 1971), drought (Lewis 1991, van de Vijver et al. 1999), fire (Higgins et al. 2000), and in some situations frost (Childes & Walker 1987, Holdo 2006), especially when interactions among them may occur (de Beer et al. 2006, Laws et al. 1975, Pienaar et al. 1966). Furthermore, the consequences for woodland dynamics depend on the size classes of the trees affected, as well as on how the disturbance is concentrated in time and space. Mortality of canopy trees has a much greater and longer-lasting impact than losses among the regenerating stages of these trees. However, the consequences may be less adverse for ecosystem function and biodiversity if the disturbing effects are locally concentrated, generating a patch mosaic of stands at different stages of regeneration (Remmert 1991).

Freeman, E.W., Whyte, I., Brown, J.L., 2009. Reproductive evaluation of elephants culled in Kruger National Park, South Africa between 1975 and 1995. African Journal of Ecology 47, 192-201.
Abstract: To reduce elephant densities and preserve biological diversity, 14,629 elephants were culled from Kruger National Park, South Africa (1967-1999). Data were catalogued between 1975 and 1996 on 2737 male and female elephants, including pregnancy and lactational status for 1620 females (>= 5 years of age) and, uterine and/or ovarian characteristics for 1279. This study used these data to investigate the effects of age and precipitation on reproduction. The youngest age of conception was 8 years (n = 6) and by 12 years of age all females were sexually mature. From the age of 14 years, the percentage of reproductively active females (pregnant and/or lactating) was > 90%; however, this percentage declined when females reached 50 years of age. Overall, one-tenth of females were nonreproductive (not pregnant or lactating) at any given time, mostly in the youngest (< 15 years) and oldest (> 50 years) age classes. Eighteen (3.3%) of the nonpregnant females had reproductive tract pathologies, including endometrial, uterine or ovarian cysts. There was a seasonal distribution of mating activity that correlated with the rainy season. As has been demonstrated in other populations of free-ranging African elephants, most of the females in Kruger National Park were reproductively active; however, age and climate affected reproductive activity.

Garner, M.M., Helmick, K., Ochsenreiter, J., Richman, L.K., Latimer, E., Wise, A.G., Maes, R.K., Kiupel, M., Nordhausen, R.W., Zong, J.C., Hayward, G.S., 2009. Clinico-pathologic features of fatal disease attributed to new variants of endotheliotropic herpesviruses in two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
119. Vet. Pathol. 46, 97-104.
Abstract: The first herpesviruses described in association with serious elephant disease were referred to as endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) because of their ability to infect capillary endothelial cells and cause potentially fatal disease. Two related viruses, EEHV1 and EEHV2, have been described based on genetic composition. This report describes the similarities and differences in clinicopathologic features of 2 cases of fatal endotheliotropic herpesvirus infections in Asian elephants caused by a previously unrecognized virus within the betaherpesvirus subfamily. EEHV3 is markedly divergent from the 2 previously studied fatal probosciviruses, based on polymerase chain reaction sequence analysis of 2 segments of the viral genome. In addition to ascites, widespread visceral edema, petechiae, and capillary damage previously reported, important findings with EEHV3 infection were the presence of grossly visible renal medullary hemorrhage, a tropism for larger veins and arteries in various tissues, relatively high density of renal herpetic inclusions, and involvement of the retinal vessels. These findings indicate a less selective organ tropism, and this may confer a higher degree of virulence for EEHV3

Kaim, U., Paltian, V., Krudewig, C., Nieder, A., Wohlsein, P., 2009. Pulmonary aspergillosis in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
64. Dtsch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 116, 148-151.
Abstract: A 26-year-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) with a history of purulent pododermatitis, recurrent abdominal pain, and severe weight loss died spontaneously after a period of deteriorating disease. The main pathological finding was a severe bilateral pyogranulomatous, partially necrotizing pneumonia with numerous intralesional fungal hyphae. At microbiological examination Aspergillus spp. were isolated. The present case indicates that mycotic pneumonia should to be considered as a differential diagnosis of pulmonary disorders in elephants

Landolfi, J.A., Schultz, S.A., Mikota, S.K., Terio, K.A., 2009. Development and validation of cytokine quantitative, real time RT-PCR assays for characterization of Asian elephant immune responses
71. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 131, 73-78.
Abstract: Infectious disease is an important factor in Asian elephant health and long-term species survival. In studying disease pathogenesis, it is important to consider not only the pathogen, but also the effectiveness of the host immune response. Currently, there is a paucity of information available on elephant immune function. Measurement of cytokine levels within clinical samples can provide valuable information regarding immune function during health and disease that may elucidate disease susceptibility. To develop tools for assessment of elephant immune function, Asian elephant partial mRNA sequences for interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-10, IL-12, interferon (IFN)-gamma, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), and beta-actin were determined. Sequence information was then utilized to design elephant-specific primers and probes for quantitative, real time, RT-PCR assays for the measurement of cytokine mRNA. Greater than 300bps of Asian elephant mRNA sequence were determined for each cytokine of interest. Consistent and reproducible, real time, RT-PCR assays with efficiencies of greater than 93% were also developed. Assay sensitivities ranged from less than 1 to 5000 DNA copies with the exception of IL-12, which had a sensitivity of 42,200 copies. Employment of molecular techniques utilizing mRNA-based detection systems, such as real time, RT-PCR, facilitate sensitive and specific cytokine detection and measurement in samples from species for which commercial reagents are not available. Future studies utilizing these techniques to compare elephant immune function during health and in the face of infection will be useful for characterizing the contribution of the elephant immune system to disease

Leshchinskiy, S.V., 2009. Mineral deficiency, enzootic diseases and extinction of mammoth of northern Eurasia
82. Dokl. Biol. Sci. 424, 72-74.

Manger, P.R., Pillay, P., Maseko, B.C., Bhagwandin, A., Gravett, N., Moon, D.J., Jillani, N., Hemingway, J., 2009. Acquisition of brains from the African elephant (Loxodonta africana): perfusion-fixation and dissection
113. J. Neurosci. Methods 179, 16-21.
Abstract: The current correspondence describes the in situ perfusion-fixation of the brain of the African elephant. Due to both the large size of proboscidean brains and the complex behaviour of these species, the acquisition of good quality material for comparative neuroanatomical analysis from these species is important. Three male African elephants (20-30 years) that were to be culled as part of a larger population management strategy were used. The animals were humanely euthanized and the head removed from the body. Large tubes were inserted into to the carotid arteries and the cranial vasculature flushed with a rapid (20 min) rinse of 100 l of cold saline (4 degrees C). Following the rinse the head was perfusion-fixed with a slower rinse (40 min) of 100 l of cold (4 degrees C) 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1M phosphate buffer. This procedure resulted in well-fixed neural and other tissue. After perfusion the brains were removed from the skull with the aid of power tools, a procedure taking between 2 and 6h. The brains were immediately post-fixed in the same solution for 72 h at 4 degrees C. The brains were subsequently placed in a sucrose solution and finally an antifreeze solution and are stored in a -20 degrees C freezer. The acquisition of high quality neural material from African elephants that can be used for immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy is of importance in understanding the "hardware" underlying the behaviour of this species. This technique can be used on a variety of large mammals to obtain high quality material for comparative neuroanatomical studies

Mason, G.J., Veasey, J.S., 2009. How should the psychological well-being of zoo elephants be objectively investigated?
47. Zoo. Biol.
Abstract: Animal welfare (sometimes termed "well-being") is about feelings - states such as "suffering" or "contentment" that we can infer but cannot measure directly. Welfare indices have been developed from two main sources: studies of suffering humans, and of research animals deliberately subjected to challenges known to affect emotional state. We briefly review the resulting indices here, and discuss how well they are understood for elephants, since objective welfare assessment should play a central role in evidence-based elephant management. We cover behavioral and cognitive responses (approach/avoidance; intention, redirected and displacement activities; vigilance/startle; warning signals; cognitive biases, apathy and depression-like changes; stereotypic behavior); physiological responses (sympathetic responses; corticosteroid output - often assayed non-invasively via urine, feces or even hair; other aspects of HPA function, e.g. adrenal hypertrophy); and the potential negative effects of prolonged stress on reproduction (e.g. reduced gametogenesis; low libido; elevated still-birth rates; poor maternal care) and health (e.g. poor wound-healing; enhanced disease rates; shortened lifespans). The best validated, most used welfare indices for elephants are corticosteroid outputs and stereotypic behavior. Indices suggested as valid, partially validated, and/or validated but not yet applied within zoos include: measures of preference/avoidance; displacement movements; vocal/postural signals of affective (emotional) state; startle/vigilance; apathy; salivary and urinary epinephrine; female acyclity; infant mortality rates; skin/foot infections; cardio-vascular disease; and premature adult death. Potentially useful indices that have not yet attracted any validation work in elephants include: operant responding and place preference tests; intention and vacuum movements; fear/stress pheromone release; cognitive biases; heart rate, pupil dilation and blood pressure; corticosteroid assay from hair, especially tail-hairs (to access endocrine events up to a year ago); adrenal hypertrophy; male infertility; prolactinemia; and immunological changes. Zoo Biol 28:1-19, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Pinter-Wollman, N., Isabell, L.A., Hart, L.A., 2009. Assessing translocation outcome: Comparing behavioral and physiological aspects of translocated and resident African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Biological Conservation 142, 1116-1124.
Abstract: Evaluating translocation outcomes is important for improving wildlife management and conservation actions. Often, when quick decisions need to be made and long-lived animals with slow reproductionrates are translocated, traditional assessment methods such as long-term survival and reproductive successcannot be used for assessing translocation outcomes. Thus, alternative, seldom used, measures suchas comparing the behavior and physiology of translocated animals to those of local residents should beemployed to assess the translocated animals' acclimation to their new home. Here we monitored the survival,physiology, and behavior of translocated African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and comparedthese measures to the local resident population at the release site. Adult male and female translocatedelephants' death rates were higher than those of the local population. Furthermore, the mortality rateof translocated adult males and calves was greater than expected based on their proportion in the translocatedelephant population. No difference was found in stress hormone levels between the two populations,but the body condition of the translocated elephants was significantly poorer than that of the localpopulation throughout the study period. The behavioral time budgets of the translocated elephants convergedwith those of the local population over time. Finally, translocated elephants utilized habitat thatwas similar to their source site (hills and permanent rivers) more than did the local population. Based on these findings we recommend careful consideration of timing, release location, and individuals targetedin future elephant translocations. More broadly, we introduce and explore seldom used translocation assessment techniques.

Saragusty, J., Hermes, R., Goritz, F., Schmitt, D.L., Hildebrandt, T.B., 2009. Skewed birth sex ratio and premature mortality in elephants. Anim Reprod. Sci. 115, 247-254.
Abstract: Sex allocation theories predict equal offspring number of both sexes unless differential investment is required or some competition exists. Left undisturbed, elephants reproduce well and in approximately even numbers in the wild. We report an excess of males are born and substantial juvenile mortality occurs, perinatally, in captivity. Studbook data on captive births (CB, n=487) and premature deaths (PD, <5 years of age; n=164) in Asian and African elephants in Europe and North America were compared with data on Myanmar timber (Asian) elephants (CB, n=3070; PD, n=738). Growth in CB was found in three of the captive populations. A significant excess of male births occurred in European Asian elephants (ratio: 0.61, P=0.044) and in births following artificial insemination (0.83, P=0.003), and a numerical inclination in North American African elephants (0.6). While juvenile mortality in European African and Myanmar populations was 21-23%, it was almost double (40-45%) in all other captive populations. In zoo populations, 68-91% of PD were within 1 month of birth with stillbirth and infanticide being major causes. In Myanmar, 62% of juvenile deaths were at >6 months with maternal insufficient milk production, natural hazards and accidents being the main causes. European Asian and Myanmar elephants PD was biased towards males (0.71, P=0.024 and 0.56, P<0.001, respectively). The skewed birth sex ratio and high juvenile mortality hinder efforts to help captive populations become self-sustaining. Efforts should be invested to identify the mechanism behind these trends and seek solutions for them.

Saragusty, J., Hildebrandt, T.B., Behr, B., Knieriem, A., Kruse, J., Hermes, R., 2009. Successful cryopreservation of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) spermatozoa. Anim Reprod. Sci. 115, 255-266.
Abstract: Reproduction in captive elephants is low and infant mortality is high, collectively leading to possible population extinction. Artificial insemination was developed a decade ago; however, it relies on fresh-chilled semen from just a handful of bulls with inconsistent sperm quality. Artificial insemination with frozen-thawed sperm has never been described, probably, in part, due to low semen quality after cryopreservation. The present study was designed with the aim of finding a reliable semen freezing protocol. Screening tests included freezing semen with varying concentrations of ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, trehalose, dimethyl sulfoxide and glycerol as cryoprotectants and assessing cushioned centrifugation, rapid chilling to suprazero temperatures, freezing extender osmolarity, egg yolk concentration, post-thaw dilution with cryoprotectant-free BC solution and the addition of 10% (v/v) of autologous seminal plasma. The resulting optimal freezing protocol uses cushioned centrifugation, two-step dilution with isothermal 285 m Osm/kg Berliner Cryomedium (BC) with final glycerol concentration of 7% and 16% egg yolk, and freezing in large volume by the directional freezing technique. After thawing, samples are diluted 1:1 with BC solution. Using this protocol, post-thaw evaluations results were: motility upon thawing: 57.2+/-5.4%, motility following 30 min incubation at 37 degrees C: 58.5+/-6.0% and following 3h incubation: 21.7+/-7.6%, intact acrosome: 57.1+/-5.2%, normal morphology: 52.0+/-5.8% and viability: 67.3+/-6.1%. With this protocol, good quality semen can be accumulated for future use in artificial inseminations when and where needed

Asher, R.J., Lehmann, T., 2008. Dental eruption in afrotherian mammals. BMC. Biol. 6, 14.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Afrotheria comprises a newly recognized clade of mammals with strong molecular evidence for its monophyly. In contrast, morphological data uniting its diverse constituents, including elephants, sea cows, hyraxes, aardvarks, sengis, tenrecs and golden moles, have been difficult to identify. Here, we suggest relatively late eruption of the permanent dentition as a shared characteristic of afrotherian mammals. This characteristic and other features (such as vertebral anomalies and testicondy) recall the phenotype of a human genetic pathology (cleidocranial dysplasia), correlations with which have not been explored previously in the context of character evolution within the recently established phylogeny of living mammalian clades. RESULTS: Although data on the absolute timing of eruption in sengis, golden moles and tenrecs are still unknown, craniometric comparisons for ontogenetic series of these taxa show that considerable skull growth takes place prior to the complete eruption of the permanent cheek teeth. Specimens showing less than half (sengis, golden moles) or two-thirds (tenrecs, hyraxes) of their permanent cheek teeth reach or exceed the median jaw length of conspecifics with a complete dentition. With few exceptions, afrotherians are closer to median adult jaw length with fewer erupted, permanent cheek teeth than comparable stages of non-afrotherians. Manatees (but not dugongs), elephants and hyraxes with known age data show eruption of permanent teeth late in ontogeny relative to other mammals. While the occurrence of delayed eruption, vertebral anomalies and other potential afrotherian synapomorphies resemble some symptoms of a human genetic pathology, these characteristics do not appear to covary significantly among mammalian clades. CONCLUSION: Morphological characteristics shared by such physically disparate animals such as elephants and golden moles are not easy to recognize, but are now known to include late eruption of permanent teeth, in addition to vertebral anomalies, testicondy and other features. Awareness of their possible genetic correlates promises insight into the developmental basis of shared morphological features of afrotherians and other vertebrates

Aupperle, H., Reischauer, A., Bach, F., Hildebrandt, T., Goritz, F., Jager, K., Scheller, R., Klaue, H.J., Schoon, H.A., 2008. Chronic endometritis in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 39, 107-110.
Abstract: A 48-yr-old female Asian elephant with a history of pododermatitis developed recurrent hematuria beginning in 2002. Transrectal ultrasonography and endoscopic examination in 2004 identified the uterus as the source of hematuria and excluded hemorrhagic cystitis. Treatment with Desloreline implants, antibiotics, and homeopathic drugs led to an improved general condition of the elephant. In July 2005, the elephant was suddenly found dead. During necropsy, the severely enlarged uterus contained about 250 L of purulent fluid, and histopathology revealed ulcerative suppurative endometritis with high numbers of Streptococcus equi ssp. zooepidemicus and Escherichia coli identified on aerobic culture. Additional findings at necropsy included: multifocal severe pododermatitis, uterine leiomyoma, and numerous large calcified areas of abdominal fat necrosis. Microbiologic culture of the pododermatitis lesion revealed the presence of Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus equi ssp. zooepidemicus, Staphylococcus sp., Corynebacterium sp., and Entercoccus sp

Bechert, U., Southern, S., Chase, M. Minimally invasive molecular health analysis in elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians. 88. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: This paper describes the application of a new assay platform called Stress Response Profiling (SRP) to the analysis of health status in elephants. SRP assays use a large biomarker panel as an indicator of chronically perturbed physiologic homeostasis ("chronic stress"),1,2 which is a known predictor of increased morbidity, infertility and mortality rates.3-8 SRP assays have a broad-based sensitivity to diverse types of stressors in multiple species of vertebrates.2 A minimally invasive SRP assay is based on skin microsamples obtained using routine biopsy procedures.9 The skin SRP assay was applied to captive African elephants with clinically diagnosed gastrointestinal infections and to healthy wild elephants.10 The elephant health status was classified using a reference database of SR biomarker profiles corresponding to eight species of normal and stressed animals. The biomarker profiles were converted into pathway profiles indicating that the molecular mechanism of the elephant gastrointestinal infections preferentially involved responses to misfolded proteins and DNA lesions. To rapidly and economically screen samples from 70 free-ranging African elephants sampled in Northern Botswana, we used a multiplexed SRP assay called multi-SRP.1,2 Statistical analysis of the multi-SRP scores showed correlations with population density, movements, and human-elephant conflict reports. In
summary, this paper documents that SRP and multi-SRP assays are suitable for the elephant skin and relevant to both symptomatic diseases and asymptomatic effects of environmental and anthropogenic stressors. We anticipate that the SRP technology might have a wide range of potential applications in veterinary medicine and ecosystem conservation.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Southern, S.O., A.C. Allen, and N. Kellar. 2002. Molecular signature of physiological stress in dolphins based on protein expression profiling of skin. Administrative Report LJ-02-27, National Marine Fisheries Service, SW Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla, California.
2. Southern, S.O., and G.W. Lilienthal. 2008. New technology for early detection of health threats. Proc. SPIE 69450F.
3. Camougrand, N., and M. Rigoulet. 2001. Aging and oxidative stress: studies of some genes involved both in aging and in response to oxidative stress. Respir. Physiol. 128:393-40.
4. Epel, E.S., J. Lin, F.H. Wilhelm, O.M. Wolkowitz, R. Cawthon, N.E. Adler, C. Dolbier, W.B. Mendes, and E.H. Blackburn. 2006. Cell aging in relation to stress arousal and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 31:277-87.
5. Feder, M.E., and G.E. Hofmann. 1999. Heat-shock proteins, molecular chaperones, and the stress response: evolutionary and ecological physiology. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 61:243-82.
6. Kapahi, P., M.E. Boulton, and T.B.L. Kirkwood. 1999. Positive correlation between mammalian life span and cellular resistance to stress. Free Radical Biol. Med. 26:495-500.
7. Selye, H.A. 1936. Syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents. Nature 138:32.
8. Wilson, J.F., and E.J. Kopitzke 2002. Stress and infertility Curr. Womens Health Rep. 2: 194

Clubb, R., Rowcliffe, M., Lee, P., Mar, K.U., Moss, C., Mason, G.J., 2008. Compromised survivorship in zoo elephants. Science 322, 1649.
Abstract: We analyzed data from over 4500 elephants to show that animals in European zoos have about half the median life span of conspecifics in protected populations in range countries. This discrepancy is clearest in Asian elephants; unlike African elephants in zoos, this species' infant mortality is very high (for example, twice that seen in Burmese timber camps), and its adult survivorship in zoos has not improved significantly in recent years. One risk factor for Asian zoo elephants is being moved between institutions, with early removal from the mother tending to have additional adverse effects. Another risk factor is being born into a zoo rather than being imported from the wild, with poor adult survivorship in zoo-born Asians apparently being conferred prenatally or in early infancy. We suggest stress and/or obesity as likely causes of zoo elephants' compromised survivorship

Foley, C., Pettorelli, N., Foley, L., 2008. Severe drought and calf survival in elephants. Biol. Lett. 4, 541-544.
Abstract: Climate change in Africa is expected to lead to a higher occurrence of severe droughts in semi-arid and arid ecosystems. Understanding how animal populations react to such events is thus crucial for addressing future challenges for wildlife management and conservation. We explored how gender, age, mother's experience and family group characteristics determined calf survival in an elephant population during a severe drought in Tanzania in 1993. Young males were particularly sensitive to the drought and calf loss was higher among young mothers than among more experienced mothers. We also report high variability in calf mortality between different family groups, with family groups that remained in the National Park suffering heavy calf loss, compared with the ones that left the Park. This study highlights how severe droughts can dramatically affect early survival of large herbivores and suggests that extreme climatic events might act as a selection force on vertebrate populations, allowing only individuals with the appropriate behaviour and/or knowledge to survive

Hermes, R., Saragusty, J., Schaftenaar, W., Goritz, F., Schmitt, D.L., Hildebrandt, T.B., 2008. Obstetrics in elephants. Theriogenology 70, 131-144.
Abstract: Obstetrics, one of the oldest fields in veterinary medicine, is well described and practiced in domestic and exotic animals. However, when providing care during elephant birth or dystocia, veterinary intervention options differ greatly from any domestic species, and are far more limited due to the dimensions and specific anatomy of the elephant reproductive tract. In addition, aging of captive elephant populations and advanced age of primiparous females make active birth management increasingly important. Intrauterine infection, uterine inertia and urogenital tract pathologies are emerging as major causes for dystocia, often leading to foetal and dam death. This paper reviews the current knowledge on elephant birth and the factors associated with dystocia. It then summarises recommendations for birth and dystocia management. As Caesarean section, the most common ultima ratio in domestic animal obstetrics, is lethal and therefore not an option in the elephant, non-invasive medical treatment, induction of the Fergusson reflex or the conscious decision to leave a retained foetus until it is expelled voluntarily, are key elements in elephant obstetrics. Surgical strategies such as episiotomy and foetotomy are sometimes inevitable in order to try to save the life of the dam, however, these interventions result in chronic post-surgical complications or even fatal outcome. Limited reliable data on serum calcium concentrations, and pharmacokinetics and effect of exogenous oestrogen, oxytocin, and prostaglandins during birth provide the scope of future research, necessary to advance scientific knowledge on obstetrics in elephants

Meyers, D.A., Isaza, R., MacNeill, A. Evaluation of acute phase proteins for diagnosis of inflammation in Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus). Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians. 128. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: In many domestic species, routine hematology assays are useful diagnostic tools to diagnose inflammatory conditions. Unlike other species, these hematologic tests apparently are insensitive indicators of inflammation in elephants.1 We studied a novel group of blood proteins, called acute phase proteins, which increase during inflammatory conditions, for their usefulness in diagnosing elephants with inflammatory diseases. Although these proteins currently are useful in humans and domestic animals, each species has a different set of important proteins that must be individually investigated.2 We tested several acute phase proteins (C-reactive protein, alpha-1 glycoprotein, alpha-1 antitrypsin, serum amyloid A, haptoglobin, fibrinogen, ceruloplasmin, and albumin) as well as complete blood counts, chemistry panels, serum protein electrophoresis, and 3-D gel electrophoresis to determine their usefulness for diagnosing different types of inflammatory conditions in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Animals with inflammatory conditions were classified as those individuals with known illnesses such as mycobacteriosis, arthritis, nail bed abscesses, and malignant tumors. Control animals were thoseanimals that were suspected to not have any inflammation and be healthy at the time of testing as determined by physical examination and obtaining a thorough medical history.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Lyashchenko, K., R. Greenwald, J. Esfandiari, J. Olsen, R. Ball, G. Dumonceaux, F. Dunker, C. Buckley, M.
Richard, S. Murray, J.B. Payeur, P. Anderson, J.M. Pollock, S. Mikota, M. Miller, D. Sofranko, and W.R.
Waters. 2006. Tuberculosis in Elephants: Antibody responses to defined antigens of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, potential for early diagnosis, and monitoring of treatment. Clin. Vacc. Immunol. 13: 722-732.
2. Murata H., N. Shimada, M. Yoshioka. 2004. Current research on acute phase proteins in veterinary diagnosis:
an overview. Vet J. 168: 28-40.

Miller, J., McClean, M. Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) after a single rectal dose. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians. 224-225. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Captive African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) are susceptible to many types of gram negative bacterial infections such as Escherichia coli, Mycoplasma spp., Salmonella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. Enrofloxacin (Baytril®, Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee Mission, KS 66201) is a potentially effective antibiotic for
treatment of these bacterial infections in elephants. Very limited data exists on the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in elephants2 and most of the dosage regimes for gastrointestinal absorption are based on horse dosages since they share a similar gastrointestinal tract. Three African elephants from Wildlife Safari in Winston, Oregon, two females both 37-yr-old and one male 26-yr-old, were used to determine whether therapeutic levels of enrofloxacin could be achieved thru rectal administration of liquid injectable enrofloxacin (Baytril 100®, 100 mg/ml, Bayer Health Care, Animal Health Division, P.O. Box 390, Shawnee Mission, KS 66201) at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg. A pretreatment baseline blood sample was collected. Following administration, blood samples were collected at 45 min, 1.5hr, 2.5hr, 5hr, 9hr, 23hr, 36hr to determine plasma enrofloxacin levels. Plasma enrofloxacin levels were measured at North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Plasma ciprofloxacin levels were measured concurrently. Results indicate plasma concentrations of enrofloxacin did not reach adequate bacteriocidal levels for any of the the following common bacterial isolates in captive elephants: Mycoplasma
spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Proteus spp. The study determined that a rectally administered dosage of 2.5 mg/kg of liquid injectable enrofloxacin was insufficient to obtain therapeutic levels in African elephants. The low plasma levels of enrofloxacin in all three elephants may be a result of poor absorption in the distal large intestine. A future study will determine if oral administration will provide a more efficient mode of drug delivery and absorption in African elephants. It is also possible that the current dosage of 2.5 mg/kg is too low to achieve adequate therapeutic levels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the elephant and veterinary staff at Wildlife Safari for their participation in conducting this study. Thanks to Doctors: Modesto McClean, Jason Bennett, Andi Chariffe, Tessa Lohe, Benji Alacantar. Also thanks to Dinah Wilson, Carol Matthews, Anthony Karels, Mary Iida, Shawn Finnell, Patches Stroud, Katie Alayan.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Haines, G.R., et. al. 2000. Serum concentrations and pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after intravenous and intragastric administration to mares. Can. J.Vet. Res. 64(3):171-177.
2. Sanchez, C.R., et. al. 2005. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of enrofloxacin administered orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Am. J. Vet. Res. 66:1948-1953.

Moncrieff, G.R., Kruger, L.M., Midgley, J.J., 2008. Stem mortality of Acacia nigrescens induced by the synergistic effects of elephants and fire in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Journal of Tropical Ecology 24, 655-662.
Abstract: One manner in which elephants utilize trees is by removing their bark. This type of utilization is concentrated on the largest trees in the landscape. The role of bark removal in increasing the vulnerability of large trees to fire and the mechanism through which fire damage is mediated were investigated in Kruger National Park. South Africa, by experimentally removing bark and burning Acacia nigrescens stems with diameters ranging between 30 and 68 mm. Also, field surveys were conducted subsequent to natural fires in order to investigate mortality patterns of large trees with dbh greater than 15 cm with bark removed by elephants. An increasing probability of mortality was associated with increasing amounts of bark removal but only if trees were burned. When trees had bark removed but were not burnt, simulating damage only to cambium and phloem, none of the 12 treated stems died in the 4-mo period over which the experimentran. Moreover, low levels of cambium damage were detected in large burned stems. This suggests that bark removal increases fire-induced xylem damage and that this damage contributes towards stein mortality. In a survey of 437 large trees. bark removal by elephants was frequent on large stems (44%) and larger trees have greater amounts of bark removed. Post-fire mortality of large trees was significantly associated with increasing bark removal and stem diameter. These results indicate that bark removal by elephants increases the vulnerability of stems to fire, resulting in mortality of large stems otherwise protected from fire.

Ramanathan, A., Mallapur, A., 2008. A visual health assessment of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) housed in India. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 39, 148-154.
Abstract: A visual health assessment and survey questionnaire was conducted on 81 Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) housed in 10 animal facilities throughout India between November 2004 and February 2005. The survey questionnaire consisted of 10 questions that evaluated the health of the elephants, and they were completed after visually assessing each individual elephant. The information collected was ranked on a scale that was used to statistically compare the health among the study subjects. This study documented that 43.21% of the captive elephants surveyed exhibited hyperkeratosis. A significant proportion of the elephants owned by tourist camps had poor skin condition when compared with elephants from zoos and at a forest camp. Similarly, captive-born individuals were found to have better skin condition than animals that were caught from the wild. Sixty (74.1%) of the captive elephants that were observed during this study had fissures in their footpads, 20% of which were severe. The prevalence of foot fissures was significantly higher in females. A greater proportion of elephants owned by tourist camps displayed vertical and horizontal toenail cracks in comparison with the forest camp and zoo elephants. It was noted that 76.9% of the wounded animals and 80% of those having abscesses were housed at temples and tourist camps. Also, approximately 8.5% of the captive elephant population observed during this study had eye-related problems, and they were all housed at temples and tourist camps. In conclusion, it was evident that elephants housed at temples or tourist camps exhibited poor skin condition with wounds and abscesses. These findings suggest that the overall condition of the elephants housed at tourist camps was poor compared with elephants housed at zoos and at the forest camp

Ren, L., Butler, M., Miller, C., Paxton, H., Schwerda, D., Fischer, M.S., Hutchinson, J.R., 2008. The movements of limb segments and joints during locomotion in African and Asian elephants. J. Exp. Biol. 211, 2735-2751.
Abstract: As the largest extant terrestrial animals, elephants do not trot or gallop but can move smoothly to faster speeds without markedly changing their kinematics, yet with a shift from vaulting to bouncing kinetics. To understand this unusual mechanism, we quantified the forelimb and hindlimb motions of eight Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and seven African elephants (Loxodonta africana). We used 240 Hz motion analysis (tracking 10 joint markers) to measure the flexion/extension angles and angular velocities of the limb segments and joints for 288 strides across an eightfold range of speeds (0.6-4.9 m s(-1)) and a sevenfold range of body mass (521-3684 kg). We show that the columnar limb orientation that elephants supposedly exemplify is an oversimplification--few segments or joints are extremely vertical during weight support (especially at faster speeds), and joint flexion during the swing phase is considerable. The 'inflexible' ankle is shown to have potentially spring-like motion, unlike the highly flexible wrist, which ironically is more static during support. Elephants use approximately 31-77% of their maximal joint ranges of motion during rapid locomotion, with this fraction increasing distally in the limbs, a trend observed in some other running animals. All angular velocities decrease with increasing size, whereas smaller elephant limbs are not markedly more flexed than adults. We find no major quantitative differences between African and Asian elephant locomotion but show that elephant limb motions are more similar to those of smaller animals, including humans and horses, than commonly recognized. Such similarities have been obscured by the reliance on the term ;columnar' to differentiate elephant limb posture from that of other animals. Our database will be helpful for identifying elephants with unusual limb movements, facilitating early recognition of musculoskeletal pathology

Schmitt, D., Charmason, S., Wiedner, E. Use of luteinizing hormone ELISAs in breeding elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians. 120-121. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Successful artificial insemination (AI) of elephants depends heavily on determining the unique luteinizing hormone (LH) surges that occur during the follicular phase of the elephant's estrous cycle. Natural breeding of elephants also can benefit from a rapid and accurate determination of the two LH surges found in elephants. There are three ELISAs available for determining the LH
surge; two are commercially-available assays and one is a laboratory in-house assay. Each vary in their cost, time to complete the assay, and ease of performing the procedures. Detection of the initial non-ovulatory peak in luteinizing hormone (LH1) is best accomplished by use of an in house LH assay, or use of the LH assay available from Dr. Nancy Dahl (UC-Davis, Davis, CA
95616 USA), both of which are quantitative assays for detection of LH. For cow-side use during estrus, the qualitative ELISA Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit (Symbiotics Corporation, Kansas City, MO 64163 USA) detects LH in elephants within 20 min. This assay requires a minimum of laboratory precision to detect the ovulatory LH peak (LH2).
Introduction
Elephants are the only species known to exhibit a double LH peak during a single estrous cycle.2,4 Increased success of artificial insemination in elephants occurred partly in response to the ability to detect the LH1 surge about 21 days prior to the ovulatory LH2 surge that occurs at the end of a two to three day estrus.1 The first reports regarding detection of the double LH
surges were performed in laboratories using custom ELISA technology that require exacting procedures and two days to complete the quantitative assays.2,4 A semi-quantitative elephant LH ELISA that can be performed in the field in about 2.5 hr was developed at UC-Davis.3 A qualitative LH assay was developed for use in dogs and cats that uses a latex strip ELISA. The time for development of the test is 20 min and detects a LH surge greater than 1 ng/ml using serum. Elephants have LH1 and LH2 surges in the 4-16 ng/ml range,2,4 well within the detectable range for all of the assays described. The detection of the LH1 peak usually is from daily samples submitted weekly; this allows some efficiency of assay resources and provides at least a two-wk notice of LH2. However, accurate and timely detection of LH2 is needed at least daily and at times twice daily during estrus. The use of an LH assay which can be performed 'cow-side' and accurately detect LH2 is essential for successful AI and can be helpful in determining estrus status for natural breeding. The Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit from Symbiotics was developed for use in dogs and cats, but is effective in other species, including elephants, and meets these requirements.
Discussion
Detection of LH1 provides information for predicting the LH2 surge and performance of assays that require more laboratory time and precision are useful since detection of LH1 is not as timesensitive as LH2 detection. Both of the quantitative assays have unique advantages. An inhouse assay can be set up, but requires greater preparation time, precision of laboratory procedures is more demanding, often takes two days to perform, and is more susceptible to environmental variables. The assay developed by UC-Davis costs about $5.00 per well, takes about 2.5 hr to perform and is more stable. However, for quantitative results the overhead costs of the standard curve requires about 16 wells ($90), plus two wells for each unknown sample. The UC-Davis assay can be set up as a qualitative test with high and low controls and no standard curve. This requires from three to six wells for a single sample. The Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit has a control built into each test strip and costs about $25.00 per sample. Because 'cow-side' testing possible using the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit, I recommend its use for detection of LH2, although the UC-Davis Elephant ELISA is competitively priced and can be performed in a nearby temporary laboratory. Because timing is
critical in detecting LH2 and performing subsequent AI, I recommend using the Witness® LH Ovulation Timing Test Kit at the time of estrus, preceded by either one of the other assays for detecting LH1, depending on availability of laboratory labor and equipment.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Brown, J. L., F. Goritz, N. Pratt-Hawkes, R. Hermes, M. Galloway, L. H. Graham, C. Gray, S. L. Walker, A. Gomez, R. Moreland, S. Murray, D. L. Schmitt, J. G. Howard, J. Lehnhardt, B. Beck, A. Bellem, R. Montali, and T. B. Hildebrandt. 2004. Successful artificial insemination of an Asian elephant at the National Zoological Park. Zoo Biol. 23: 45-63.
2. Brown, J. L., D. L. Schmitt, A. Bellem, L. H. Graham, and J. Lehnhardt. 1999. Hormone secretion in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus): Characterization of ovulatory and anovulatory luteinizing hormone surges. Biol. Reprod. 61: 1294-1299.
3. Dahl, N. J., D. Olson, D. L. Schmitt, D. R. Blasko, R. S. Kristipati, and J. F. Roser. 2004. Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the elephant (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus). Zoo Biol. 23: 65-78.
4. Kapustin, N., J. K. Critser, D. Olson, and P. V. Malven. 1996. Nonluteal estrous cycles of 3-week duration are initiated by anovulatory luteinizing hormone peaks in African elephants. Biol. Reprod. 55:1147-1154.

Shannon, G., Druce, D.J., Page, B., Eckhardt, H.C., Grant, R., Slotow, R., 2008. The utilization of large savanna trees by elephant in southern Kruger National Park . Journal of Tropical Ecology 24, 281-289.
Abstract: The utilization of large savanna trees by elephant in southern Kruger National Park Graeme Shannon, Dave J. Druce, Bruce R. Page, Holger C. Eckhardt, Rina Grant and Rob SlotowJournal of Tropical Ecology (2008) 24: 281-289.
Elephants are believed to be one of the main ecological drivers in the conversion of savanna woodlands to grassland. We assessed the impacts of elephant on large trees (=5 m in height) in the southern section of the Kruger National Park. Tree dimensions and utilization by elephant were recorded for 3082 individual trees across 22 transects (average length of 3 km and 10 m wide). Sixty per cent of the trees exhibited elephant utilization and 4% were dead as a direct result of elephant foraging behaviour. Each height class of tree was utilized in proportion to abundance. However, the size of the tree and the species influenced the intensity of utilization and foraging approach. Sclerocarya birrea was actively selected for and experienced the highest proportional utilization (75% of all trees). Interestingly, the proportion of large trees that were utilized and pushed over increased with distance from permanent water, a result which has implications for the provision of water in the KNP. We conclude that mortality is likely to be driven by a combination of factors including fire, drought and disease, rather than the actions of elephant alone. Further investigation is also required regarding the role of senescence and episodic mortality.

Steinmetz, H.W., Eulenberger, U., Hatt, J.M. Daily clinical examinations in a herd of captive asian elephants. Proc American Associaton of Zoo Veterinarians and Assoc of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians. 124. 2008. 11-10-2008.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The captive population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is not self-sustaining.2 Poor reproduction and high juvenile mortality are key factors in the decreasing population. Infection with endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV) is one of the major causes of death in the captive population, and has resulted in the loss of at least 40 captive animals.1 EEHV has been
responsible for the peracute death of two juvenile males at Zurich Zoo, Switzerland. Mortality due to peracute infection with EEHV mainly is seen in juveniles. Early detection of characteristic clinical signs of EEHV and immediate initiation of therapy are of crucial
importance due to its rapid progression. Based on past fatal EEHV experiences, Zurich Zoo modified its daily clinical health monitoring program to increase staff awareness of EEHV infection. Examinations have been incorporated into the daily routine and include daily evaluation of behaviour, appetite, colour of mucosal membranes and the measurement of body temperature; these examinations are performed by keepers. In our experiences, characteristic signs of acute EEHV infection are lethargy, anorexia, mild
colic, and cyanosis of the mucosal membranes. Results of temperature measurements have shown that best estimations of body temperature are done by measurement of the temperature in the centre of a fecal ball 5-9 min after defecation. Mean values of 36.5°C (± 0.2°C SD) are within published reference values, although adult elephants have shown significantly lower body temperature than juveniles. Establishment of individual reference values for each elephant is essential to detect unusual temperature peaks that may indicate possible EEHV viremia. The present study has shown that daily health examinations increase the awareness of keepers for
early signs of EEHV infection (e.g., peaks in body temperature and cyanotic mucosal membranes).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank B. Aeschbach and all elephant keepers for taking special care of our elephants. The work and organization of Ms. G. Hürlimann is gratefully appreciated.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S. 2007. Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV). http://www.elephantcare.org/herpes.htm. cited: 10.04.2008:
2. Wiese, R. J. 2000. Asian elephants are not self-sustaining in North America. Zoo Biol. 19: 299-309.

Woolley, L.A., Millspaugh, J.J., Woods, R.J., van Rensburg, S.J., Mackey, R.L., Page, B., Slotow, R., 2008. Population and individual elephant response to a catastrophic fire in Pilanesberg National Park. PLoS. One. 3, e3233.
Abstract: In predator-free large herbivore populations, where density-dependent feedbacks occur at the limit where forage resources can no longer support the population, environmental catastrophes may play a significant role in population regulation. The potential role of fire as a stochastic mass-mortality event limiting these populations is poorly understood, so too the behavioural and physiological responses of the affected animals to this type of large disturbance event. During September 2005, a wildfire resulted in mortality of 29 (18% population mortality) and injury to 18, African elephants in Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa. We examined movement and herd association patterns of six GPS-collared breeding herds, and evaluated population physiological response through faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (stress) levels. We investigated population size, structure and projected growth rates using a simulation model. After an initial flight response post-fire, severely injured breeding herds reduced daily displacement with increased daily variability, reduced home range size, spent more time in non-tourist areas and associated less with other herds. Uninjured, or less severely injured, breeding herds also shifted into non-tourist areas post-fire, but in contrast, increased displacement rate (both mean and variability), did not adjust home range size and formed larger herds post-fire. Adult cow stress hormone levels increased significantly post-fire, whereas juvenile and adult bull stress levels did not change significantly. Most mortality occurred to the juvenile age class causing a change in post-fire population age structure. Projected population growth rate remained unchanged at 6.5% p.a., and at current fecundity levels, the population would reach its previous level three to four years post-fire. The natural mortality patterns seen in elephant populations during stochastic events, such as droughts, follows that of the classic mortality pattern seen in predator-free large ungulate populations, i.e. mainly involving juveniles. Fire therefore functions in a similar manner to other environmental catastrophes and may be a natural mechanism contributing to population limitation. Welfare concerns of arson fires, burning during "hot-fire" conditions and the conservation implications of fire suppression (i.e. removal of a potential contributing factor to natural population regulation) should be integrated into fire management strategies for conservation areas

Bulte, E.H., Damania, R., Van Kooten, G.C., 2007. The effects of one-off ivory sales on elephant mortality. Journal of Wildlife Management 71, 613-618.
Abstract: We revisited the debate about whether the 1999 one-off sale of ivory promoted elephant (Loxodonta africana) poaching in Africa. Complementing earlier work based on ivory seizure data, we considered data on elephant mortality in Zimbabwe and Kenya. Our findings present a mixed picture. At the local level there was some evidence that the one-off sale resulted in extra elephant killing, but this effect was relatively small (and probably short-lived). Although the data were too scanty to draw strong conclusions, decision-making about elephant management and the ivory trade has to continue and will necessarily be based on imperfect information for a long time to come. Our findings suggest that further experimenting with one-off sales may be beneficial from a conservation and development perspective.

Holdo, R.M., 2007. Elephants, fire, and frost can determine community structure and composition in Kalahari Woodlands. Ecol. Appl. 17, 558-568.
Abstract: Fire, elephants, and frost are important disturbance factors in many African savannas, but the relative magnitude of their effects on vegetation and their interactions have not been quantified. Understanding how disturbance shapes savanna structure and composition is critical for predicting changes in tree cover and for formulating management and conservation policy. A simulation model was used to investigate how the disturbance regime determines vegetation structure and composition in a mixed Kalahari sand woodland savanna in western Zimbabwe. The model consisted of submodels for tree growth, tree damage caused by disturbance, mortality, and recruitment that were parameterized from field data collected over a two-year period. The model predicts that, under the current disturbance regime, tree basal area in the study area will decline by two-thirds over the next two decades and become dominated by species unpalatable to elephants. Changes in the disturbance regime are predicted to greatly modify vegetation structure and community composition. Elephants are the primary drivers of woodland change in this community at present-day population densities, and their impacts are exacerbated by the effects of fire and frost. Frost, in particular, does not play an important role when acting independently but appears to be a key secondary factor in the presence of elephants and/or fire. Unlike fire and frost, which cannot suppress the woodland phase on their own in this ecosystem, elephants can independently drive the vegetation to the scrub phase. The results suggest that elephant and fire management may be critical for the persistence of certain woodland communities within dry-season elephant habitats in the eastern Kalahari, particularly those dominated by Brachystegia spiciformis and other palatable species

Lacasse, C., Terio, K., Kinsel, M.J., Farina, L.L., Travis, D.A., Greenwald, R., Lyashchenko, K.P., Miller, M., Gamble, K.C., 2007. Two cases of atypical mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium szulgai associated with mortality in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 38, 101-107.
Abstract: Mycobacterium szulgai was associated with mortality in two captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed at Lincoln Park Zoo. The first elephant presented with severe, acute lameness of the left rear limb. Despite extensive treatments, the animal collapsed and died 13 mo after initial presentation. Necropsy revealed osteomyelitis with loss of the femoral head and acetabulum and pulmonary granulomas with intralesional M. szulgai. The second elephant collapsed during transport to another institution with no premonitory clinical signs. This animal was euthanized because of prolonged recumbency. Granulomatous pneumonia with intralesional M. szulgai was found at necropsy. Two novel immunoassays performed on banked serum samples detected antibody responses to mycobacterial antigens in both infected elephants. It was not possible to determine when the infection was established or how the elephants were infected. When reviewing the epidemiology of this organism in humans, however, transmission between elephants seemed unlikely because human-to-human transmission of this organism has never been reported and a third elephant in the herd was not affected. In addition to Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterial organisms need to be considered potentially pathogenic in elephants

Teixeira, C.P., Schetini de Azevedo, C., Mendl, M., Cipreste, C.F., Young, R.J., 2007. Revisiting translocation and reintroduction programmes: the importance of considering stress. Animal Behaviour 73, 1-13.
Abstract: It is widely known that the adverse effects of stress must be considered in animal conservation programmes. However, a full consideration of how and where stress occurs in animal conservation programmes has not been undertaken, especially in translocation and reintroduction programmes. The literature concerning these types of programmes shows high levels of mortality, despite researchers' consideration of the effects of stress. However, an analysis of the literature shows that many conservation biologists have only a superficial knowledge about stress. For example, most do not understand the importance of subclinical stress or the fact that the effect of successive stressors can be additive or accumulative. While most conservation biologists know that stress is bad for animal health, few have considered its adverse effects on cognitive abilities, which an animal needs to survive in the wild (e.g. memory). In this paper we conclude with suggestions for improving the efficiency of animal conservation programmes in terms of the number of animals surviving after reintroduction or translocation. The most important conclusion from this review of the literature is that there needs to be a greater interchange of information between animal welfare and animal conservation scientists.

Une, Y., Mori, T., 2007. Tuberculosis as a zoonosis from a veterinary perspective. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis Aug 13; [Epub ahead of print].
Abstract: Tuberculosis is an important disease among many zoonoses, because both Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis, which are the major causes of tuberculosis, are highly pathogenic, infect many animal species and thus are likely to be the source of infection in humans. In particular, monkeys are highly susceptible to these bacteria and are important spreaders. Recently, two outbreaks of M. tuberculosis occurred in four different kinds of monkeys and humans were also infected with the disease in Japan. In zoos, tuberculosis was reported not only in monkeys, but also in several different kinds of animals, including elephants. Pets such as dogs and cats are believed to be generally less susceptible to M. tuberculosis, but in this article we introduce a case of infection from man to dog by close contact. Japan is one of the few countries that have been able to control M. bovis infection. In other countries, however, cases of bovine tuberculosis and human M. bovis infection have been reported, and thus further attention is still required in the future.

Wittemyer, G., Rasmussen, H.B., Douglas-Hamilton, I., 2007. Breeding phenology in relation to NDVI variability in free-ranging African elephant. Ecography 30, 42-50.
Abstract: The phenology of reproduction is often correlated with resource availability and is hypothesized to be shaped by selective forces in order to maximize lifetime reproductive success. African elephants have the distinctive life history traits of a 22 month gestation and extended offspring investment, necessitating a long-term strategy of energy acquisition and reproductive expenditure to ensure successful offspring recruitment. We investigated the relationship between the reproductive phenology of a wild elephant population and resource availability using remotely sensed Normalized Differential Vegetation Index (NDVI) data as a measure of time-specific primary productivity and hence forage quality. The initiation of female elephants' 3+yr reproductive bout was dependent on conditions during the season of conception but timed so parturition occurred during the most likely periods of high primary productivity 22 months later. Thus, the probability of conception is linked to the stochastic variation in seasonal quality and the phenology of parturition is related to the predictable seasonality of primary productivity, indicating elephants integrate information on known current and expected future conditions when reproducing. Juvenile mortality was not correlated with ecological variability, hence female fecundity rather than calf mortality appears to drive demographic processes in the study population. Extreme climatic events, such as those associated with the El Niño-Southern-Oscillation (ENSO), acted to synchronize female fecundity in the population. This study suggests that the relationship between fecundity and ecological variability instigates the characteristic demographic fluctuations in elephant populations, rather than the mortality-driven fluctuations observed in many ungulate populations.

Agnew, D.W. Brain removal in charismatic mega-vertebrates: A not-so-charismatic chore. 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Examination of the central nervous system, both grossly and histologically, is an important component of a complete necropsy. Cerebral nematodiasis, West Nile Virus infection, rabies, distemper, and organophosphate toxicity are just a few of the possible diseases with serious herd and public health significance which may only be diagnosed by careful analysis of the brain and/or spinal cord. Removal of the brain is strongly suggested for a complete necropsy, and though it may appear a daunting task, a few guidelines and power tools will allow efficient removal of the brain and a complete necropsy.
It is usually preferred that the brain be removed whole by removal of the skull cap. This technique has been well documented in necropsy texts and is commonly taught in veterinary schools. Briefly, after skinning the skull, a saw or ax may be used to cut on either side from the foramen magnum and the occipital condyles cranially and dorsally in a circular pattern (Fig. 1). This technique is useful to examine the brain in situ and remove it whole, but unfortunately requires skinning of the head, can be time-consuming, and is almost impossible to complete in rhinoceros and elephants. There are many alternative approaches to brain removal, but the author has found the following methods using commonly available tools are quick, leave a relatively intact skull, and the brain itself is removed in two parts. Certainly, the techniques presented here can be adapted to the individual preferences of the prosector and to other similar species. If nothing else, a discussion of brain removal techniques will reinforce the importance of collecting a complete set of tissues during a post-mortem examination.

Ball, R.L., Dumonceaux, G., Olsen, J.H., Burton, M.S., Lyashchenko, K. Comparison of trunk wash results matched to multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA) in a group of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). 2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 303-304. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Introduction: Between 1994 and June 2005, there were 34 confirmed cases of tuberculosis in elephants in the U.S. population. Thirty-one Asian (Elephas maximus) and three African (Loxodonta africana) elephants were affected. Mycobacterium tuberculosis was the etiologic agent in 33 cases and M. bovis in one case. Cases of tuberculosis caused by an unusual nontuberculous mycobacteria, M. szulgai have recently occurred as well. Currently, TB in elephants remains a diagnostic dilemma. The sensitivity of trunk wash culture, the currently recommended test for diagnosis, is unknown. False negatives have been documented (trunk wash negative elephants that were subsequently found to be culture positive at necropsy). Other non-culture techniques for TB diagnosis include ELISA, and PCR. A novel technology, MultiAntigen Print ImmunoAssay (MAPIA) and lateral-flow technology (Rapid Test) has been evaluated and used to diagnose tuberculosis in captive elephants with encouraging results. One concern with this serologic testing is the possibility of Mycobacterium other than tuberculosis (MOTT) cross-reacting with the antigen used in the Rapid Test or the MAPIA and leading to a false positive. With numerous MOTT routinely cultured from trunk washes, this is a valid concern. Methods and Materials: A retrospective analysis was done at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay and Chembio, Inc. that matched trunk wash results to serum samples. All serum was collected within 7 days of the trunk wash and analyzed with the Rapid Test and MAPIA. Four Asian elephants with a total of 18 samples met this criteria and had serum submitted for testing. Results and Discussion: Table 1 lists the results and the organisms cultured. While the sampling is limited in this pilot project, it appears that MOTT does not evoke a response when assayed with the Rapid Test or MAPIA. The recent cases of M. szulgai do demonstrate the potential usefulness for this test when a disease develops from MOTT. The usefulness of this new technology, taken in conjunction with other clinical data including trunk washes when indicated, is a valuable tool in the healthcare of captive elephants.

LITERATURE CITED
1 Lacasse, C., K.C. Gamble, K. Terio, L.L. Farina, D.A. Travis, and M.Miller. 2005. Mycobacterium szulgai osteroarthritis and pneumonia in an African elephant (Loxdonta africana). Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Ann. Meet. Pp. 170-172.
2 Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J. Triantis. 2000. Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in captive elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31:291-302.
3 Lyashchenko, K., et al. 2000. A multiantigen print immunoassay for the serological diagnosis of infectious diseases. J. Immunol. Methods 242:91-100
4 Lyashchenko, K., M. Miller, and W.R. Waters. 2005. Application of multiple antigen print immunoassay and rapid lateral flow technology for tuberculosis testing of elephants. Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Ann. Meet. Pp. 64-65

Bojesen, A.M., Olsen, K.E., Bertelsen, M.F., 2006. Fatal enterocolitis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile
456. Vet. Microbiol. 116, 329-335.
Abstract: Two cases of fatal enteritis caused by Clostridium difficile in captive Asian elephants are reported from an outbreak affecting five females in the same zoo. Post mortem examination including histopathology demonstrated fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis. C. difficile was isolated by selective cultivation from two dead and a third severely affected elephant. Four isolates were obtained and found positive for toxin A and B by PCR. All isolates were positive in a toxigenic culture assay and toxin was demonstrated in the intestinal content from one of the fatal cases and in a surviving but severely affected elephant. PCR ribotyping demonstrated that the C. difficile isolates shared an identical profile, which was different from an epidemiologically unrelated strain, indicating that the outbreak was caused by the same C. difficile clone. It is speculated that the feeding of large quantities of broccoli, a rich source of sulforaphane, which has been shown to inhibit the growth of many intestinal microorganisms may have triggered a subsequent overgrowth by C. difficile. This is the first report of C. difficile as the main cause of fatal enterocolitis in elephants. The findings emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially dangerous for elephants and caution is recommended concerning antibiotic treatment and feeding with diets containing antimicrobials, which may trigger an expansion of a C. difficile population in the gut

Fraunfelder, F.T., Finnegan, M., Wilson, D.J., 2006. Conjunctival-corneal intraepithelial neoplasm in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 37, 424-426.
Abstract: An adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) presented with an enlarging nasal limbal mass of the left eye. The mass was excised and the surgical bed treated with liquid nitrogen cryotherapy. Histopathologic examination of the excised tissue showed the mass to be a superficial dysplastic ocular lesion, or conjunctival intraepithelial neoplasm. A 5-yr follow-up period has passed without complications or recurrence, suggesting that as is the case in humans (Homo sapiens), excision and cryotherapy is an effective treatment for these lesions in elephants. This is the first report of any ocular neoplasia in an elephant

Galanti, V., Preatoni, D., Martinoti, A., Wauters, L.A., Tosi, G., 2006. Space and habitat use of the African elephant in the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem, Tanzania: Implications for conservation. Mammalian Biology 71, 99-114.
Abstract: As migratory animals, sustainable management of African elephant populations, both within and around protected areas, is a major challenge in the conservation policy of many African countries. We captured seven female elephants, representative members of family groups, in different parts of Tarangire National Park (TNP), Tanzania, and used GPS satellite radio-tracking (November 1997-June 2000) to monitor their space and habitat use and seasonal migrations throughout wet and dry seasons. Patterns of home range overlap revealed the existence of two Large clans that occupied the north-central and southern parts of TNP, respectively. At the end of the dry season, elephants from the southern clan migrated about 100 km southeast of the park boundary, those from the northern clan remained mostly inside the park, or used periodically wet-season core areas in the nearby Game Controlled Areas. No natural mortality occurred during the study, but two elephants were poached outside the park. Human disturbance also affected activity patterns, and elephants were Less active at day outside than inside the park. Home range size varied from 477 to 1078 km(2) for the northern elephants, and from 1630 to 5060 km(2) for the southern elephants. Migration routes were characterised by higher cover (open and closed forest) than core areas. Our results indicate that elephant management must be considered across park boundaries and that migration corridors must be protected against human disturbance and land cultivation. Society problems Linked to elephant conservation can be solved by creating alternative, sustainable, use of natural resources that enhance the livelihood of local communities.

Gough, K.F., Kerley, G.I.H., 2006. Demography and population dynamics in the elephants Loxodonta africana of Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa: Is there evidence of density dependent regulation? Oryx 40, 434-441.
Abstract: Density dependence of the Addo Elephant National Park (South Africa) elephants Loxodonta africana was assessed using a long-term data set. Estimated carrying capacity is 0.1-0.5 elephants km(-2) but stocking rates have been up to 4 elephants km(-2). Population growth rate was found to be positively correlated with increasing density. There was no relationship between birth rate, the age of first calving or calf sex ratio and elephant density but there was a positive relationship between birth rate and rainfall during conception year. Mortality rates, particularly for juveniles, were low, and mean inter-calf interval was 3.3 years. There is no evidence of density dependent regulation in this population, despite the population being consistently above the estimated sustainable carrying capacity and a loss of phytomass and biodiversity. This is interpreted in light of the characteristics of the a seasonal habitat, succulent thicket vegetation and the ability of elephants to utilize accumulated vegetation biomass. These findings indicate that density dependence should not be considered as an option in the control of elephant numbers in this Park, or where elephant resources are not seasonally limited.

Helke, K.L., Mankowski, J.L., Manabe, Y.C., 2006. Animal models of cavitation in pulmonary tuberculosis
534. Tuberculosis. (Edinb. ) 86, 337-348.
Abstract: Transmission of tuberculosis occurs with the highest frequency from patients with extensive, cavitary, pulmonary disease and positive sputum smear microscopy. In animal models of tuberculosis, the development of caseous necrosis is an important prerequisite for the formation of cavities although the immunological triggers for liquefaction are unknown. We review the relative merits and the information gleaned from the available animal models of pulmonary cavitation. Understanding the host-pathogen interaction important to the formation of cavities may lead to new strategies to prevent cavitation and thereby, block transmission

Hutchins, M., 2006. Death at the Zoo: The Media, Science, and Reality. Zoo Biology 25, 101-115.
Abstract: Media characterizations of zoo and aquarium animal deaths were randomly monitored on the internet for a 20-month period (September 2003-May 2005). Based on 148 samples collected, it was possible to classify articles into one of four categories, which were operationally defined: 1) dispassionate observers; 2) accusers; 3) sympathizers; and 4) balancers. In addition, with the notable exception of seven cases, all of the articles examined focused on large, charismatic mammals, such as gorillas, dolphins, lions, and elephants. Although a majority
of the articles examined (70.4%) were either dispassionate and objective or sympathetic, nearly a third (29.6%) were either accusatory or attempted to balance the accusatory statements of animal rights activists with sympathetic statements from zoo professionals. Recommendations are offered for how zoos should deal with the increasing media and public interest in zoo animal deaths, including: 1) a greater commitment to studying the reasons for mortality in a wide variety of species; and 2) an increased investment in record keeping and analysis,
which should allow zoos to calculate average life spans in animal populations and to monitor and assess the risk of certain lethal diseases on a real-time basis. Comparisons are drawn between zoo veterinary practices and human medicine, which are both inexact sciences. Suggestions are made for how the public and key decision-makers can distinguish between media reports on zoo animal deaths that are legitimate cause for concern vs. those that are sensationalist and meant to generate controversy and sell papers. A greater focus on the science of zoo animal death is necessary for accredited zoos to maintain the public's confidence in their animal care practices.

Hutchinson, J.R., Schwerda, D., Famini, D.J., Dale, R.H., Fischer, M.S., Kram, R., 2006. The locomotor kinematics of Asian and African elephants: changes with speed and size
410. J. Exp. Biol. 209, 3812-3827.
Abstract: For centuries, elephant locomotion has been a contentious and confusing challenge for locomotion scientists to understand, not only because of technical difficulties but also because elephant locomotion is in some ways atypical of more familiar quadrupedal gaits. We analyzed the locomotor kinematics of over 2400 strides from 14 African and 48 Asian elephant individuals (body mass 116-4632 kg) freely moving over ground at a 17-fold range of speeds, from slow walking at 0.40 m s(-1) to the fastest reliably recorded speed for elephants, 6.8 m s(-1). These data reveal that African and Asian elephants have some subtle differences in how size-independent kinematic parameters change with speed. Although elephants use a lateral sequence footfall pattern, like many other quadrupeds, they maintain this footfall pattern at all speeds, shifting toward a 25% phase offset between limbs (singlefoot) as they increase speed. The duty factors of elephants are greater for the forelimbs than for the hindlimbs, so an aerial phase for the hindquarters is reached at slower speeds than for the forequarters. This aerial phase occurs at a Froude number of around 1, matching theoretical predictions. At faster speeds, stance and swing phase durations approach asymptotes, with the duty factor beginning to level off, concurrent with an increase in limb compliance that likely keeps peak forces relatively low. This increase of limb compliance is reflected by increased compression of the hindlimbs. Like other tetrapods, smaller elephants are relatively more athletic than larger ones, but still move very similarly to adults even at <500 kg. At any particular speed they adopt greater relative stride frequencies and relative stride lengths compared to larger elephants. This extends to near-maximal locomotor performance as well - smaller elephants reach greater Froude numbers and smaller duty factors, hence likely reach relatively greater peak loads on their limbs and produce this force more rapidly. A variety of lines of kinematic evidence support the inference that elephants change their mechanics near a Froude number of 1 (if not at slower speeds), at least to using more compliant limbs, if not spring-like whole-body kinetics. In some ways, elephants move similarly to many other quadrupeds, such as increasing speed mainly by increasing stride frequency (except at fast speeds), and they match scaling predictions for many stride parameters. The main difference from most other animals is that elephants never change their footfall pattern to a gait that uses a whole-body aerial phase. Our large dataset establishes what the normal kinematics of elephant locomotion are, and can also be applied to identify gait abnormalities that may signal musculoskeletal pathologies, a matter of great importance to keepers of captive elephants

Joubert, D., 2006. Hunting behaviour of lions (Panthera leo) on elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Chobe National Park, Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 44, 279-281.
Abstract: Megaherbivores like elephants and rhinos have been regarded as invulnerable to predation as adults (Owen-Smith, 1988; G. B. Schaller pers. comm.), although Guthrie (1990) suggests that lions hunted such large prey during the Pleistocene. Recently, there have been a number of observations of elephants killed by lions in northern Botswana, going as far back as 1985 (M. Slogrove pers. comm.). The hunting behaviour of lions on elephants, and the age and sex structure of the elephants killed, were observed at a waterhole in the Savute region of Chobe National Park. The first observed elephant kill was recorded in August 1991. Systematic records of elephants killed were made between 1993 and 1996.

Reid, C.E., Hildebrandt, T.B., Marx, N., Hunt, M., Thy, N., Reynes, J.M., Schaftenaar, W., Fickel, J., 2006. Endotheliotropic elephant herpes virus (EEHV) infection. The first PCR-confirmed fatal case in Asia
436. Vet. Q. 28, 61-64.
Abstract: Since 1995, 4 suspected cases of Endotheliotropic Elephant Herpes Virus (EEHV) infection, i.e. based on clinical presentation, have occurred in Asia without resulting in epidemic outbreaks as expected. In order to confirm the presence of EEHV on the continent of Asia, viral DNA particles from liver samples of a wild-caught 3-year-old elephant found dead at a Cambodian elephant sanctuary and clinically diagnosed with EEHV, were PCR processed using known EEHV strain primers. The presence of EEHV viral nucleic acids was confirmed and the nucleic acids had a 99% sequence similarity to the U.S.A strain (gene bank locus: AF117265) and 97% sequence similarity to the European strain (gene bank locus: AF354746) assigning this case to the EEHV-1 cluster. More than the confirmation of EEHV on the continent of Asia, is the phylogenic relationship to the USA and European strains with no corresponding contact or transport of USA or European elephants to Asia. Thus, this brings many of the traditional theories into question. Although almost forgotten, this disease is still ramped in captive elephant populations worldwide and continues to devastate particularly the neonatal and weaning-age population. Special attention and continued research are needed specifically in the area of basic virology and epidemiology

Rothschild, B.M., Martin, L.D., 2006. Did ice-age bovids spread tuberculosis? Naturwissenschaften 93, 565-569.
Abstract: Pathognomonic metacarpal undermining is a skeletal pathology that has been associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis in bovids. Postcranial artiodactyl, perissodactyl, and carnivore skeletons were examined in major university and museum collections of North America and Europe for evidence of this and other pathology potentially attributable to tuberculosis. Among nonproboscidean mammals from pre-Holocene North America, bone lesions indicative of tuberculosis were restricted to immigrant bovids from Eurasia. No bone lesions compatible
with diagnosis of tuberculosis were found in large samples of other pre-Holocene (164 Oligocene, 397 Miocene, and 1,041 Plio-Pleistocene) North American mammals, including
114 antilocaprids. Given the unchanged frequency of bovid tubercular disease during the Pleistocene, it appears that most did not die from the disease but actually reached an
accommodation with it (as did the mastodon) (Rothschild and Laub 2006). Thus, they were sufficiently long-lived to assure greater spread of the disease. The relationships of the
proboscidean examples need further study, but present evidence suggests a Holarctic spread of tuberculosis during the Pleistocene, with bovids acting as vectors. While the role of other animals in the transmission of tuberculosis could be considered, the unique accommodation achieved by bovids and mastodons makes them the likely "culprits" in its spread.

Shakespeare, A., Strydom, S., 2006. A method for determining the extent of thermal burns in elephants
379. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 77, 70-74.
Abstract: A practical method was developed to assess the extent of burns suffered by elephants caught in bush fires. In developing this method, the surface areas of the different body parts of juvenile, subadult and adult elephants were first determined using standard equations, and then expressed as a percentage of the total body surface area. When viewed from a distance, the burnt proportion of all body segments is estimated, converted to percentages of total body surface area, and then summed to determine the extent of burns suffered

Shakespeare, A., Steyl, J., Strydom, S., 2006. Investigating the depth of thermal burns in elephants
375. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 77, 134-140.
Abstract: Histological examination of burn injuries in elephants revealed that the depth was not as severe as expected from clinical observation. Although the actual burn depth was deep, the thickness of elephant skin, especially the dermis, resulted in the lesions being classified as less severe than expected. Examination of skin samples from selected areas showed that most lesions were either superficial (1st degree) or superficial partial-thickness (superficial 2nd degree) burns with the occasional deep partial thickness (deep 2nd degree) wound. These lesions however, resulted in severe complications that eventually led to the death of a number of the elephants

Vinogradov, I.V., Kochneva, G.V., Shchelkunov, S.N., Riabchikova, E.I., 2006. [Reproduction of cowpox virus strain EP-2 isolated from an elephant in primary fibroblast cultures and chorion-allantoic chick embryos]
451. Vopr. Virusol. 51, 44-48.
Abstract: Electron microscopy was used to study the reproduction of cowpox virus strain EP-2 in the cells of a primary fibroblast cultures (PFC) and chorion-allantoic membrane (CAM) of chick embryos (CE). The sequential stages of viral morphogenesis and the structure of A-type inclusions were described. The parameters of viral reproduction in PFC and CE CAM were compared. The formation of crystalloid tubular structures in PFC, unusual electron dense inclusions in the cells of CE CAN, and different variants of A-type inclusions in the cells of a pock was found. The histological and ultrastructural characteristics of pocks in CE CAM are described

Weissengruber, G.E., Fuss, F.K., Egger, G., Stanek, G., Hittmair, K.M., Forstenpointner, G., 2006. The elephant knee joint: morphological and biomechanical considerations
513. Journal of Anatomy 208, 59-72.
Abstract: Elephant limbs display unique morphological features which are related mainly to supporting the enormous body weight of the animal. In elephants, the knee joint plays important roles in weight bearing and locomotion, but anatomical data are sparse and lacking in functional analyses. In addition, the knee joint is affected frequently by arthrosis. Here we examined structures of the knee joint by means of standard anatomical techniques in eight African (Loxodonta africana) and three Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Furthermore, we performed radiography in five African and two Asian elephants and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in one African elephant. Macerated bones of 11 individuals (four African, seven Asian elephants) were measured with a pair of callipers to give standardized measurements of the articular parts. In one Asian and three African elephants, kinematic and functional analyses were carried out using a digitizer and according to the helical axis concept. Some peculiarities of healthy and arthrotic knee joints of elephants were compared with human knees. In contrast to those of other quadruped mammals, the knee joint of elephants displays an extended resting position. The femorotibial joint of elephants shows a high grade of congruency and the menisci are extremely narrow and thin. The four-bar mechanism of the cruciate ligaments exists also in the elephant. The main motion of the knee joint is extension-flexion with a range of motion of 142 degrees . In elephants, arthrotic alterations of the knee joint can lead to injury or loss of the cranial (anterior) cruciate ligament

Agnew, D.W., Hagey, L., Shoshani, J., 2005. The elephants of Zoba Gash Barka, Eritrea: part 4. Cholelithiasis in a wild African elephant (Loxodonta africana). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36, 677-683.
Abstract: A 4.0-kg cholelith was found within the abdominal cavity of a dead wild African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Eritrea. Analysis of this cholelith by histochemistry, electron microscopy, electrospray mass spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy revealed it was composed of bile alcohols but no calcium, bilirubin, or cholesterol. Bacteria were also found in the cholelith. Similar, but smaller, bile stones have been identified previously in other wild African elephants and an excavated mammoth (Mammuthus columbi). Choleliths have been reported only once in a captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Elephants, along with hyraxes (Procavia capensis) and manatees (Trichechus manatus), are unique among mammals in producing only bile alcohols and no bile acids, which may predispose them to cholelithiasis, particularly in association with bacterial infection. Dietary factors may also play an important role in cholelith formation.

Benz, A. The elephant's hoof: macroscopic and microscopic morphology of defined locations under consideration of pathological changes. 2005. Vetsuisse-Fakultät Universität Zürich.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation

Bertelsen, M.F., Bojesen, M., Olsen, K.E.P. Fatal enterocolitis in two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) caused by Clostridium difficile. 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group. 66-67. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Altered behavior, anorexia and listlessness were observed in four of five adult captive female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Two animals recovered, while two died after 2 days. The dead elephants were subjected to post mortem examination including histopathology, demonstrating fibrinonecrotic enteritis and colitis. Clostridium difficile was isolated from both dead elephants and from the feces of the two surviving affected animals, and identified by selective cultivation and PCR identification. All isolates had the tcdA and tcdB toxin genes and were positive in a toxigenic culture assay. C. difficile toxin from the intestinal content of one of the fatal cases was demonstrated using cell-culture based cytotoxin assays. Clostridium perfringens type A and Clostridium septicum were also isolated from both dead animals. Although C. perfringens has been associated with ulcerative enteritis in an elephant,¹in this case these isolates likely are incidental, as C. perfringens enterotoxin was not demonstrated, and as C. septicum is well known for producing rapid post mortem overgrowth. Amplified fragment length polymorphism typing, showed that the C. difficile isolates recovered from the outbreak, all had the same fingerprint profile, indicating that all four elephants were affected by the same bacterial clone. These findings appear to be the first to demonstrate that C. difficile may cause enterocolitis in elephants. The results emphasize the need to regard this organism as potentially dangerous for elephants. Although there was no prior exposure to antibiotic agents in this case, caution is recommended when treating elephants with antibiotics, as this may trigger C. difficile induced enterocolitis in other species, most notably humans and horses.²
LITERATURE CITED
1 Bacciarini, L.N., O. Pagan, J. Frey, and A. Grone. 2001. Clostridium perfringens beta2-toxin in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) with ulcerative enteritis. Vet. Rec. 149: 618-20.
2 Songer, J.G. 1996. Clostridial enteric diseases of domestic animals. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 9: 216-234.

Bonar, C.J., Lewandowski, A.H., Arafah, B., Capen, C.C., 2005. Pheochromocytoma in an aged female African elephant (Loxodonta africana). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36, 719-723.
Abstract: A 43 yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) collapsed acutely and died. Necropsy revealed an enlarged right adrenal medulla. Histologic appearance was typical of pheochromocytoma. Special stains and electron microscopy demonstrated chromaffin granules, suggesting that the tumor was derived from catecholamine secreting cells of the adrenal medulla, and may have been functionally secretory. Serum levels of both norepinephrine and epinephrine were elevated at time of death, supporting the functional nature of the tumor. Histologic findings of arteriolar sclerosis and smooth muscle hyperplasia suggested that the animal may have suffered from chronic systemic hypertension. Pheochromocytoma should be considered as a differential diagnosis in cases of suspected hypertension and acute death in elephants

Deem, S.L., Brown, J.L., Eggert, L., Wemmer, C., Htun, W., Nyunt, T., Murray, S., Leimgruber, P. Health and management of working elephants in Myanmar (Burma). Procedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 228-231. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Myanmar has approximately 6,000 working elephants. Remaining wild elephants are declining, partly because of live-capture for captivity. Through health and reproductive assessments, genetic analyses and GPS tracking of captive and wild elephants, we are exploring linkages between the two populations and conducting studies to reduce morbidity and mortality of captive elephants. Captive elephants live and work in Myanmar's forests in close proximity and contact to the remaining wild herds. We propose that reducing morbidity and mortality in the captive elephants will decrease the need for live-capture, and the risk of disease transmission, to wild elephants.
Introduction
There are an estimated 6,000 working elephants in Myanmar - half owned by the government operated Myanmar Timber Enterprise (MTE) and half owned privately^.5 This may be one of the largest captive elephant populations in the world and its management will have a significant impact on remaining wild herds in Myanmar.^4,6,8 With mortality rates higher than birth rates, the working population is probably maintained by supplementing it with elephants captured from the wild.⁵ There is evidence that continued harvest of wild elephants may have reduced the remaining wild populations of Myanmar. Recent surveys of wild populations in two of Myanmar's protected elephant ranges revealed extremely low dung counts, indicative of small and declining herds. Constant contact with captive elephants in Myanmar's forests may exacerbate the threat to Myanmar wild elephants by increasing the transmission of disease between these two groups. For both the above reasons, we believe that the conservation of wild elephants in Myanmar will require significant improvements in the care and management of currently existing captive populations.
Elephants owned by MTE receive veterinary care from the Burmese veterinarians that work for the timber company and travel extensively throughout the country to sites were the elephants are located.¹ There is a dire need for veterinary supplies and laboratory capabilities in the country. Currently, veterinary practices are based on the extensive field experience of lead MTE veterinarians. However, MTE veterinarians frequently rely on older published work ^3,7 and would benefit significantly from training that incorporates new insights into elephant health and new veterinary techniques. Similarly, because of their close-up experience of elephant health problems in the forests, MTE veterinarians may be able to make important new contributions to the care and management of elephants elsewhere.
The overall objective of our study is to work jointly with MTE veterinarians to develop long-term captive population management strategies to reduce mortality and increase births in the working timber elephants and stop the continued off-take of animals from the wild to supplement captive herds.
Methods
The health component of this study has five major objectives. These are to:
1              Conduct a training workshop, in conjunction with MTE veterinarians, on elephant management and veterinary care.
2              Develop protocols so that the MTE veterinarians can collect samples for reproductive, genetic, and health status assessments.
3              Analyze samples and provide data to MTE veterinarians to improve husbandry, preventive care and disease treatment of working elephants.
4              Develop a comprehensive bibliography of all published information on the health and management of Myanmar elephants.
5              Perform an epidemiologic evaluation of records available on the historic and current working elephant population.
Specific steps to achieve these objectives include:
1              Determine causes and rates of morbidity and mortality of captive MTE elephants.
2              Determine causes of low rates of reproduction in captivity.
3              Develop a genetic profile of the captive herds.
4              Develop a protocol to assess oozies-Burmese mahout-expertise in parallel with endocrine and health assessments to determine quality of care and potentially related stress.
5              Develop small population viability models to assess how current mortality effects long-term survival of the captive population and what supplementation from the wild is needed for short- and long-term sustainability.
6              Use population viability models to demonstrate how supplementation from the wild will negatively affect that population.
7              Get baseline health parameter data on free-ranging elephants.
8              Quantify habitat/space use using GPS and satellite tracking of captive and wild elephants.
Results and Discussion
During an initial exploratory visit in November 2004, we learned that the annual mortality rate for MTE working elephants was 2.4% (66) in 2003. Deaths occurred in all age groups (>18 yr, n = 40; 4 - 17 yr, n = 11; <4 yr, n = 15) and included preventable diseases (i.e., poor nutrition, heat stroke, diarrhea, dystocia, infectious and parasitic agents). Additionally, we collected samples for performing health, genetic and endocrine analyses of 22 elephants maintained in one of the working camps (results to be presented). A relationship also was established with the veterinary staff at the Yangon Zoo, including follow up donations of veterinary literature and journals to the zoo. We provided medical advice for the care of an orphaned elephant calf and other animals housed at the zoo during our brief visit. We are seeking funds for a training course to be conducted in late 2005 and hope to perform health evaluations on a larger number of zoo and working elephants during that visit.
The National Zoo already has an extensive conservation program for wild elephants in Myanmar.^4,6,8 This program has focused on assessing wild elephant populations in protected areas and satellite-tracking of four wild elephants to learn more about their conservation status and ecology in Myanmar. Currently this work is being extended to a national elephant survey. Part of this work included collecting fecal samples for genetic and health assessments.
The Smithsonian team of researchers involved in this project includes a veterinarian, reproduction physiologist, geneticist, conservation biologist, and landscape ecologist. All members of this multidisciplinary team have extensive experience working with elephants and together provide the necessary expertise to study and understand the numerous factors affecting Myanmar's captive elephants and the long-term survival of elephants in Myanmar. These challenges range from human land use and elephant population fragmentation, human-elephant conflict, poor reproduction and health care of captive elephants and lack of information on the health status of the wild elephants. A viable conservation initiative for the elephants of Myanmar requires that health issues be addressed as one component of a comprehensive program to address the anthropogenic pressures on both working and wild elephants.²The elephants of Myanmar are an excellent example of the fine line that exists between captive and wild animals, especially as it relates to health. Captive and wild elephants are regularly in direct and indirect contact. The working elephants live with their oozies who may expose them to diseases, such as tuberculosis. The working elephants in turn may encounter wild elephants at night in the forests where they forage and live during non-working hours. In fact, the majority of captive born calves are said to be sired by wild bulls. Potentially, the use of working elephants in selectively extracting valuable timber provides new strategies for the conservation of elephants and forests. Most likely, "elephant-logging" is less damaging than machine-operated timbering projects that tend to clear-cut areas and also damage the soil and streams. However, decreasing the negative impact of such practices (i.e., minimizing off-take of elephants from the wild, decreasing disease risks to the wild elephants) is imperative.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Aung, T., and T. Nyunt. 2002. The care and management of the domesticated Asian elephant in Myanmar. In: Baker, I., and M. Kashio (eds.): Giants on our hands. Proc. Int. Workshop Domesticated Asian Elephant. Dharmasarn Co., Ltd. Bangkok, Thailand. Pp. 89 - 102.
2 Deem, S.L., W.B. Karesh, and W. Weisman. 2001. Putting theory into practice: wildlife health in conservation. Conserv. Biol. 5: 1224-1233.
3 Evans, G.H. 1910. Elephants and Their Diseases. Government Printing. Rangoon. 323
4 Kelly, D.S. 2005. Habitat selection in declining elephant populations of Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park. Masters Thesis. George Mason University.
5 Lair, R.C. 1997. Myanmar. In: Gone Astray: The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Thailand. RAP Publication. Pp. 99-131
6 Leimgruber, P., and C. Wemmer. 2004. National elephant symposium and workshop. Report to the USFWS and the Myanmar Forest Department.
7 Pfaff, G. 1930. Reports on Diseases of Elephants. Government Printing. Rangoon. 91
8 Wemmer, C., P. Leimgruber and D. S. Kelly. 2005. Managing wild elephants in Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park and Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary. Report to the USFWS and the Myanmar Forest Department.

Delves, P.J., Roitt, I.M., 2005. Vaccines for the control of reproduction--status in mammals, and aspects of comparative interest
592. Dev. Biol. (Basel) 121, 265-273.
Abstract: The objective of producing vaccines which target elements of the reproductive system to control fertility has been pursued for many years. Of the many targets for such vaccines, several sperm-associated antigens have been proposed for antibody-mediated intervention before fertilization but the very abundance of antigen to be neutralized has been a barrier. Zona pellucida antigens associated with the surface of the oocyte have also been targeted and used successfully for control of 'wild' elephant populations but worries concerning immunopathologically-mediated tissue damage have been mooted. Vaccines using human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which is required for the implantation and maintenance of the fertilized egg, although of interest for the development of fertility control in human populations, has no relevance in the context of the present conference because external fertilization of fish eggs is independent. The pathways by which gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secreted by the hypothalamus promote release of luteinizing (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) which govern the physiological maturation and maintenance of the reproductive organs, provide many targets for immunological intervention. Most consistent success has been reported using GnRH-based vaccines which are immunosterilizing in a variety of mammalian species such as pigs, rodents and white-tailed deer. The fact that the structure of the decapeptide, GnRH, has been maintained over so many years of evolution and been conserved across so many animal species, encourages the view that a strategy for control of sexual maturation in fish based upon stimulation of GnRH antibodies may well prove to be a practical proposition, provided the formulation of an appropriate highly immunogenic vaccine can be achieved

Hildebrandt, T.B., Hermes, R., Ratanakorn, P., Rietschel, W., Fickel, J., Frey, R., Wibbelt, G., Reid, C., Goritz, F., 2005. Ultrasonographic assessment and ultrasound-guided biopsy of the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
552. Veterinary Record 157, 544-548.
Abstract: Endotheliotropic herpesvirus causes a fatal disease in young Asian elephants, but there are no methods for identifying latent carriers of the virus. During the postmortem study of one female African elephant and three male and two female Asian elephants, a lymph node located bilaterally caudoventral to the parotid gland, approximately 1.5 to 5 cm below the skin, was identified as suitable for transcutaneous ultrasound-guided biopsy. An ultrasonographic assessment and two biopsies were performed on 39 Asian elephants, and these lymph nodes were classified ultrasonographically as active, inactive or chronically active. The calculated mean (se) volume of 10 active lymph nodes was 17.4 (6.9) cm(3), and that of three chronically active lymph nodes was 10.6 (1.0) cm(3), whereas the mean volume of 17 inactive lymph nodes was 3.1 (0.6) cm(3). The presence of lymph node tissue in samples obtained by ultrasound-guided biopsy from three animals that were maintained under conditions that allowed for additional sampling was confirmed histologically. The dna extracted from the lymphoid tissue and the whole blood of all the elephants was negative for endotheliotropic herpesvirus by PCR.

Lacasse, C., Gamble, K.C., Terio, K., Farina, L.L., Travis, D.A., Miller, M. Mycobacterium szulgai osteoarthritis and pneumonia in an African elephant (Loxodonta Africana). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group. 170-172. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Tuberculosis, particularly Mycobacterium bovis and M. tuberculosis, is an important health issue in zoological collections. Zoos are a particular public health concern because of the close contact between tuberculosis-susceptible animals and humans, specifically animal handlers and visitors.¹⁶ Evidence of M. tuberculosis transmission between humans and elephants, confirmed by DNA fingerprinting, has been reported.¹³ Between 1994 and 2001, M. tuberculosis was isolated from trunk washes of captive elephants from 11 herds in the United States.¹⁷ To date, most reported cases of tuberculosis have occurred in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).¹⁴ In 1997, the National Tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species partnered with the USDA to formulate the "Guidelines for the Control of Tuberculosis in Elephants." ¹⁵ This document outlines criteria for the testing, surveillance, and treatment of tuberculosis in elephants. The guidelines recommend annual monitoring of elephants by mycobacterial culture of three direct trunk washes collected over 1 wk. Isolation of Mycobacterium avium and non-tuberculous mycobacteria from elephant trunk wash samples is common, but these organisms have not been associated with clinical disease.^14,18 This case report details clinical disease with fatal complications of an atypical mycobacterial infection in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). In September 2003, an African elephant presented with acute, severe lameness of the left rear limb with subsequent swelling of the stifle. Diagnostic procedures included aspiration cytology of the swelling, radiographs, and thermographic imaging. The exact location of the injury could not be detected, but a lesion to the stifle or coxofemoral articulation was suspected. After 13 mo of treatment, including pulse therapy with a variety of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), weekly to biweekly injections of polysulfated glycosaminoglycan, and intensive foot care efforts to treat secondary pedal lesions of both rearlimbs, the animal died acutely. Gross necropsy revealed granulomatous osteomyelitis with necrosis/loss of the femoral head and acetabulum and pulmonary granulomas. Both of these lesions contained acid-fast bacteria on cytology. While awaiting confirmatory culture results, quarantine procedures were established for the elephant facility and a program was established to screen all zoo personnel in close contact with the elephant or who participated in the necropsy. All personnel were tested by the Chicago Department of Public Health without documented conversion. Mycobacterium szulgai was ultimately cultured from both coxofemoral and pulmonary lesions. Mycobacterium szulgai is an uncommon nontuberculous mycobacterium that is usually isolated from pathologic lesions in humans.²¹ This bacterial species was first identified in 1972.¹¹ The lungs are the main locality for pathologic manifestation in humans and several cases have been in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.^9,20,21 Infection due to M. szulgai most frequently produces thin-walled cavities in lungs resembling tuberculosis.⁴Other documented sites of infection include the skin, bone, and tendon sheath (causing a carpal tunnel syndrome).^{2,9,10,12,19,20} Intra-operative contamination from ice water has led to M. szulgai keratitis after laser-assisted ophthalmic surgeries^.6 A case of disseminated disease in a previously healthy young human has been reported.⁵ No evidence of human-to-human transmission of this organism has been documented and human cases are believed to originate from environmental sources.¹² The natural habitat of the organism is unknown, but previous reports suggest an association of the bacteria with water of swimming pools and fish tanks.^1,21 The organism has been cultured from a snail and tropical fish.^1,3 No standard recommendation for the treatment of M. szulgai infection currently exists. In general, triple antibiotic therapies used in standard mycobacterial treatments are reported with a low rate of relapses and sterilization of sputum cultures within a mean of 3 mo.³ Pulmonary lesions in this elephant were chronic; it was not possible to determine when initial infection occurred. Infection could have occurred in captivity or in the wild prior to captivity. Three trunk washes over the past year had been negative for mycobacterial culture. Osteomyelitis in the hip may have developed secondary to hematogenous spread from the lungs with the acute lameness resulting from a pathologic fracture associated with this infection. Alternatively, though considered less likely, a traumatic fracture of the hip could have occurred, with bacterial inoculation and secondary osteomyelitis as a result of increased blood flow to the site. The source of infection for this elephant remains unknown. Prevalence of this organism in the natural habitat or captive environment of the elephants has not been previously documented.
LITERATURE CITED
1 Abalain-Colloc, M.L., D. Guillerm, M. Salaun, S. Gouriou, V. Vincent, and B. Picard. 2003. Mycobacterium szulgai isolated from a patient, a tropical fish, and aquarium water. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 22: 768-769.
2.Cross, G.M., M. Guill, and J.K. Aton. 1985. Cutaneous Mycobacterium szulgai infection. Arch. Dermatol. 121: 247-249.
3. Davidson, P.T. 1976. Mycobacterium szulgai: a new pathogen causing infection of the lung. Chest 69: 799- 801.
4. Dylewski, J.S., H.M. Zackon, A.H. Latour, and G.R. Berry. 1987. Mycobacterium szulgai: an unusual pathogen. Rev. Infect. Dis. 9: 578-580.
5. Gur, H., S. Porat, H. Haas, Y. Naparstek, and M. Eliakim. 1984. Disseminated mycobacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium szulgai. Arch. Intern. Med. 144: 1861-1863.
6.Holmes, G.P., G. Bond, R.C. Fader, and S.F. Fulcher. 2002. A cluster of cases of Mycobacterium szulgai keratitis that occurred after laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34: 1039-1046.
7.Horusitzky, A., X. Puechal, D. Dumont, T. Begue, M. Robineau, and M. Boissier. 2000. Carpal tunnel syndrome caused by Mycobacterium szulgai. J. Rheumatol 27: 1299-1302.
8.Hurr, H., and T. Sorg. 1998. Mycobacterium szulgai osteomyelitis. J. Infect. 37: 191-192.
9.Luque, A.E., D. Kaminski, R. Reichman, and D. Hardy. 1998. Mycobacterium szulgai osteomyelitis in an AIDS patient. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 30: 88-91.
10.Maloney, J.M., C.R. Gregg, D.S. Stephens, F.A. Manian, and D. Rimland. 1987. Infections caused by Mycobacterium szulgai in humans. Rev. Infect. Dis. 9: 1120-1126.
11.Marks, J., P.A. Jenkins, and M. Tsukamura. 1972. Mycobacterium szulgai: a new pathogen. Tubercle 53: 210.
12.Merlet, C., S. Aberrane, F. Chilot, and J. Laroche. 2000. Carpal tunnel syndrome complicating hand flexor tenosynovitis due to Mycobacterium szulgai. Joint Bone Spine 67: 247-248.
13.Michalak, K., C. Austin, S. Diesel, J.M. Bacon, P. Zimmerman, and J. N. Maslow. 1998. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection as a zoonotic disease: transmission between humans and elephants. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 4: 283-287.
14.Mikota, S.K., R.S. Larsen, and R.J. Montali. 2000. Tuberculosis in elephants in North America. Zoo Biol. 19: 393-403.
15.National Tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species. 2000. Guidelines for the control of tuberculosis in elephants. USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services.
16.Oh, P., R. Granich, J. Scott, B. Sun, M. Joseph, C. Stringfield, S. Thisdell, J. Staley, D. Workman-Malcolm, L. Borenstein, E. Lehnkering, P. Ryan, J. Soukup, A. Nitta, and J. Flood. 2002. Human exposure following Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a metropolitan zoo. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8: 1290-1293.
17.Payeur, J.B., J.L. Jarnagin, J.G. Marquardt, and D.L. Whipple. 2002. Mycobacterial isolations in captive elephants in the United States. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 969: 256-258.
18.Shojaei, H., J.G. Magee, R. Freeman, M. Yates, N.U. Horadagoda, and M. Goodfellow. 2000. Mycobacterium elephantis sp. nov., a rapidly growing non-chromogenic Mycobacterium isolated from an elephant. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 50: 1817-1820.
19.Stratton, C.W., D.B. Phelps, and L.B. Reller. 1978. Tuberculoid tenosynovitis and carpal tunnel syndrome caused by Mycobacterium szulgai. Am. J. Med. 65: 349-351.
20.Tappe, D., P. Langmann, M. Zilly, H. Klinker, B. Schmausser, and M. Frosch. 2004. Osteomyelitis and skin ulcers caused by Mycobacterium szulgai in an AIDS patient. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 36: 883-885.
21.Tortoli, E., G. Besozzi, C. Lacchini, V. Penati, M.T. Simonetti, and S. Emler. 1998. Pulmonary infection due to Mycobacterium szulgai, case report and review of the literature. Eur. Respir. J. 11: 975-977.

Larsen, R.S., Kay, M., Triantis, J., Salman, M.D. Update on serological detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in Asian elephants. 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group. 62-63. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Tuberculosis has become an important disease in captive elephants, particularly Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Diagnosing tuberculosis in elephants has been problematic as many tests have inadequate sensitivity or specificity.2-4 A multiple-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was previously investigated for detecting infection in Asian elephants and African elephants (Loxodonta africana); this test had excellent sensitivity and specificity, but needed further evaluation.1 Modifications to the multiple-antigen ELISA panel have since been made. Valuable antigens were retained, other antigens were removed, and new ones were added. This modified ELISA was re-evaluated, using serum from 68 Asian elephants. Sixteen had M. tuberculosis -positive trunk cultures, while 52 were either culture negative at necropsy or had a history of negative trunk cultures and no contact with infected elephants. Seven elephants were evaluated over time. The test was 100% (95% CI; 95-100%) specific and 94% (95% CI; 79-100%) sensitive using two of the six antigens (M. bovis strain AN5 culture filtrate and M. tuberculosis early secretory antigenic target 6). "Effectively-treated" elephants had decreasing seroreactivity, but those that were culture-positive post-treatment were more consistently seroreactive. Although "effectivelytreated" elephants had declining seroreactivity, they still usually had higher values than animals that had never been infected. Serology continues to show great promise in detecting tuberculosis in elephants, often detecting infection months-to-years sooner than trunk wash culture. Advances in techniques may soon make serology even more practical. While serology should not replace trunk-wash culture, it is a useful adjunct for early detection of infection in elephants and for monitoring treatment.
ACKNOLWEDGMENTS We thank the many veterinarians, owners, caretakers, and managers of elephant-owning institutions that participated in this investigation, as well as Drs. Michele Miller and Susan Mikota for helping to coordinate sample collection. We also thank Kimberly Deines and other laboratory personnel who processed ELISA samples. The study was partially funded by a grant from USDA, CSREES to Colorado State University Program of Economically Important Infectious Animal Diseases.
LITERATURE CITED
1.Larsen, R.S., M.D. Salman, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, R.J. Montali, and J. Triantis. 2000. Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in captive elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 31: 291-302.
2. Mikota, S.K., L. Peddie, J. Peddie, R. Isaza, F. Dunker, G. West, W. Lindsay, R.S. Larsen, M.D. Salman, D. Chatterjee, J. Payeur, D. Whipple, C. Thoen, D.S. Davis, R.J. Montali and J. Maslow. 2001. Epidemiology and diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in six groups of elephants. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 32: 1-16.
3. Mikota, S.K., R.S. Larsen, and R.J. Montali. 2000. Tuberculosis in elephants in North America. Zoo Biol. 19: 393-403.
4. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2003. Guidelines for the control of tuberculosis in elephants. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; Animal Care. Washington, D.C. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/TBGuidelines2003.pdf.

Luikart, K.A., Stover, S.M., 2005. Chronic sole ulcerations associated with degenerative bone disease in two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 36, 684-688.
Abstract: Chronic foot lesions and degenerative joint disease are common causes of morbidity in elephants. Lesions may become intractable and progressive despite intensive treatment regimens. The forelimbs of two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) with chronic nonhealing sole ulcerations were examined using manual dissection and computed tomography. Both elephants had abnormal limb conformation that preceded the development of sole ulcerations. In both cases, sole ulcers were associated with remodeling and degeneration of underlying bones of the digits. Conformational abnormalities and altered weight distribution in these individuals may have induced compensatory bony degeneration and secondary ulcer formation. Sole ulcerations associated with digital abnormalities may have a guarded prognosis for resolution, even with aggressive treatment. Because limb conformational abnormalities could predispose to or result from chronic digital lesions, elephants with conformational abnormalities may have increased likelihood of having chronic sole ulcerations

Natiello, M., Lewis, P., Samuelson, D., 2005. Comparative anatomy of the ciliary body of the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) and selected species. Vet. Ophthalmol. 8, 375-385.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To examine the anatomy of the ciliary body in the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), paying close attention to its vascularization and to compare to those of its distant relative, the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), the amphibious hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) and the aquatic short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus). PROCEDURE: Specimens from each species were preserved in 10% buffered formalin, and observed stereomicroscopically before being embedded in paraffin, sectioned and stained by Masson trichrome, hematoxylin and eosin, and periodic acid-Schiff for light microscopic evaluation. RESULTS: The network of blood vessels in the ciliary processes of the West Indian manatee appear to have an intricate pattern, especially with regard to venous outflow. Those of the elephant are slightly less complex, while those of the hippopotamus and whale have different vascular patterns within the ciliary body. Musculature within the ciliary body is absent within the manatee and pilot whale. CONCLUSIONS: In general, there appears to be a direct relationship between the increased development of vasculature and the loss of musculature within the ciliary bodies of the aquatic and amphibious mammals presently studied. Specifically, the ciliary body of the West Indian manatee has a comparatively unique construction, especially with regard to its vasculature.

Raubenheimer, E.J., Ngwenya, S.P., 2005. The role of ivory in the survival of the African elephant
510. SADJ. 60, 426, 430.
Abstract: The unique chequered pattern of polished ivory has created a perverted commercial demand for elephant tusks. The morphologic basis of the pattern, which makes ivory a sought after product for the manufacturing of works of art, is discussed. Chemical analyses of ivory holds great potential in tracing the source of illegally harvested tusks and exposing poorly managed elephant sanctuaries. The impact of uncontrolled ivory hunting on the population genetics of the African elephant is briefly reviewed

Slotow, R., Garai, M.E., Reilly, B., Page, B., Carr, R.D., 2005. Population dynamics of elephants re-introduced to small fenced reserves in South Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 35, 23-32.
Abstract: By 2001, elephants had been translocated (mainly from Kruger National Park) to 58 small, fenced reserves in South Africa. All but two introductions took place since 1989. We document important aspects of the population dynamics of elephants in these reserves using data collected in a survey conducted in 2001. The mean population size was 45 elephants, with an average density of 0.25 elephants/square km. Populations have a female bias with 0.79 males to females. Populations have 19% adult males, and 31% adult females. On average, almost 50% of the population comprises adult and subadult females, indicating an immanent potential for large population growth. Births were not significantly different from a 1:1 sex ratio. When two extreme populations were removed, mean mortality rate was 0.4% per annum. Population growth rates averaged 8.3%, but five reserves had growth rates above 13%, and the highest annual growth rate was 16.5% per annum. Twenty-seven populations already have densities above 0.2 elephants/square km, and eight reserves have densities above 0.4 2 elephants/square km. Assuming a 12% per annum growth (feasible given the data presented), over half the reserves will have densities above 0.33 elephants/square km within five years. These results indicate that the translocation of elephants has been successful, with most populations reproducing at a rate far exceeding expectations. This has serious implications for owners and managers, as some form of population control (contraception, removals, culling etc.) needs to be urgently planned for implementation as soon as possible in most, and probably all small reserves.

Vinogradov, I.V., Kochneva, G.V., Malkova, E.M., Shchelkunov, S.N., Riabchikova, E.I., 2005. [Intranasal infection in mice inoculated with cowpox virus strain EP-2 isolated from the elephant]
579. Vopr. Virusol. 50, 37-42.
Abstract: The specific features of reproduction of EP-2 strain of cowpox virus (CPV) were studied in intranasally infected BALC/C mice by light and electron microscopy. Virus replication was found in the ciliated, intercalary, basal, and goblet cells (the nasal respiratory area), basal and supporting cells (the nasal olfactory area), ciliated, intercalary, goblet cells (the tracheal and bronchial epithelium), and collagen-producing, Schwann's, endothelial, smooth muscle, and adventitial cells. It has been shown that the CPV strain EP-2 locally replicates in the nasal cavity, trachea, and large bronchi and that there is no generalized infection

Wittemyer, D., Daballen, H., Rasmussen, H., Kahindi, O., Douglas-Hamilton, I., 2005. Demographic status of elephants in the Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology 43, 44-47.
Abstract: Individual based demographic records of the elephants utilizing Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves were collected from 1998 through 2003 and indicate that this elephant population was increasing at an average rate of 4.6% per year. Although the majority of carcasses were not found, known sources of mortality include disease, injury, and predation by lions and humans. Poaching did occur during the study period, however the population is increasing and thus our findings indicate ivory poaching has limited impact on the demographic status of these elephants. This population is part of the Samburu/Laikipia MIKE Site and thus its status is relevant to CITES legislation.

Agnew, D.W., Munson, L., Ramsay, E.C., 2004. Cystic endometrial hyperplasia in elephants
741. Vet. Pathol. 41, 179-183.
Abstract: Most captive female elephants are nulliparous and aged and many have endometrial disease, factors that may hinder fertility. This study characterized the pathologic features and demographic distribution of endometrial lesions from 27 captive Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 African elephants (Loxodonta africanus), 12- to 57-years of age. The principal lesion was marked cystic and polypoid endometrial hyperplasia (CEH), present in 67% of Asian and 15% of African elephants ranging from 26 to 57 years. The lower prevalence in African elephants likely reflects their younger age range in this study. Fourteen of 15 affected elephants with breeding information were nulliparous. These results suggest that CEH and polyps are common in aged nulliparous elephants, and the severity of these lesions may impair fertility. These findings will be useful in the interpretation of ultrasonographic findings during reproductive examinations of potential breeding cows. Also, breeding programs should focus on younger animals

Boy, S.C., Steenkamp, G., 2004. Neural innervation of the tusk pulp of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
730. Veterinary Record 154, 372-374.

Bradshaw, I.G.A., 2004. Not by Bread Alone: Symbolic Loss, Trauma, and Recovery in Elephant Communities. Society And Animals 12, 143-158.
Abstract: Like many humans in the wake of genocide and war, most wildlife today has sustained trauma. High rates of mortality, habitat destruction, and social breakdown precipitated by human actions are unprecedented in history. Elephants are one of many species dramatically affected by violence. Although elephant communities have processes, rituals, and social structures for responding to trauma - grieving, mourning, and socialization - the scale, nature, and magnitude of human violence have disrupted their ability to use these practices. Absent the cultural, carrier groups (murdered elephant matriarchs and elders) who traditionally lead and teach these healing practices, humans must assume the role. Trauma theory has brought attention to victims' severe, sustained psychological damage. Looking through the lens of trauma theory provides a better understanding of how systematic violence has affected individuals and groups and how the pervasive nature of traumatic events affects human-nonhuman animal relationships. The framing of recent trauma theory compels conservationists to create new relationships - neither anthropocentric nor powerbased - with nonhuman animals. The David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust, Kenya, shows how humans, taking on the role of interspecies witness, bring orphan elephants back to health and help re-build elephant communities shattered by genocide.

Brown, J.L., Olson, D., Keele, M., Freeman, E.W., 2004. Survey of the reproductive cyclicity status of Asian and African elephants in North America. Zoo Biology 23, 309-321.
Abstract: The Asian and African elephant populations in North America are not self sustaining, and reproductive rates remain low. One problem identified from routine progestagen analyses is that some elephant females do not exhibit normal ovarian cycles. To better understand the extent of this problem, the Elephant TAG/SSP conducted a survey to determine the reproductive status of the captive population based on hormone and ultrasound evaluations. The survey response rates for facilities with Asian and African elephants were 81% and 71%, respectively, for the studbook populations, and nearly 100% for the SSP facilities. Of the elephants surveyed, 49% of Asian and 62% of African elephant females were being monitored for ovarian cyclicity via serum or urinary progestagen analyses on a weekly basis. Of these, 14% of Asian and 29% of African elephants either were not cycling at all or exhibited irregular cycles. For both species, ovarian inactivity was more prevalent in the older age categories (>30 years); however, acyclicity was found in all age groups of African elephants. Fewer elephant females (B30%) had been examined by transrectal ultrasound to assess reproductive-tract integrity, and corresponding hormonal data were available for about three-quarters of these females. Within this subset, most (B75%) cycling females had normal reproductive-tract morphologies, whereas at least 70% of noncycling females exhibited some type of ovarian or uterine pathology. In summary, the survey results suggest that ovarian inactivity is a significant reproductive problem for elephants held in zoos, especially African elephants. To increase the fecundity of captive elephants, females should be bred at a young age, before reproductive pathologies occur. However, a significant number of older Asian elephants are still not being reproductively monitored. More significantly, many prime reproductive-age (10-30 years) African females are not being monitored. This lack of information makes it difficult to determine what factors affect the reproductive health of elephants, and to develop mitigating treatments to reinitiate reproductive cyclicity.

Brown, J.L., Walker, S.L., Moeller, T., 2004. Comparative endocrinology of cycling and non-cycling Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants
729. Gen. Comp Endocrinol. 136, 360-370.
Abstract: Up to 14% of Asian and 29% of African elephants in captivity are not cycling normally or exhibit irregular cycles based on progestin profiles. To determine if ovarian acyclicity is related to other disruptions in endocrine activity, serum pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and ovarian hormones in weekly samples collected for 6-25 months were compared between normal cycling (n=22 each species) and non-cycling (n=6 Asian; n=30 African) elephants. A subset of cycling females (n=4 Asian, 7 African) also were blood sampled daily during the follicular phase to characterize the peri-ovulatory period. In normal cycling females, two leutinizing hormone (LH) surges were observed 3 weeks apart during a normal follicular phase, with the second inducing ovulation (ovLH). Serum FSH concentrations were highest at the beginning of the non-luteal phase, declining to nadir concentrations within 4 days of the ovLH surge. FSH remained low until after the ovLH surge and then increased during the luteal phase. A species difference was noted in prolactin secretion. In the African elephant, prolactin was increased during the follicular phase, but in Asian elephants concentrations remained stable throughout the cycle. Patterns of thyroid hormones (thyroid-stimulating hormone, TSH; free and total thyroxine, T4; free and total triiodothyronine, T3) and cortisol secretion were not affected by estrous cycle stage or season in cycling elephants. In non-cycling elephants, there were no fluctuating patterns of LH, FSH, or prolactin secretion. Overall mean concentrations of all hormones were similar to those in cycling animals, with the exception of FSH, prolactin, and estradiol. Mean serum FSH concentrations were lower due to females not exhibiting normal cyclic increases, whereas serum estradiol was higher overall in most acyclic females. Prolactin concentrations were significantly increased in 11 of 30 non-cycling females, all of which were African elephants. In sum, while there were no consistent endocrine anomalies associated with ovarian acyclicity, hyperprolactinemia may be one cause of ovarian dysfunction. The finding of elevated estrogens in some acyclic females also deserves further investigation, especially determining how it relates to reproductive tract pathologies

Dangolla, A., Silva, I., Kuruwita, V.Y., 2004. Neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus maximus)
662. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 31, 276-279.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the suitability of etorphine with acepromazine for producing prolonged neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants. ANIMALS: Ten adult wild elephants (four males, six females), free-roaming in the jungles of the north-western province of Sri Lanka. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ten wild elephants were tranquilized for attachment of radio transmitter collars from September to November 1997, using Large-Animal Immobilon (C-Vet Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK), which is a combination of etorphine (2.45 mg mL(-1)) and acepromazine (10 mg mL(-1)). This was injected using projectile syringes fired from a Cap-Chur gun (Palmer Chemical Co. Inc., Atlanta, USA). A volume of 3.3 (2.5-4.5) mL Immobilon (6.12-11.02 mg of etorphine and 25-45 mg acepromazine) was injected intramuscularly after body mass estimation of individual elephants. RESULTS: The body condition of all darted elephants was good, and the mean (minimum-maximum) shoulder height was 225 (180-310) cm. The average approximate distance to elephants at firing was 26 (15-50) m. The average time to recumbency after injection was 18 (15-45) minutes. Nine out of 10 elephants remained in lateral recumbency (and did not require additional dosing) for a period of 42 (28-61) minutes. The respiratory and heart rates during anaesthesia were 7 (4-10) breaths and 52 (40-60) beats minute(-1), respectively. An equal volume (8.15-14.67 mg) of diprenorphine hydrochloride (Revivon, 3.26 mg mL(-1) diprenorphine; C-Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK) was given intravenously when the procedure was completed. Recovery (return to standing position) occurred in 6 (2-12) minutes after diprenorphine injection. Immediately afterwards, all elephants slowly retreated into the jungle without complications. Continuous radio tracking of the animals involved in this study indicated no post-operative mortality for several months after restraint. CONCLUSIONS/CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Etorphine-acepromazine combinations can be used safely in healthy wild Asian elephants for periods of restraint lasting up to 1 hour

Goheen, J.R., Keesing, F., Allan, B.F., Ogada, D.L., Ostfeld, R.S., 2004. Net effects of large mammals on Acacia seedling survival in an African Savanna. Ecology 85, 1555-1561.
Abstract: Trees of the genus Acacia are widespread and important components of savanna ecosystems. Factors or organisms that influence the survival of Acacia seedlings are likely to affect tree recruitment and therefore community and ecosystem dynamics. In African savannas, large mammals, especially elephants, have been considered the most important agents of mortality for adult trees, but their impacts on tree seedlings are not well known. We investigated the effects of large mammals on Acacia seedling survival by excluding large mammals from replicated 4-ha plots. Approximately twice as many seedlings were killed in plots with large mammals absent as on plots with large mammals present. Rodents and some invertebrates were more abundant on plots without large mammals and were responsible for these higher predation rates. Seedlings in areas with large mammals were more likely to die of desiccation; however, net seedling survival was approximately twice as high in the presence of large mammals. Our results indicate that large mammals may indirectly increase Acacia seedling survival and thus accelerate, rather than inhibit, tree recruitment.

Kinsella, J.M., Deem, S.L., Blake, S., Freeman, A., 2004. Endoparasites of African forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) from the Republic of Congo and Central African Republic. Comparative Parasitology 71 , 104-110.
Abstract: Fecal samples were collected from 6 African forest elephants, Loxodonta africana cyclotis, from the Nouabale-Ndoki National Park, Republic of Congo, and the Dzangha-Sangha National Park, Central African Republic. One of the elephants was found freshly dead from natural causes, and 12 species of intestinal parasites (2 bot fly larvae, 1 trematode, and 9 nematodes) were collected during a complete necropsy. In addition, fecal samples revealed the presence of a schistosome, Bivitellobilharzia sp., a tracheal nematode, Mammomonagamus sp., and a complex of intestinal strongylids and ciliates. The nematode genera Decrusia and Equimurbia are reported for the first time from African elephants, and the ciliate genus Latteuria is reported for the first time from wild elephants. The parasite fauna of the African elephant is discussed in the light of recent genetic evidence that the forest and savannah elephants may be separate species.

Liu, C.H., Chang, C.H., Chin, S.C., Chang, P.H., Zhuo, Y.X., Lee, C.C., 2004. Fibrosarcoma with lung and lymph node metastases in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
672. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest 16, 421-423.
Abstract: A case of fibrosarcoma with lung and lymph node metastases in a 54-year-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is described. After pododermatitis of 2 years duration in the right forefoot, a mass developed in the lateral toenail. At postmortem, metastasis to the right axillary lymph node and both lungs was noted. Microscopic examination of primary and metastatic sites revealed infiltrating bundles of spindle cells, with fairly distinct cell borders, variable amounts of eosinophilic cytoplasm, and elongate or oval nuclei. Tumor cells were often arranged in interwoven bundles and herringbone patterns. Mitotic figures were numerous and frequently bizarre. The diagnosis of fibrosarcoma with lung and lymph node metastases was made on the basis of histologic features and positive immunohistochemical staining for vimentin

MacGregor, S.D., O'Connor, T.G., 2004. Response of Acacia tortilis to utilization by elephants in a semi-arid African savanna. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 34, 55-56.
Abstract: The impact of elephant feeding on individual growth and population trends of Acacia tortilis and Acacia nilotica was studied in the semi-arid Venetia-Limpopo Nature Reserve between 1996 and 2000, comparing Acacia Woodland and Riparian Woodland. Monitoring of permanent transects revealed that elephants reduced Acacia tortilis density of Acacia Woodland from 173 to 68 stems/ha between 1996 and 2000, but population size structure remained unchanged because height selection varied. Annual mortality of Acacia tortilis ranged from 9-37%, lagging utilization by elephants by 2-3 years, and decreased once tree density had declined. Elephants ceased to use Acacia Woodland once density had declined to that corresponding with the less used A. tortilis in Riparian Woodland. Elephants utilized A. tortilis by removing canopy branches, pollarding, uprooting or debarking stems, which depended on tree size and previous use. Pollarded or uprooted stems resprouted poorly and usually died. Survival following canopy removal depended on the severity of defoliation. Debarking was not observed to kill A. tortilis because debarked stems were subsequently uprooted or pollarded. By contrast, debarking killed A. nilotica trees or substantially reduced their size. Prediction of population trends further requires consideration of rainfall, other herbivores, and fire. The vulnerability of Acacia populations to utilization by elephants is increased because the food staple, Colophospermum mopane, is tolerant of severe utilization by elephants.

Stringfield, C.E., Oh, P., Granich, R., Scott, J., Sun, B., Joseph, M., Flood, J., Sedgwick, C.J. Epidemiologic investigation of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a metropolitan zoo. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE. 46-48. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: From 1997 to 2000, six cases of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) infection were diagnosed in three species of animals at, or recently originating from, the Los Angeles Zoo. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis showed that five of six animal isolates shared an identical IS6110 pattern, with the sixth differing only by one additional band. A multiinstitutional epidemiologic investigation was conducted to identify and interrupt possible transmission among the animal cases, and to screen personnel for active TB infection and TB skin-test conversion.
Animal Cases
In April and October of 1994, Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) #1 and Asian elephant #2 arrived at the Los Angeles Zoo from a private elephant facility where they had lived together. They were housed together at the zoo until November of 1996 when elephant #2 was returned to the facility for several months before transfer to another zoo. In the spring of 1997, Elephant #1 (30 yr old) died of salmonellosis, with M. tuberculosis found in granulomatous lymph node lesions from the thoracic and abdominal cavities, and Elephant #2 (30 yr old) was found to have a positive trunk wash culture for M. tuberculosis. In July of 1998, one of a closed herd of three Rocky Mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) consisting of a sire and two offspring, died of pulmonary M. tuberculosis at 6 yr of age. The goat's asymptomatic herdmates were screened and had negative chest radiographs and tracheal wash cultures, but one of the two goats was positive on tuberculin skin-test. In October of 1998, a clinically normal Black rhinocerus (Diceros bicornis) was diagnosed with Mycobacerium tuberculosis after a positive skin test and nasal wash culture. In the winter of 1998, the two remaining goats were evaluated again with negative chest radiographs and tracheal wash cultures. However, 1 yr later, both were humanely euthanatized at 8 and 12 yr of age due to clinical evidence of tuberculosis on chest radiographs (both animals), and active clinical signs in one (neither were able to be orally treated). In January of 2001, a rhino was humanely euthanatized after a protracted illness that was nonresponsive to aggressive treatment. The rhino was found to have severe multifocal hemosiderosis and atypical mycobacterial infection in her lungs, with no M. tuberculosis cultured. This animal had been treated with oral Isoniazid and Rifampin for 1 yr, cultured routinely, and was never culture positive again.
Epidemiologic Investigation
Investigators examined medical and location histories of the affected animals, animal handling practices, health-care procedures, and performed an infection control assessment of the animal compounds and health-care facilities (including measuring air flow in the compounds by smoke testing). We conducted a review of zoo employee medical records for evidence of TB symptoms, tuberculin skin-test results, and chest radiograph information. A list of current and former employees was cross-matched with reported TB cases in the California state registry from 1985 to 2000. As part of the annual occupational health screening in June of 2000, zoo employees underwent questioning regarding TB symptoms, received tuberculin skin tests, and completed a questionnaire on medical history, job type, and history of contact with the infected animals.
Epidemiologic Findings
No common cross-species contact outside the animal compounds and no contact with an infectious human were found. The distance at which the public was kept from the animals and the distance of the compounds from each other (the elephant compound was 27 meters from the rhino compound and the goat compound was 90 m from both) suggests that direct transmission was unlikely. No active TB cases in humans were found, and no matches were found in the database of reporte d cases. The RFLP analysis of this strain of M. tuberculosis matched that of three elephants with which #1 and #2 were housed at a private elephant facility from September of 1993-February of 1994.1 We hypothesize that elephants #1 and #2 were infected at the private facility and were shipped with latent M. tuberculosis infection in 1994, subsequently infecting the black rhino and Mountain goats at the Los Angeles Zoo.
Of interest, animal caretaking and animal contact were not associated with a positive tuberculin skin-test, while groundskeepers were found to have an increased risk of tuberculin skin-test conversion compared with other job categories. Employees attending the elephant necropsy and employees who trained elephants were more likely to have tuberculin skin-test conversion than those who did not.
Conclusion
This is the first documented human and veterinary epidemiologic investigation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis affecting multiple species in a zoo. ² No evidence of transmission from humans to animals or active infections in humans were found. Genotyping evidence strongly suggests transmission from one species to another, although no evidence of transmission was discovered. Human tuberculin skin-test conversions associated with the elephants were most likely due to lack of respiratory protection for these employees when the risk of TB infection was not known. The finding that groundskeepers and not animal handlers were associated with a higher risk of tuberculin skin-test conversion was surprising, and we hypothesized that this may have to do with groundskeepers as a group being more likely to have
been born outside of the United States.
Control measures to eliminate the spread of disease to people and animals were undertaken immediately and throughout this outbreak, and no further cases of M. tuberculosis have been diagnosed at the zoo in the past 3 yr despite ongoing surveillance. Four elephants and three rhinos that had direct contact with the infected animals remain TB negative by trunk and nasal wash culture methods as outlined by the USDA for elephant TB surveillance. Methods of indirect transmission in mammalian zoo species and causes of variability in infection and morbidity within and among species warrant further investigation. Ongoing vigilance, occupational health programs and infection control measures in potentially exposed animals are recommended to prevent ongoing transmission of M. tuberculosis in zoo settings.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Animal Care and Animal Health staff of the Los Angeles Zoo who cared so well for these animals, and the veterinarians (including consulting pathologists), technicians, and medical records staff who collected, analyzed, and organized the clinical data. We could not have performed this evaluation without Sue Thisdell, Safety Officer at the Los Angeles Zoo; Jothan Staley and Donna Workman-Malcom of the City of Los Angeles Occupational Health Services Division; Lee Borenstein, Elenor Lehnkering, Patrick Ryan, Jeanne Soukup, and Annette Nita of the Los Angeles County Department of Health Services; and Diana Whipple for her RFLP expertise.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S.K., L. Peddie, J. Peddie, R. Isaza, F. Dunker, G. West, W. Lindsay, R.S.Larsen, M. D. Salman, D. Chatterjee, J. Payeur, D. Whipple, C. Thoen, D. Davis, C. Sedgwick, R.J. Montali, M. Ziccardi, J. Maslow. 2001. Epidemiology and diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in captive asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 32: 1-16.
2. Oh, P., R. Granich, J. Scott, B. Sun, M. Joseph, C. Stringfield, S. Thisdell, J. Staley, D. Workman-Malcolm, L. Borenstein, E. Lehnkering, P. Ryan, J. Soukup, A.Nitta, J. Flood. 2002. Human exposure following Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a metropolitan zoo. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 8 (11): 1290-1293.orte

Wiseman, R., Page, B.R., O'Connor, T.G., 2004. Woody vegetation change in response to browsing in Ithala Game Reserve, South Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 34, 25-37.
Abstract: Abstract: The impact of elephant and other browsers may be magnified when they are restricted within small, fenced reserves. These reserves are becoming commonplace in southern Africa. The composition and structure of the woody vegetation of a portion of the 30 000 ha Ithala Game Reserve, South Africa, was monitored annually from 1992 to 2000. Woody species described a continuum from those that declined in abundance and were threatened with extirpation (e.g. Aloe marlothii, Acacia davyi), through those that remained relatively stable (e.g. Rhus lucida, Gymnosporia buxifolia), to those that increased in abundance (e.g. Scolopia zeyheri, Euclea crispa). Species that declined in abundance were generally well utilized by herbivores and showed low recruitment and high mortality rates. Species that increased in abundance were characterized by high recruitment, low mortality and low levels of herbivory. Species composition changed towards species less preferred by herbivores. Browsers other than elephants and environmental stress (e.g. drought) caused threefold the damage of elephants. Ensuring the persistence of all woody species requires management of the entire browser community.

2003. Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Chakraborty, A., 2003. Nenatal mortality in elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 119-122.

Chakraborty, A., 2003. Necropsy of elephant. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 145-151.

Cheeran, J.V., Nair, N.D., 2003. Techniques and Procedures for Post-Mortem of Elephants. Project Elephant and Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi India.

Easwaran, K.R., Ravindran, R., Pillai, K.M., 2003. Parasitic infections of some wild animals at Thekkady in Kerala. Zoos' Print Journal 18, 1030.
Abstract: Helminth infection is wide spread in wild animals and may cause mortality and morbidity of varying degrees. Gour et al.(1979) and Fowler(1986) have stated that the wild animals in the free-living state are generally infected with numerous parasites, but cause little harm to them, unless they are streesed. Therefore, understanding the rate of infection in wild animals is important since infections could result in massive die-offs of wild animals during extreme stress conditions. There are several reports of parasitic infection in zoo animals, but information of the same in free- living wild animal scanty. This paper reports the parasitic infection in four wild boars, a calf elephant, a sambar deer and a leopard cat which died at Thekkady forest area in Kerala. The parasites collected during post mortem by the first author were preserved in formalin and brought to College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy. The specimens were washed, dehydrated, cleared in creosote and eexamined for specific identity.
All the parasites found in wild boars except Gastrodiscoides hominis and Gnathostoma hispidum commonly infect the domestic pig(Soulsby, 1982). Noda(1973) has reported Ascaris suum from Sus scrofa lucomystax while Henry and Conley(1970) recorded Physosephalus sexalatus from European wild hogs. Occurrence of Amblyoma sp.(ticks) in wild boars is recorded by Rajagopalan et al.(1968). Herbivores and rodents are the common intermediate hosts of Lingutula serrata, which in the adult stage occur in carnivores. Available literature did not reveal the occurrence of larvae of this parasite in Sambar. The elephant calf was heavily infected with strongyle worms and maggots of Cobboldia elephantis and is quite likely that its death may be due this infection. Sundram(1966) has recorded all these parasites from captive elephants. The Leopard Cat was also heavily infected with Echinococcus granulosus causing enteritis which probably could have contributed to its death.

Islam, S., 2003. Parasitic disease of elephant. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 137-140.

Mahanta, P.N., 2003. Health monitoring and common diseases in free ranging elephants. In: Das, D. (Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 130-136.

Mikota, S.K., Hammatt, H., Finnegan, M. Occurrence and prevention of capture wounds in Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus). Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet. 291-293. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The capturing of elephants in Indonesia began in 1986 as an attempted solution to human-elephant conflict. The intent was to train "problem" elephants for use in agriculture, logging and tourism. The initial captures were conducted under the guidance of Thai mahouts and Thai koonkie elephants (trained elephants used for capture). A number of the Indonesians that were originally trained in capture techniques still work for the government forestry department (KSDA). The younger pawangs (elephant handlers) that participate in captures have learned from their peers. There is no formal training program. The actual mortality rate associated with elephant captures in Sumatra is unknown as official reports are lacking. The age structure of the existing ~ 400 captive elephants is young (most under 25) which suggests that smaller, younger elephants are preferentially captured and / or that adult elephants do not survive the capture and training processes. Our personal experiences (Mikota and Hammatt) in Sumatra show that mortality in newly captured elephants is high.In 2001, with endorsement from the World Wide Fund for Nature-Indonesia (WWF), the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Fauna and Flora International (FFI), and the International Elephant Foundation (IEF), we requested a two-year Moratorium on elephant captures during which time capture techniques would be improved and alternative conflict mediation techniques evaluated.
A Moratorium against placing additional elephants into the Elephant Training Centers has been issued by the central government, however capture for translocation is still sanctioned. Unfortunately, the provincial governments have increasingly acted in their own interests since the government of Indonesia began a de-centralization process a few years ago. Riau Province is thought to have the largest remaining populations of wild Sumatran elephants.Fifty-seven, human-elephant conflicts occurred in Riau between 1997-2000. Although Riau is a hotbed of conflict, problems are occurring throughout Sumatra and we are aware of conflicts and captures in Bengkulu and North Sumatra. In October 2002, we were invited by KSDA (the provincial forestry department) to accompany their team into the field as they attempted to capture a large bull that had been raiding a palm oil plantation. This opportunity was invaluable as we were able to observe first hand the techniques being used and where improvements were needed. As a result of this and other experiences with newly captured elephants we observed: Equipment (Palmer) is old, poorly maintained, and used improperly.  Essential supplies are lacking or homemade substitutes are used.
The dose of xylazine is very high compared to wild elephant capture doses used in India and Malaysia. The same dose is often used regardless of the size of the elephant. The needles are too short to reach muscle; open-ended needles are used which can become plugged with tissue, thus preventing injection. Neither the correct charge nor the correct load is selected. We observed that many darts bounced making it difficult to ascertain the amount of drug injected or its depth of penetration. Selection of an inappropriate charge results in unnecessary trauma. The preparation and use of darts, needles, and syringes lacks basic hygiene. Dart wounds are not treated and antibiotics are not administered.  There is no understanding of stress or capture myopathy. The capture team was not aware that sternal recumbency severely compromises respiration in elephants and that they can quickly die in this position. It is believed that elephant restraints must inflict pain to prevent wild elephants from escaping once captured. There is no veterinarian on the capture team. The current capture techniques result in leg wounds from unprotected chains, neck wounds from "kahs" (neck yokes made of wood and wire), and abscesses from inappropriately administered darts. Leg and neck wounds often become maggot infested. Infections from dart wounds are, however, the primary cause of capture-related mortality. These abscesses can drain for several months, even with treatment, and often progress to a necrotizing fasciitis, acute sepsis, and death. The Riau Province KSDA Team has been receptive to suggested changes to minimize wounds. Provision of heavier chains has alleviated the fear that elephants will escape. Covering the chains with fire hose or heavy plastic minimizes injuries to legs and use of the kah has been discontinued. A basic dart wound treatment protocol has been established. In June 2003, a comprehensive Elephant Immobilization and Translocation Workshop for Sumatra is planned to retrain all of Sumatra's field teams and to upgrade equipment. Sumatra's wild elephant population probably numbers fewer than 3000 and is under continued threat. With so few elephants left, the preservation of as many viable herds as possible takes on increased urgency. The Moratorium achieved in 2001 has set the groundwork for KSDA to choose translocation of wild elephants rather than capture and placement into already over-crowded and under-resourced Elephant Training Centers. We cannot guarantee that Sumatra will capture elephants only for translocation, and it is inevitable that many more elephants will end up in captivity. Regardless, all of the elephants that must suffer the interruption of their lives at the hand of man deserve, at the very least, humane treatment. Translocations are neither simple nor a complete panacea. Identifying suitable translocation areas and insuring that elephants remain there are significant challenges. WWF-Indonesia is continuing its efforts to secure the lowland forest of Tesso Nilo in Riau Province as a "safe haven" for at least some of Sumatra's wild elephants (see WWF AREAS Program – Riau, Sumatra: http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/attachments/riau_profile.pdf). The identification of interim release sites, together with improved capture techniques, offers the hope that fewer elephants will be removed from the wild. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Our work in Sumatra has been supported by the Guggenheim Foundation, a CEF grant from the American Zoo and Aquarium Association, the International Elephant Foundation, Oregon Zoo, Columbus Zoo, Disney, Peace River Refuge, the Elephant Managers Association, the Riddles Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Tulsa Zoo, Toronto Zoo, Niabi Zoo, San Antonio Zoo, Denver Zoo (AAZK Chapter), Milwaukee Zoo (AAZK Chapter), the Audubon Nature Institute (Youth Volunteers), Buttonwood Park Zoo, Melbourne Zoo, and private donors. Special thanks to Harry Peachey, John Lehnhardt, Holly Reed, Kay Backues, Mike Keele, Steve Osofsky, and Heidi and Scott Riddle.

Sukumar, K., 2003. Asian elephants in zoos – a response to Rees. Oryx 37, 23-24.
Abstract: The real role of zoos in the conservation of threatened animals is increasingly coming under public scrutiny, and this is perhaps natural in the case of intelligent, charismatic animals such as elephants. From Roman times up to the mid nineteenth century the elephant was a curiosity in Europe, and then with the establishment of zoos and the popularity of modern circuses there was a steady influx of animals from colonies in Africa and Asia. Elephants, however, never bred well in captivity, either historically in Asia or in recent decades in western zoos. Kings and other rulers have over the centuries obtained their elephant stocks mainly through capture from the wild, in many instances depleting these populations to the point of local extinction (Sukumar, 1989). Even the stocks of timber camp elephants in British India and Burma during the twentieth century were built up mainly through capture as opposed to breeding (Williams, 1950; Stracey, 1963; Gale, 1974; Krishnamurthy & Wemmer, 1995). The longevity of elephants ensured that sizeable numbers were available at any point in time; there was breeding among the timber camp elephants but in most places this rarely compensated for the mortality rate.

Yamada, M., Nakamura, K., Nozaki, H., Tanaka, H., 2003. Hepatocellular endoplasmic reticulum storage disease in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). J Comp Pathol 128, 192-194.
Abstract: Large intracytoplasmic inclusions were observed in hepatocytes of a 7-year-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana). The inclusions were oval to polyhedral with either a homogeneous glassy or a granular appearance. They were positive for the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) reaction. Electron microscopical examination revealed that the inclusions consisted of granular material with moderate electron-density and were membrane-bounded. The findings suggested that the inclusions were derived from endoplasmic reticulum. The light and electron microscopical features were similar to those of endoplasmic reticulum storage disease of the liver in man. Such inclusions have not previously been reported in animals. National Institute of Animal Health, Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan.

Azeez, M.A., 2002. Elephant insurance. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 37.

Bechert, U.S., Southern, S. Monitoring Environmental Stress in African Elephants (Loxodonta africana) through Molecular Analysis of Stress-Activated Proteins. Baer, C. K. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 249-253. 2002. Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Many disease outbreaks appear to be facilitated by increased stress due to overcrowding, and changing environmental conditions triggered by climate variability and human activities. Currently, the health of populations is typically assessed with the tools of population dynamics: estimations of trends in abundance, mortality, and reproductive rates. However, for populations that have long generation times, this approach is sometimes too slow to provide an early warning about the impact of environmental stressors such as disease, pollution, and anthropogenic activities. We have developed new techniques for detecting chronic physiologic stress and disease in mammals, based on the molecular analysis of the expression patterns of multiple stress-activated proteins and genes. This approach represents a novel tool for health monitoring, and can provide an early warning of increased environmental stress and compromised health in elephants and other mammals. This paper describes a study in progress, in which the molecular analysis of stress is being used to explore correlations between stress level and information regarding population abundance, distribution, habitat needs, human-elephant interactions, and movements of elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the northern Botswana region. This technique will provide a more objective way to assess carrying capacity for African elephants, thus facilitating development of effective management plans for this species.

Emanuelson, K.A., Agnew, D.W. Wasting syndrome in a bull African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet. 142-145. 2002.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Oh, P., Granich, R., Scott, J., Sun, B., Joseph, M., Stringfield, C., Thisdell, S., Staley, J., Workman-Malcolm, D., Borenstein, L., Lehnkering, E., Ryan, P., Soukup, J., Nitta, A., Flood, J., 2002. Human exposure following Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a Metropolitan Zoo. Emerg Infect Dis 8, 1290-1293.
Abstract: From 1997 to 2000, Mycobacterium tuberculosis was diagnosed in two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), three Rocky Mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), and one black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in the Los Angeles Zoo. DNA fingerprint patterns suggested recent transmission. An investigation found no active cases of tuberculosis in humans; however, tuberculin skin-test conversions in humans were associated with training elephants and attending an elephant necropsy.

Vijayan, N., Nair, N.D., 2002. Autopsy in elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 53-51.

Woodford, M.H., Keet, D.F., Bengis, R.G., 2002. A guide to post-mortem procedure and a review of pathological processes identified in the elephant. Post-mortem Procedures for Wildlife Veterinarians and Field Biologists. IUCN, pp. 36-47.

Bacciarini, L.N., Pagan, O., Frey, J., Grone, A., 2001. Clostridium perfringens beta2-toxin in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana)with ulcerative enteritis. Vet Rec 149, 618-620.
Abstract: A 22-year-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) developed diarrhea of unknown cause which lasted for two days. The animal was euthanized after it remained recumbent and refused to get up. Gross pathological changes were present mainly in the gastrointestinal tract. The intestinal contents were watery and dark brown. Several areas of the mucosa of the small intestine were covered minimally to moderately with fibrin and had a few 0.1 x 10 to 15 cm linear ulcerations. Microscopical lesions consisted of discrete areas of necrosis of the surface and crypt epithelium without overt inflammatory infiltrates. Culture of the small intestinal contents resulted in a moderate growth of Clostridium perfringens. No salmonella were found in the small or large intestine. PCR of the isolate of C. perfringens revealed the presence of the beta2-toxin gene cpb2 and the alpha-toxin gene cpa but no other known toxin genes. The expression of the beta2-toxin gene in vivo was demonstrated by the immunohistochemical localization of the beta2-toxin to the microscopical lesions in the small intestine.

Dudley, J.P., Craig, G.C., Gibson, D.St.C., Haynes, G., Klimowicz, J., 2001. Drought mortality of bush elephants in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 39, 187-194.
Abstract: African bush elephants inhabiting the undeveloped Kalahari Sands region of Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe are subject to episodic mortality during droughts. We monitored the drought-related mortality of elephants in Hwange National Park over the course of an extended drought between 1993 and 1995. The drought-related mortality of elephants was higher during 1994 than 1995, despite significantly higher rainfall in 1994 than 1995. We found significant differences in the age-specific mortality of elephants during 1994 and 1995. The cumulative mortality profile from this study differed significantly from previous die-offs at this site, with a higher mortality among adult age classes than that reported from earlier studies in Hwange National Park. The effective duration of the rainy season, not total annual precipitation, appears to be the best predictor for the potential severity of drought mortality among elephants in the Kalahari Sands habitats of Hwange National Park.

Lamps, L.W., Smoller, B.R., Rasmussen, L.E., Slade, B.E., Fritsch, G., Goodwin, T.E., 2001. Characterization of interdigital glands in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Research in Veterinary Science 71, 197-200.
Abstract: In the Asian elephant, wetness akin to perspiration is commonly observed on the cuticles and interdigital areas of the feet; this observation has lead to speculation regarding the existence of an interdigital gland. Our goal was to search for interdigital glands and characterize them morphologically, histochemically, and immunohistochemically. Necropsy samples of interdigital areas from two Asian elephants were obtained. Multiple sections were fixed and processed routinely, then stained with hematoxylin/eosin and differential mucin stains. Immunohistochemistry was also performed for cytokeratins 8 and 10. Interdigital glands resembling human eccrine glands were detected deep within the reticular dermis. Histochemical staining indicated neutral mucopolysaccharides and nonsulphated acid mucopolysaccharides in glandular secretions, and the glandular epithelium also showed immunoreactivity to cytokeratins 8 and 10. Both the histochemical and immunohistochemical staining patterns are analogous to human eccrine structures. This study shows with certainty that Asian elephants possess sweat glands as they are defined histologically.

Langley, R.L., Hunter, J.L., 2001. Occupational fatalities due to animal-related events. Wilderness Environ Med 12, 168-174.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To better understand the extent of animal-related fatalities in the workplace. METHODS: This study utilized Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries files from the US Department of Labor for the years 1992-1997 to describe the events surrounding human workplace fatalities associated with animals. RESULTS: During the 6-year time period, 350 workplace deaths could be associated with an animal-related event. Cattle and horses were the animals primarily involved, and workers in the agricultural industry experienced the majority of events. Many deaths involved transportation events, either direct collision with the animal or highway crashes trying to avoid collision with an animal. Exotic animals, primarily elephants and tigers, were responsible for a few deaths. A small number of workers died of a zoonotic infection. CONCLUSIONS: We found that approximately 1% of workplace fatalities are associated with an animal-related event. Methods to decrease the frequency of an animal injury are suggested.

Montali, R.J., Mikota, S.K., Cheng, L.I., 2001. Mycobacterium tuberculosis in zoo and wildlife species. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office International des Epizooties 20, 291-303.
Abstract: Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and M. tuberculosis-like organisms has been identified in a wide range of species: non-human primates, exotic ungulates and carnivores, elephants, marine mammals, and psittacine birds. Disease associated with M. tuberculosis has occurred mostly in captive settings and does not appear to occur naturally in free-living mammals. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is probably a zooanthroponosis of humans but from the zoonotic standpoint, non-human primates, Asian elephants and psittacine birds have the potential of transmitting this disease to humans. However, its overall prevalence in these target species has been low and documented transmissions of M. tuberculosis between animals and humans are uncommon. M. tuberculosis causes progressive pulmonary disease in mammals and a muco-cutaneous disease in parrots, and in all cases it can disseminate and be shed into the environment. Diagnosis in living animals has been based on intradermal tuberculin testing in non-human primates, culturing trunk secretions in elephants, and biopsy and culture of external lesions in parrots. Ancillary testing with DNA probes and nucleic acid amplification, and enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent (ELISA) tests have been adapted to some of these species with promising results. Additionally, new guidelines for controlling tuberculosis in elephants in the U.S., and programs for tuberculosis prevention in animal handlers have been established.

Montali, R.J., Richman, L.K., Mikota, S.K., Schmitt, D.L., Larsen, R.S., Hildebrandt, T.B., Isaza, R., Lindsay, W.A. Management Aspects of Herpesvirus Infections and Tuberculosis in Elephants. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001. 87-95. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) infections and tuberculosis have emerged as causes of illness and mortality in captive elephants. Twenty-six confirmed EEHV cases are documented. Since 1995, 7 have occurred in North America, 10 in Europe and 2 in Asia. A PCR test was used to detect the virus in symptomatic animals; a serological test to identify carrier elephants is under development. The African elephant is a potential source of the EEHV that is lethal for Asian elephants. Fatal infections have also occurred in Asian elephants without African elephant contacts. Three of 6 elephants recovered after treatment with antiviral famciclovir; however, more research is needed to improve the usefulness of this drug. Asian elephants that are less than 10-years old and have been moved to another facility and/or have had contact with African elephants are at increased risk for contracting EEHV. Animals traveling between facilities with a history of EEHV cases may be at greater risk. All young elephants should be monitored daily for anorexia, lethargy, body swellings and blue discoloration (bruising) of the tongue, and be trained for blood sampling and potential oral and rectal treatment with famciclovir.
Since 1996, Mycobacterium tuberculosis has affected about 3% of Asian elephants in North America. Most were from 5 U.S. States with some contacts between private herds. Mandatory annual testing for tuberculosis by trunk wash cultures was established in 1998, and 22 culture-positive M. tuberculosis elephants were identified between 1996-2001. Fifteen were treated with anti-tuberculosis drugs and 7 that died or were euthanized were proven to have tuberculosis at necropsy. Antemortem sera was available from 4/7 4 (75%) were strongly ELISA positive. Tuberculosis is uncommon in African elephants but was recently associated with M. bovis in the U.S. and M. tuberculosis in Germany. Conversely, M. bovis tuberculosis, apparently unrecognized in Asian elephants, recently occurred in Germany. Management issues of elephant tuberculosis will be discussed relative to its complex epidemiology and clinical-pathological correlations.

Moss, C.J., 2001. The demography of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) population in Amboseli, Kenya. J. Zool. , Lond. 255, 145-156.
Abstract: This paper presents basic demographic parameters of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) living in and around Amboseli National Park, Kenya. The study was conducted from 1972 to the present and results are based on the histories of 1778 individually known elephants. From 1972 to 1978, the Amboseli elephant population declined and then increased steadily from 1979 to the present. Births occurred throughout the year but over 80% occurred between November and May. Birth rate varied from year to year with a pattern of peaks and troughs at 4- to 5-year intervals. The birth sex ratio did not differ significantly from 1:1. Mean age at first birth was 14.1 years, determined from a sample of 546 known-age females. Mean birth interval (n = 732) was 4.5 years for 255 females. Fecundity and calf survival varied by age of the females. Mortality fluctuated from year to year. Sex-specific mortality rates were consistently higher for males than females at all ages.

Southern, S. Molecular analysis of stress-activated proteins and genes in dolphins and whales: a new technique for monitoring environmental stress. Proc AAZV and AAAM Joint Conference. 240-242. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: In the past several decades, there has been a worldwide increase in marine diseases resulting in mass mortality among all major taxa and shifts in ecologic community structures in the oceans.1 Marine mammals have experienced a pandemic of morbilliviral infections and outbreaks of diseases caused by influenza viruses, fungi and algal toxins. Many of the disease outbreaks appear to have been facilitated by increased environmental stress burden in the global marine ecosystems due to changing environmental conditions triggered by climate variability and human activities. It is imperative to develop novel health-monitoring tools that could guide the management of marine ecosystems and facilitate the conservation of key species. Our research is focused on the molecular mechanisms underlying molecular stress response in humans and cetaceans exposed to
environmental stress and disease. We have developed new techniques for detecting the molecular signature of stress based on molecular analysis of stress-activated proteins and genes in field tissue specimens.2 The detection of molecular stress signature has been applied to evaluate the impact of tuna fishery on the spotted dolphins in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, the effects of coastal pollution on the beluga whales in the St. Lawrence River, and the idiopathic population decline of the North Atlantic right whale population.

Wisser, J., Pilaski, J., Strauss, G., Meyer, H., Burck, G., Truyen, U., Rudolph, M., Frolich, K., 2001. Cowpox virus infection causing stillbirth in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Record 149, 244-246.

Agnew, D.W., Munson, L., Gage, L.J., Fowler, M.E., Ramsay, E. Cystic Endometrial Hyperplasia in Nulliparous Asian Elephants. 2000 Proceedings AAZV and IAAAM Joint Conference. 442. 2000. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Maintaining self-sustaining populations of elephants through captive breeding is a new goal of the Elephant Species Survival Plan. Most elephants available for breeding in U.S. zoos are nulliparous and aged, and their fertility is unknown. Endometrial hyperplasia has been noted in aged elephants, and this condition may affect their fertility. The purpose of this study was to better characterize the gross and histopathologic features of these lesions and assess the demographic distribution. Clinical histories, necropsy reports, and endometrial samples from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at least 20 yr of age that died from 1985 to 1999 were reviewed. Gross pathologic findings in all cases were similar and consisted of a multifocal to diffuse distribution of 1-2 cm diameter cysts in the endometrium. Pedunculated edematous endometrial polyps up to 10 cm in length also were present, projecting from the endometrial surface or free within the lumen. Some polyps were necrotic. Histologically, the endometrium was characterized by varying sized cystic endometrial glands lined by cuboidal to tall columnar epithelium. Other glands were present in small clusters and lined by hyperplastic endometrium. The endometrial polyps consisted of a core of edematous stroma containing clusters of cystic glands. Tissues expelled from the urogenital tract of another aged, nulliparous cow were also reviewed. These fragments consisted of necrotic tissue with ghost-like remnants of glands similar to endometrial glands. These fragments may represent expelled pedunculated endometrial polyps, which had become necrotic and sloughed. These results indicate that aged nulliparous Asian elephants commonly develop cystic endometrial hyperplasia and that the pedunculated polyps may represent a more advanced form of this disease. Sloughing of these pedunculated polyps may be noted clinically and may offer information about the condition of a cow's endometrium. The effect of endometrial hyperplasia on fertility in elephants is unknown, but in other species large numbers of cysts can interfere with implantation. The prevalence of these lesions in aged elephants suggests that younger animals would be better candidates for breeding and that efforts should be made to clinically evaluate potential breeding cows for endometrial health.

Lewis, M.H., Gluck, J.P., Petitto, J.M., Hensley, L.L., Ozer, H., 2000. Early social deprivation in nonhuman primates: long-term effects on survival and cell-mediated immunity. Biol Psychiatry 47, 119-126.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Early differential social experience of non-human primates has resulted in long-term alterations in behavior and neurobiology. Although brief maternal separation has been associated with changes in immune status, the long-term effects on survival and immune function of prolonged early social deprivation are unknown. METHODS: Survival rates were examined in rhesus monkeys, half of which had been socially deprived during their first year of life. Repeated measures of immune status were tested in surviving monkeys (18-24 years old). Peripheral blood T, B, and natural killer lymphocytes, macrophages, and monocytes were measured by flow cytometry. Functional cellular immune activity measures included T-cell proliferative responses to mitogens (concanavalin and phytohemagglutinin), T-cell memory response to tetanus toxoid antigen, T-cell-dependent B-cell proliferative responses to mitogen (PWM) and natural killer cell cytotoxic activity. RESULTS: Despite identical environments following isolation, early social deprivation resulted in a significantly decreased survival rate, males being particularly vulnerable to early death. Early social deprivation was associated with a decrease in the ratio of helper to suppressor T cells, and a significant increase in natural killer cell number and in natural killer cell activity in the surviving monkeys. No differences in T- or B-lymphocyte proliferation following mitogen or tetanus toxoid antigen stimulation were observed. CONCLUSIONS: Prolonged early social deprivation of non-human primates profoundly affected mortality and resulted in lifelong effects on cell-mediated immune status.

Olson, D., Weise, R.J., 2000. State of the North American African elephant population and projections for the future. Zoo Biology 19, 311-320.
Abstract: The African elephant has historically received less attention in the captive community than the Asian elephant. One manifestation of this lack of attention is that only 25 African elephant calves had been born in captivity in North America as of 01 January 1999. With the recent attention to both elephant species, it is imperative to evaluate the African elephant's potential to maintain a self-sustaining population in North America. Review of the raw data indicates that African elephants have reproduced poorly and experienced low juvenile survival in North America. However, using realistic life table models the future of the North American African elephant population can be predicted. The current population is relatively young compared to the captive Asian elephant population and has a much greater potential to become self-sustaining with increased focus and efforts toward reproduction. Unlike the Asian elephant population, the African elephant population may be able to become self-sustaining without further importation, if reproduction and juvenile survivorship increase significantly in the next ten years.

Schmitt, D.L., Pace, L.W. Multiple Congenital Cardiac Anomalies in a Newborn Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus). Proceedings of the Elephant Managers Association Conference, Oct 6-9,2000 Syracuse, NY. 13-14. 2000. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Cardiac anomalies in humans occur in about 1% of human births. Most are a developmental disorder of the vascular trunk and septum of the heart, which result in reduced blood circulation to periphery. This report of a cardiac anomaly in a neonatal elephant is first to the author's knowledge. A congenital defect known as tetrology of Fallot is described in a male Asian elephant who lived for 9 hours following birth.

Whitehouse, A.M., Hall-Martin, A.J., 2000. Elephants in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa: Reconstruction of the population's history. Oryx 34, 46-55.
Abstract: The history of the Addo elephant population in South Africa, from the creation of the Addo Elephant National Park (AENP) in 1931 to the present (every elephant currently living within the park is known), was reconstructed. Photographic records were used as a primary source of historical evidence, in conjunction with all documentation on the population. Elephants can be identified in photographs taken throughout their life by study of the facial wrinkle patterns and blood vessel patterns in their ears. These characteristics are unique for each elephant and do not change during the individual's life. The life histories of individual elephants were traced: dates of birth and death were estimated and, wherever possible, the identity of the individual's mother was ascertained. An annual register of elephants living within the population, from 1931 to the present, was compiled, and maternal family trees constructed. Preliminary demographic analyses for the period 1976-98 are presented. The quantity and quality of photographs taken during these years enabled thorough investigation of the life histories of all elephants. Prior to 1976, insufficient photographs were available to provide reliable data on the exact birth dates and mothers' identities for every calf born. However, data on annual recruitment and mortality are considered sufficiently reliable for use in analyses of the population's growth and recovery.

Wiese, R.J., 2000. Asian elephants are not self-sustaining in North America. Zoo Biology 19, 299-309.
Abstract: Demographic analysis of the captive Asian elephants in North America indicates that the population is not self-sustaining. First year mortality is nearly 30%, but perhaps more importantly the fecundity is extremely low (M_x = 0.01-0.02) throughout the prime reproductive years. Without continued importation or a drastic increase in birth rates the Asian elephant population in North America will drop to approximately ten elephants in 50 years and be demographically extinct. Model mortality and fecundity curves needed to establish a self-sustaining Asian elephant population in North America show that fecundity must increase 4-8 times the historical rates. Emerging techniques such as artificial insemination may assist in making the goal of a self-sustaining population more realizable by allowing reproduction by the numerous females that do not have access to a male, but other obstacles exist as well. A self-sustaining population will present challenges such as maintaining the significant number of male offspring that will be produced. Importation of young females from documented self-sustaining populations overseas is one option that would alleviate the need for a self-sustaining Asian elephant population in North America and the number of imports per year would be minimal.

Barman, N.N., Sarma, D.K., Das, S., Patgiri, G.P., 1999. Foot-and-mouth disease in wild and semi-domesticated animals of the north-eastern states of India. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 69, 781-783.
Abstract: The outbreaks (n=23) of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in the northeastern states of India for 14 years (1974 to 1997) were reported. The outbreaks were recorded in 7 different species of wild and semi-domesticated animals. The highest number of outbreaks was recorded in mithun, followed by yak and elephant. Contact with migratory cattle possibly played an important role in the spread of the disease. The morbidity rates in mithun and yak were 22.90 and 24.51%, respectively. About 6.5% of the affected mithun died during the outbreaks. Three FMD cases were recorded in the elephant, and baby elephants were affected with severe erosive lesions in the foot pad and trunk. Sources of infection in elephants were contaminated water and feed. In sambar deer, morbidity and mortality were 35.57 and 10.81%, respectively. In spotted and barking deer, the morbidity was 18.75%. Sources of infection were suspected to be the feed and attendants from nearby villages where FMD outbreaks in cattle was observed. In wild buffaloes, 3 out of 67 were affected and the source of infection was similar to deer. Of the 23 clinical samples typed for the presence of FMD virus, 11 were positive for FMD virus type O, 2 for type A, and each for A22 and Asia.

Brown, J.L., 1999. Difficulties Associated with Diagnosis and Treatment of Ovarian Dysfunction in Elephants - The Flatliner Problem. Journal of the Elephant Managers Association 10, 55-61.

Burkhardt, S., Hentschke, J., Weiler, H., Ehlers, B., Ochs, A., Walter, J., Wittstatt, U., 1999. Elephant herpes virus - a problem for breeding and housing of elephants. Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift. 112, 174-179.
Abstract: Herpesvirus infections which take a fatal turn on African elephants as well as on Asian elephants seem to occur increasingly not only in the USA but also in European stocks. The endotheliotropic herpesvirus causes a rapidly progressing and severe disease which makes any therapeutical effort unsuccessful and finally results in death of the animal, especially in young Asian elephants. As all attempts to culture the virus failed up to now, molecular biological procedures have to be used more often for diagnostic purpose together with the common methods of pathology, virology, and electronmicroscopical evaluation. This is a report on the case of 'KIBA', an eleven year old male elephant at the Zoological Garden Berlin, infected with the endotheliotropic elephants herpesvirus. 'KIBA' was born at the Zoo in Houston, Texas, and raised within his herd. Upon arriving in Berlin in November 1997 he adapted to the new premises and climate and new social circumstances without any problems. In June 1998 he already serviced three females of his new herd several times. In August 1998 he died after passing a peracute progression of the disease after residenting in Berlin for only 9 months. The dissection of the animal revealed some evidence on an agent damaging the endothelium. Major signs indicating this agent were bleedings in several serous membranes, mucosa and on the right atrium, as well as other parts of the myocardium. Furthermore there have been ulcerations at various localizations of the whole digestive tract. Slightly basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies have been found histologically in endothelial cells of different organ samples. An examination of altered organ-material by electronmicroscopy made some herpesvirus-like particles visible. A virological investigation first revealed evidence of giant cell formations with solitary basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies in different cell cultures, however, without any distinct cytopathogenic effect. Supported by molecular biological procedures the infection of 'KIBA' could be verified as the elephants herpesvirus. By means of PCR and subsequent sequence analysis a DNA-sequence typical for the elephants herpesvirus could be obtained which showed an identity of 97% with the terminase sequence of the elephant herpesvirus described by American authors. The deduced amino acid-sequences were 100% identical. To the terminase of the human cytomegalovirus, the elephant sequence had an identity of 53% (similarity: 74%). Based on the cooperation of ILAT, Institute of Veterinary-Pathology/Free University Berlin, Robert-Koch-Institut Berlin, and Zoological Garden Berlin, the cause of 'KIBA's' death could be discovered immediately. Possible implications of this case especially on breeding and keeping elephants are discussed briefly.

Eltringham, S.K., 1999. Longevity and Mortality. In: Shoshani, J. (Ed.), Elephants: Majestic Creatures of the Wild. Rodale Press, Emmau, PA.

Mikota, S.K., 1999. Diseases of the Elephant: A Review. Verh. ber. Erkrg. Zootiere 39, 1-15.

Raubenheimer, E.J., 1999. Morphological aspects and composition of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) ivory. Koedoe 42, 57-64.

Richman, L.K., Montali, R.J., Cambre, R.C., Schmitt, D., Hardy, D. Clinical and pathologic aspects of a fatal herpesvirus disease in Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 263-266. 1999. 10-9-1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Saidul, I., Abdul, M., Manoranjan, D., Islam, S., Mukit, A., Das, M., 1999. Pathology of concurrent Gastrodiscus secundus and Pseudodiscus collinsi infection in two captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Veterinary Parasitology 13, 151-152.
Abstract: Both immature and mature Gastrodiscus secundus and Pseudodiscus collinsi were recovered from the caecum of 2 captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India. Oedema, pin head size haemorrhages and ulcerative patches in the caecal mucosa were prominent. Mild lymphocytic infiltration in the mucosa with focal necrosis at the tip of the villi were observed.

Hattingh, J., deVos, V., Ganhao, M.F., Pitts, N.I., 1998. Physiological responses of the buffalo Syncerus caffer culled with succinyldicholine and hexamethonium. Koedoe 31, 91.
Abstract: Changes in the blood composition of elephants and buffaloes herded by helicopter and killed with succinyldicholine (Scoline) indicate stress. Death is probably due to decreased PO2 levels. The collective percentage change of eight blood constituents used to measure physiological stress was reduced from 30% in buffaloes killed with succinyldicholine alone to 22% in those killed with succinyldicholine plus hexamethonium, as opposed to 17% with herding alone and 10% with succinyldicholine alone without herding.

Matsuo, K., Hayashi, S., Kamiya, M., 1998. Parasitic infections of Sumatran elephant in the Way Kambas National Park, Indonesia. Japanese Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 3, 95-100.
Abstract: In 1995, 3 Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) died suddenly of clostridial infection in the Way Kambas National Park, Lampung province, Indonesia. Postmortem examination revealed that the gastrointestinal tracts of all 3 animals were also infected with Murshidia falcifera (Nematoda), Hawkesius hawkesi and Pfenderius papillatus (Digenea) and Cobboldia elephantis (Diptera). The elephant louse, Haematomyzus elephantis, was a common cause of dermatopathy in elephants kept in the national park.

Mortenson, J., Sierra S. Determining dosages for antibiotic and anti-inflammatory agents in elephants. Proceedings of the First North American Conference on Elephant Foot Care and Pathology. 50-55. 1998.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Clinical application of drug use in elephants for safe, reliable, and effective results necessitates the establishment of a treatment response curve or blood concentration profile for each drug and species (African vs Asian). Because of the difficulty in obtaining accurate pharmacokinetic information, it is more common to select a drug dosage and frequency interval used in other species, specifically the cow and the horse. Where treatment monitoring with serum concentrations of the drug are difficult to obtain, extrapolation of treatment regimens between species of extraordinary size difference may be done by metabolic scaling to establish drug dosage rates and frequency intervals. The principle of metabolic scaling of pharmacokinetic parameters is based on the well established scaling of physiological processes across animals of various sizes. The goals of this paper are to cover what antibiotics are currently used now with Asian and African elephants by surveying North American zoos, reviewing standard equine doses, discussing metabolic scaling attempts, and reviewing pharmacokinetic studies done. Based on the survey, zoo veterinarians generally are not utilizing metabolic scaling formulas to determine antibiotic and anti-inflammatory drug dosages for elephants. It appears that several drugs are being dosed too frequently (amikacin, amoxicillin), and not frequent enough (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) based on pharmacokinetic study results. Metabolic scaling dosages and treatment intervals do not correspond well with antibiotic pharmacokinetic studies done in both African and Asian elephants.

Raubenheimer, E.J., Bosman, M.C., Vorster, R., Noffke, C.E., 1998. Histogenesis of the chequered pattern of ivory of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Arch Oral Biol 43, 868-977.
Abstract: This study aimed to propose a hypothesis on the events which lead to the development of the characteristic chequered pattern of elephant ivory. Twenty fragments of ivory and six elephant tusks were obtained through the National Parks Board of South Africa. Polished surfaces were prepared in sagittal and longitudinal planes and the characteristics of the distinctive chequered pattern described. Light- and electron-microscopical techniques and image analyses were employed to determine the morphological basis of the pattern and to describe the spatial distribution, density and morphology of the dentinal tubules. These investigations showed that the distinctive pattern was the result of the sinusoidal, centripetal course followed by dentinal tubules. The apical, slanted part of the sinusoidal curve is the result of the centripetally moving odontoblast, which, during formation of ivory, progresses towards the centre of the tusk on a decreasing circumference. It is suggested that this leads to cell crowding, increased pressure between odontoblasts and subsequent apical movement of their cell bodies, cell degeneration and fusion. Odontoblastic degeneration and fusion probably relieve the pressure between the crowded odontoblasts by reducing their numbers and the remaining odontoblasts now orientate their centripetal course towards the tip of the tusk, thereby forming the anterior-directed part of the sinusoidal path of the tubule. As odontoblasts progress centripetally the diameter of the pulpal cavity decreases further and the processes of apical movement, fusion and degeneration of odontoblasts are repeated. This occurs until the pulpal cavity is obliterated.

Raubenheimer, E.J., Brown, J.M., Rama, D.B., Dreyer, M.J., Smith, P.D., Dauth, J., 1998. Geographic variations in the composition of ivory of the African elephant(Loxodonta africana). Arch Oral Biol 43, 641-647.
Abstract: Tracing the source of origin of illegal ivory will contribute to the identification of poorly managed game parks and facilitate steps taken to prevent the African elephant from becoming extinct. This study was aimed at establishing a database on the composition of ivory obtained from elephant sanctuary areas in Southern Africa. Fragments of elephant ivory from seven geographically distinct areas in South Africa, Namibia and Botswana were analysed for inorganic and organic content. A total of 20 elements was detected in the inorganic fraction of ivory, some in concentrations as low as 0.25 microg/g. The concentrations of calcium, phosphate, magnesium, fluoride, cobalt and zinc showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.007) between ivory obtained from different regions. Analyses of the organic fraction identified 17 amino acids. Ivory from arid regions showed significantly lower proline plus hydroxyproline content and under-hydroxylation of lysine residues. This study indicates that chemical analyses of ivory could be beneficial in tracing the source of illegal ivory.

Schmitt, D.L., Hardy, D.A., 1998. Use of famciclovir for the treatment of herpesvirus in an Asian elephant. Journal of the Elephant Managers' Association 9, 103-104.

Taylor, V.J., Poole, T.B., 1998. Captive breeding and infant mortality in Asian elephants: a comparison between twenty Western zoos and three Eastern elephant centers. Zoo Biology 17, 311-332.
Abstract: A questionnaire was designed to assess the importance of reproductive behaviour and husbandry factors on breeding success in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). This was circulated to zoos in Europe and North America in 1996. Data from 20 zoos were analysed. Data were also obtained from 3 elephant centres in Asia (Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage in Sri Lanka, Myanma Timber Enterprise in Myanmar and the Tamilnadu Forest Department in India). The aims were to compare Asian elephant breeding success, establish possible causes for any differences, and make recommendations for improving the welfare and breeding success of the animals. Breeding success in most of the zoos was notably lower and the percentages of stillbirths and infant mortality were relatively higher when compared with those of the centres in Asia. Female elephants in zoos appeared to reach sexual maturity and reproduce earlier than those in the Asian establishments. However, zoo elephants produced fewer young per female. The different facilities and husbandry methods used are described. Recommendations are made for both short- and long-term changes that could be used to modify existing practices to improve the welfare and breeding success of captive Asian elephants.

Whyte, I., van Aarde, R., Pimm, S.L., 1998. Managing the elephants of Kruger National Park. Animal Conservation 1, 77-83.
Abstract: The elephant population in Kruger National Park, Republic of South Africa, is growing rapidly. To prevent damage to the Park's ecosystems, the management has culled about 7% of the population annually. Such culls are very controversial. At first glance, contraceptives seem an attractive alternative means of control. We examine contraception as a management option, review the relevant aspects of elephant reproduction, physiology and demography and conclude that this optimism is probably misplaced. First, contraceptives have a wide range of physiological and behavioural side-effects that may prove to be damaging to the individual female and those around her. Second, the elephants in the Park have near-maximal growth rates with inter-calving intervals of less than four years. To achieve zero population growth, about three-quarters of the adult female elephants would need to be on contraceptives. There are no simple alternatives. The smallest numerical target for controlling population numbers is to kill or sterilize females about to become pregnant for the first time. Such a solution is unlikely to appease those who consider killing elephants to be unethical. It may, however, be the one closest to the natural patterns of elephant mortality.

Mircean, M., Giurgiu, G., Oros, A., Kadar, L., Ghergariu, S., 1997. Complex osteodystrophy in an orphan Indian elephant. Revista Romana de Medicina Veterinara 7, 191-199.
Abstract: An Indian elephant calf, rejected by its mother, was fed at first with cow and buffalo milk, and subsequently with bread, bran, rice, barley and fruit. He was initially affected with rickets, leading to osteofibrosis. Forelegs and the mandible were curved, causing difficulty in mastication. Clinical pathology showed a fall in Ca:P ratio to 1.47, and radiology showed thinning of the bone cortex. Intensive treatment with vitamins (B, C, D3 and E), a testosterone compound and amoxicillin made it possible for the animal to stand and walk, but the deformities remained. The elephant was eventually killed.

Montali, R.J., Hildebrandt, T., Goritz, F., Hermes, R., Ippen, R., Ramsay, E.C., 1997. Ultrasonography and pathology of genital tract leiomyomas in captive Asian elephants: implications for reproductive soundness. Verh. ber. Erkrg. Zootiere 38, 199-204.

Sukumar, R., Krishnamurthy, K.V., Wemmer, C., Rodden, M., 1997. Demography of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in southern India. Zoo Biology 16, 263-272.
Abstract: Historically, the Asian elephant has never bred well in captivity. We have carried out demographic analyses of elephants captured in the wild or born in captivity and kept in forest timber camps in southern India during the past century. The average fecundity during this period was 0.095/adult female/year. During 1969-89, however, the fecundity was higher at 0.155/adult female/year, which compares favorably with wild populations. there was a seasonality in births with a peak in January. The sex reation of 129 male to 109 female calves born is not significantly different from equality, although the excess of male calves born mainly to mothers 20-40 years old may have biological significance. Mortality rates were higher in females than in males up to age 10, but much lower in females than in males above age 10 years. The population growth rate, based on fecundity during 1969-89, was 1.8% per year. The analyses thus showed that timber camp elephants in southern India could potentially maintain a stationary or increasing population without resorting to captures from the wild. Breeding efforts for elephants in zoos can thus profitably learn from the experience of traditional management systems in parts of Asia.

Hama, N., Murata, K., Yasuda, S., Shimada, A., Sakai, H., Yanai, T., 1996. An autopsy case of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) which died without clinical signs. Japanese Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 1, 49-53.

Kubinski, T., Maciak, T., Sawicka-Wrzosek, K., 1996. Microbial flora isolated postmortem from internal organs in zoo animals in Warsaw. Magazyn Weterynaryjny 5, 236-240.

Kurt, F., Mar, D.K., 1996. Neonate mortality in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). International Journal of Mammalian Biology 61, 155-164.
Abstract: One third of Asian elephants born in European zoos and circuses are stillborn (16.0%) or killed or refused by their mothers (15.7%). Stillbirths and infanticides are rare in extensively kept and wild-living elephants. Infanticide could be related to life history of the mothers: Females which had grown up in the company of an older, motherly female adopted their offsprings without complications. Those having lacked such affection, tended to kill or at least not to adopt their neonates. Stillborn calves show higher neonate weights (124.6 +/- 20.8 kg) than surviving calves (92.0 +/-27.6 kg). Positive correlations were found between gestation period and neonate weight as well as between neonate weight and relative weight (body weight/shoulder height) of the mother. As female elephants in modern zoos and circuses are relatively heavier than those living in Asian camps, they produce calves after longer gestation periods (644.4 +/- 19.5 days) with larger neonate weights (105.6 +/- 26.6 kg) than extensively kept females in Asia (598.1 +/- 51.6 days; 74.0 +/- 21.6 kg). Chances to survive parturition are negatively correlated with length of gestation and neonate weight.

Richman, L.K., Montali, R.J., Cambre, R.C., Lehnhardt, J., Kennedy, M., Kania, S., Potgieter, L. Endothelial inclusion body disease: a newly recognized fatal herpes-like infection in Asian elephants. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 483-486. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Boomker, J., Bain, O., Chabaud, A., Kriek, N.P.J., 1995. Stephanofilaria thelazioides n. sp. (Nematoda: Filariidae) from a hippopotamus and its affinities with the species parasitic in the African black rhinoceros. Systematic Parasitology 32, 205-210.
Abstract: Stephanofilaria thelazioides sp. nov. is described and figured from an ulcerated skin lesion on a hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius from the Kruger National Park, South Africa. This nematode is closely related to S. dinniki, a parasite of the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis in Africa, but differs from it in the number of cuticular spines surrounding the mouth, the arrangement of the cloacal papillae and the measurements of the spicules, gubernaculum and microfilariae. Species of the genus Stephanofilaria possess spines on the head which have been derived by modification of the sensory papillae. S. thelazioides is the most primitive species of the genus and has the least modified arrangement of these papillae, with 6 bifid internal labial spines, 4 bifid external labial spines and 4 cephalic papillae. The genus appears to have diversified in various mammals which have in common a thick skin, such as rhinoceroses, elephants, buffaloes and now the hippopotamus. It appears to have become adapted secondarily to domestic bovines, initially in Asia and subsequently in North America.

Grobler, D.G., Raath, J.P., Braack, L.E.O., Keet, D.F., Gerdes, G.H., Barnard, B.J.H., Krick, N.P.J., Jardine, J., Swanepoet, R., 1995. An outbreak of encephalomyocarditis-virus infection in free ranging African elephants in the Kruger National Park. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 62, 97-108.
Abstract: An increase in unexplained elephant mortality was seen in the Kruger National Park (KNP) from December 1993 to November 1994, concurrent with a wide-spread increase in the KNP rodent population. The majority of animals were found dead. Examination of carcasses ruled out common causes of death, including poaching, anthrax, intraspecific fighting, and intoxication. Sixty-four animals died from unexplained causes during the perceived outbreak, 83% of which were adult bulls. Eight carcasses were in sufficiently good condition for tissues to be collected for diagnostic testing. Cardiac failure appeared to be the most likely cause of death in seven of the animals, with gross findings of pulmonary edema, hepatic congestion, ascities, and hydrothorax. Myocarditis and necrosis of myocytes were the most striking findings on histopathological examination. Heart tissue from three animals was submitted for virus isolation; all three yielded encephalomyocarditis (EMC) virus. Serologic testing for EMC virus antibody was performed on the KNP between 1984 and 1994. Results demonstrated that the virus has been present in the KNP from 1987 on. EMC virus antibody was not detected in preserved rodent tissues until 1993, prior to the rodent population explosion and the outbreak of disease in elephants. It is unclear whether rodents play a role in transmitting the virus to other animals or if they reflect a general circulation of the virus in multiple species in a given environment. One lion cub which was found dead with bacterial pneumonia had a serum neutralizing antibody titer to EMC virus of 128. It is hypothesized that this animal may have been predisposed to pneumonia through the formation of lung edema as a result of EMC virus infection. Three lions that were seen feeding on the carcass of an elephant with lesions compatible with EMC virus infection were monitored for seroconversion, which did not occur. EMC virus disappears rapidly from most tissues after death and probably was not present in the tissues consumed by the lions. The predilection for male elephants could not be explained, although increased mortality among males has also been demonstrated with EMC virus in mice.

Krishnamurthy, V., 1995. Reproductive Pattern in Captive Elephants in the Tamil Nadu Forest Department: India. In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 450-455.
Abstract: The Forest Department of the State of Tamil Nadu (formerly the Madras Presidency) in India has been capturing and maintaining elephants for more than 130 years. These elephants which are mainly utilised for timber extraction work are stationed in forest camps. The elephants are maintained as mixed herds, and able to socialize both when they are in camp or when they are let out for foraging in the forests. Records were maintained on the various aspects of elephant management which included the breeding records in captivity of all elephants, varying over periods of time. From these records the birth of 210 elephant calves over a period of 104 years could be collected and the data analysed. The average fertility of the captive population particularly during the last two decades compares favourably with wild population both in Asia and Africa. A peak in births was observed during the early dry season i.e. in the months of January and February. The sex ratio at birth is not statistically significantly different from 1:1. The active reproductive phase in cow elephant extended over 40 years. During earlier periods the mortality rate among captive born calves was high, but by better management practices the mortality rate has been considerably reduced, particularly during the last two decades.

Brain, C., Fox, V.E.B., 1994. Suspected cardiac glycoside poisoning in elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 65, 173-174.
Abstract: Two young (< 2 years old) elephants (Loxodonta africana) died suddenly and simultaneously at Ongava Game Reserve bordering on the Etosha National Park, Namibia. Both elephants showed lung congestion, epi- and endocardial haemorrhages and hyperaemic areas in the mucosa of the stomach and small intestine. Histopathology of the myocardium showed multifocal degeneration and necrosis of muscle fibres accompanied by haemorrhages. Parts of the leaves of the alien plant Cryptostegia grandiflora (Asclepiadaceae) were found in the intestinal tracts of the elephants. These findings suggested that the elephants died from heart failure after ingesting this plant which contains cardiac glycosides.

Lindeque, P.M., Turnbull, P.C., 1994. Ecology and epidemiology of anthrax in the Etosha National Park, Namibia. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 61, 71-83.
Abstract: Analysis of mortality records has revealed distinct patterns in the incidence of anthrax in elephant and plains ungulates. The seasonal peak among the former is in November and the end of the dry season, while among the latter it occurs in March towards the end of the rainy season. Among elephants, there has been a notable spread of the disease to the west of the Park. Age and sex analysis indicate that, except for zebra, proportionally greater numbers of adult males die of anthrax among the species predominantly affected; however, zebra carcasses are difficult to sex. In a study to identify possible environmental sources of infection, B. anthracis was detected in 3.3% of 92 water and 3.0% of 230 soil samples collected at different times of the year from 23 sites not associated with known cases of anthrax. Slight seasonal differences were noted with 5.7% positives occurring in the cold-dry period (May to August), 3.5% in the hot-dry season (September to December) and 1.4% in the hot-wet season (January to April). Higher rates (2.6% of 73 samples) were found in water from waterholes in the western part of the Park at the time of an outbreak in elephants. The possible importance of scavenger faeces was confirmed with >50% of vulture, jackal, and hyaena faeces collected from the vicinity of confirmed anthrax carcasses yielding B. anthracis, sometimes in substantial numbers, while no spores were found in faeces not associated with known anthrax carcasses. Despite terminal B. anthracis levels of usually >107 cfu/ml in the blood of animals dying of anthrax, spore levels in soil contaminated by such blood at sites of anthrax carcasses ranged from undetectable to a few tens of thousands. The rapid loss of viability in soil and water of anthrax bacilli, was monitored experimentally and the importance of soil type demonstrated. Survival and extent of sporulation of the bacilli in water were shown to be dependent on the rate at which the blood was diluted out. Other relevant parameters examined were background flora, pH and sunlight.

Mikota, S.K., Sargent, E.L., Ranglack, G.S., 1994. Medical Management of the Elephant. Indira Publishing House, West Bloomfield MI.

Singh, K.P., Srivastava, V.K., Prasad, A., Pandey, A.P., 1994. Pathology due to Fasciola jacksoni in Indian elephants (Elephas indicus). Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 64, 802-804.
Abstract: F. jacksoni recovered from infected liver and lungs were almost round, pear-shaped measuring 10-16 mm in length and 8.5-14 mm in width with ill-defined cephalic end between indistinct shoulders. The intestine was extensively branched. The yellowish tinged ova were oval with an operculum at one end and measured 0.112-0.160 (mean 0.13) mm in length and 0.054-0.096 (mean 0.07) mm in width. Infected liver showed haemorrhagic tracts, thickening of bile ductules, cirrhotic changes and pseudolobulations. In the lungs, the bronchial lumen contained desquamated cells admixed with fibrinohaemorrhagic exudate.

Wallace, C., Byron, T.H., Foerner, J.J., Weston, H., Kilpatrick, J., Jastremski, M.S. Clinical case report: the medical management and treatment of a 36 year old premiparturient Asian elephant cow with a dystocia and following a Caesarian section. 1994.
Ref Type: Unpublished Work
Abstract: The medical history and management of a 36 year old premiparturient Asian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) with a dystocia requiring a caesarian section are discussed. The examination and complete medical evaluation to determine the health of the cow and viability and position of the calf are described. The medical management of the post-operative complications and the changes in complete blood counts, differential, serum biochemistry values and urinalysis prior to the elephant's death are described. Complications included peritonitis with systemic sepsis, renal failure, and hepatic failure. Pertinent necropsy findings on the cow included severe diffuse subacute peritonitis, uterine transmural necrosis, diffuse renal tubular nephrosis, and hepatic centrolobular degeneration.

Anderson, W.I., Cummings, J.F., Steinberg, H., De-Lahunta, A., King, J.M., 1993. Subclinical lumbar polyradiculopathy, polyneuritis and ganglionitis in aged wild and exotic mammalians. Journal of Comparative Pathology 109, 89-91.
Abstract: Subclinical lumbar polyradiculopathy was present in the intradural dorsal and ventral nerve rootlets of 19 aged individuals of the following wild and exotic mammalian species: woodrat, raccoon, mink, lynx, reindeer, red deer, musk ox, scimitar-horned oryx, Arabian oryx, hybrid waterbuck, Persian onager, Przewalski's wild horse, Malayan sun bear, Asian elephant, East African river hippopotamus, vervet monkey and rhesus monkey. It was characterized by mild to severe multifocal ballooning of myelin sheaths. Occasionally, ballooned myelin sheaths contained thin strands of myelin and macrophages surrounding distorted axons. Additionally, a mild incidental lymphocytic polyneuritis was present in intradural nerve rootlets of the Malayan sun bear, and moderate lymphocytic spinal ganglionitis in the East African river hippopotamus.

Berry, H.H., 1993. Surveillance and control of anthrax and rabies in wild herbivores and carnivores in Namibia. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office International des Epizooties 12, 137-146.
Abstract: Anthrax has been studied intensively in Etosha National Park, Namibia since 1966; in addition, since 1975, mortality due to rabies and all other causes has been recorded, totaling 6190 deaths. Standard diagnostic procedures demonstrated that at least 811 deaths (13%) were due to anthrax and 115 deaths (2%) were caused by rabies. Of the total number of deaths due to anthrax, 97% occurred in zebra (Equus burchelli), elephant (Loxodonta africana), wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) while 96% of rabies deaths occurred in kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), jackal (Canis mesomelas), bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis) and lion (Panthera leo). Anthrax deaths were highest in the rainy season for zebra, wildebeest and springbok, while elephant mortality peaked during dry seasons. No statistical relationship existed between seasonal rainfall and overall incidence of either anthrax or rabies. Control of anthrax is limited to prophylactic inoculation when rare or endangered species are threatened. Incineration of anthrax carcasses and chemical disinfection of drinking water are not feasible at Etosha. Rabies control consists of the destruction of rabid animals and incineration of their carcasses when possible.

Chakraborty, A., Chaudhury, B., 1993. Spontaneous aortic lesions in captive wild herbivores. Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology 17 , 36-40.

Johnsingh, A.J.T., Joshua, J., Ravi, C., Ashraf, N.V.K., Krishnamurthy, V., Khati, D.V.S., Chellam, R., 1993. Etorphine and acepromazine combination for immobilising wild Indian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 90, 45-49.

Sukumar, R., Santiapillai, C., 1993. Asian elephant in Sumatra Population and Habitat Viability Analysis. Gajah 11, 59-63.

Chakraborty, A., Chaudhury, B., Rahman, H., Hussain, A., Baruah, M.C., 1992. Intussusception and gangrene in elephants. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 164-165.

Chakraborty, A., Chaudhury, B., 1992. Pathology of Fasciola jacksoni infestation in elephants. Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology 16, 98-101.
Abstract: Fasciola jacksoni infection was discovered in 2 out of 3 elephants autopsied at Assam State Zoo, India, during 1985 to 1989. The parasites were attached to biliary epithelium. Microscopy demonstrated that the biliary epithelium was distorted by necrotic tissue which contained erythrocytes and ova of F. jacksoni. The epithelium was analyzed by X-ray microanalysis, which showed that the infected epithelium contained aluminum, silicon, calcium and iron, while non-infected, normal biliary epithelium contained only phosphorus and sulfur. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that both the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the parasite possessed spines.

Kharchenko, V.A., Marunchin, A.A., 1992. Helminths of mammals in the Kiev zoological park. Vestnik Zoologii 3, 61-63.
Abstract: Necropsy of 6 animals that died in the Kiev Zoo, Ukraine, revealed the presence of Trichuris trichiura and Subulura distans in Macaca nemestrina, Prosthenorchis elegans in Saimiri sciureus, Murschidia murchida and Hawkesius hawkesi in Elephas maximus and T. globulosa in Giraffa camelopardalis. No helminths were found in Equus hemionus and Felis lynx. The deaths of M. nemestrina and S. sciureus were attributed to the helminth infections. The results of the examination of faeces of other zoo animals for helminth ova are also presented.

Vijayan, N., Gangadharan, B., Rajan, A., 1992. An autopsy study on certain diseases of captive elephants. Indian Journal of Wildlife Health Management 1, 16-22.

Wood, D.T., 1992. Oesophageal choke in an African elephant. Veterinary Record 131, 536-537.
Abstract: A young African elephant suffered a fatal obstruction of the caudal oesophagus caused by an ingested apple. This report describes the attempts made to relieve the obstruction and the subsequent post mortem findings.

Basson, M., Beddington, J.R., May, R.M., 1991. An assessment of the maximum sustainable yield of ivory from African elephant populations. Math Biosci 104, 73-95.
Abstract: A general, logistic population model is used to explore the dynamics of harvested elephant populations. The model includes two features peculiar to elephant populations and the harvesting of ivory. First, because of the shape of the growth curve of tusks with age, the conversion factor that relates the number of elephants killed to the ivory yield in weight is not constant, but a function of the population size. Second, tusks from animals that die from natural causes can be retrieved and included in the total yield of ivory. The implications of the relationship between tusk size and age of an animal on the maximum sustainable yield in terms of ivory tonnage and in terms of the number of tusks are explored. The nonequilibrium implications of the tusk growth curve on the population dynamics under different harvesting strategies are also investigated. Results indicate that the maximum sustainable yield is achieved at very low harvest rates with population levels close to the pristine equilibrium. When tusks from animals that die of natural causes are included in the harvest, the maximum yield may, depending on the mortality and recruitment parameters,
occur when there is no direct harvest.

1990. The story of Babe, the Asian elephant. Veterinary Viewpoints 2.

Metzler, A.E., Ossent, P., Guscetti, F., Rubel, A., Lang, E.M., 1990. Serological evidence of herpesvirus infection in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 26, 41-49.
Abstract: In mid 1988 a 3-yr-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) from a circus in Switzerland died following generalized manifestation of a herpesvirus infection. In an effort to determine prevalence of infection with the herpesvirus, and due to lack of a corresponding virus isolate, it was decided to evaluate contact animals and elephants from a second herd for antibody to bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV1) and bovine herpesvirus 2 (BHV2). Of 15 sera tested four displayed low neutralizing antibody titers to BHV2. None of the sera neutralized BHV1. However, as evidenced by protein A-mediated immunoprecipitation of metabolically radio- labeled virus-infected and mock-infected cell antigens, followed by separation of precipitation products in SDS-polyacrylamide gels, the 15 sera precipitated multiple antigens from both viruses. Similar results were obtained when using BHV4 antigens. The extent of reaction was most distinct with respect to BHV2 antigens, less prominent with BHV1 antigens, and least with BHV4 antigens. The respective protein patterns, although less marked, matched well with those obtained with bovine reference sera. Additional evaluation of sera from six elephants from two zoos in the Federal Republic of Germany gave essentially identical results. It was concluded that at least one herpesvirus, immunologically related to BHV2, may be widely distributed among captive Asian elephants, and that this virus apparently does not cause overt disease in the majority of animals

Oosterhuis, J.E., 1990. The performance of a caesarian section on an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus). Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 157-158.

Ossent, P., Guscetti, F., Metzler, A.E., Lang, E.M., Rubel, A., Hauser, B., 1990. Acute and fatal herpesvirus infection in a young Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Vet. Pathol. 27, 131-133.
Abstract: Infections with herpesvirus may cause papillomatous lesions in the Asian and African elephant. In both species, the virus has been reported to localize only in the skin. Disseminated nodules of epithelial cells were found in the lungs of a high percentage of wild African elephants. In these cases, the proliferated cells contained intranuclear inclusion bodies in which herpesvirus particles were observed by electron microscopy. The virus in those cases caused no illness. This report documents the necropsy findings of a juvenile Asian elephant dying peracutely from massive generalized hemorrhage due to lesisons in the endothelial cells of the capillaries. The cell nuclei frequently contained inclusion bodies in which herpesvirus particles were demonstrated. This has not been described in elephants before.

Pade, K., Ruedi, D., Pilaski, J., Heldstab, A., Muller, M. Lethal outbreak of pox among five Asian elephants of a German travelling circus. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 32. Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo und Wildtiere vom 23. Mai bis 27. Mai 1990 in Eskilstuna. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des 32. Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere vom 23. Mai bis 27. Mai 1990 in Eskilstuna , 147-155. 1990. Berlin, German Democratic Republic, Akademie Verlag.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Fong, T. Alling elephant is put to sleep at Denver Zoo. The Rocky Mountain News Feb. 12. 1989.
Ref Type: Newspaper
Abstract: Full text: Vicky the elephant is dead. The Denver Zoo's only African elephant was given a lethal injection yesterday, 24 hours after she suddenly sat down, let out a cry, rolled onto her left side and never got up again. "She made several feeble attempts to move," said Richard Cambre, the zoo's veterinarian. "We made her peaceful and comfortable but she did not get up." Vicky collapsed once before, on Jan. 17, but with the help of Mimi, a 32-year-old Asian elephant, she got on her feet again. At the time, veterinarians thought Vicky had suffered a bad reaction to a tranquilizer and was suffering a liver ailment. However, Cambre said that subsequent blood test showed that she had a severe vitamin E deficiency that contributed to muscle degeneration in her hind legs and she was given a new alcohol form of the vitamin as a supplement with her grain. After she collapsed yesterday, more blood tests showed that Vicky had no vitamin E, despite the supplement. Although zoo officials decided to let her have the night to try to get up again, they reluctantly decided to put her to sleep. In the meantime, Vicky's death may do some good. Her skeleton has been donated to the Denver Museum of Natural History. The skeleton won't be put on display but will be used for muscle and bone research and classes on comparative anatomy of animals. The zoo also would have it for classes. Vicky's organs will be sent to research labs and zoos around the country that have need of them. Tissue samples from her body will also remain with the Denver Zoo for analysis and research on the strange vitamin E deficiency that has already killed three other elephants in Canada and the U.S. in the past year.

Ramsay, E.C., Leach, M.W. Postmortem reproductive findings in a female Asian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 55. 1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Sukumar, R., 1989. Population dynamics. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 174-201.

Sukumar, R., 1989. Elephant slaughter by people. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 165-173.

Wells, S.K., Gutter, A.E., Soike, K.F., Baskin, G.B., 1989. Encephalomyocarditis virus: Epizootic in a zoological collection. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 20, 291-296.
Abstract: Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) was isolated from eight nonhuman primates, one Thomson's gazelle (Gazella thomsoni), and one dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) that died peracutely between January 1985 and October 1987 at Audubon Park Zoo, New Orleans, Louisiana. Gross pathology consisted of excessive pericardial fluid, epicardial hemorrhages, and pale foci within the myocardium. Microscopic changes included myofiber necrosis, edema, and mononuclear cell infiltration within the myocardium. Anti-EMCV antibody was found in a variety of species including a capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), which subsequently died of a necrotizing myocarditis but from which virus was not isolated. Although one hospital staff member had a high anti-EMCV antibody titer, all primate keepers were seronegative. Encephalomyocarditis virus was recovered from 38 wild rodents, one opposum (Didelphis virginiana), and one rabbit (Sylvilagus sp.) collected on the zoo grounds. Fifty-five percent of the positive samples were found in areas where confirmed deaths had occurred or antibody-positive animals were housed. A killed vaccine was developed and administered to six domestic cats, 12 primates, and one camel. Antibody response to vaccination was variable.

Chooi, K.F., Zahari, Z.Z., 1988. Salmonellosis in a captive Asian elephant. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 19, 48-50.
Abstract: Salmonella blockley was isolated from an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) with intestinal lesions in Malaysia. A second elephant that died with similar lesions also was suspected to have Salmonella sp. This is the first case of salmonellosis in an Asian elephant from Malaysia.

Gaskin, J.M. Encephalomyocarditis: A potentially fatal virus infection of elephants. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 9. 133-136. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Landres, L. Death among captive elephants: Behavioral observations and management considerations. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 9. 81-89. 1988.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Gaskin, J.M., Andresen, T.L., Olsen, J.H., Schobert, E.E., Buesse, D., Lynch, J.D., Walsh, M., Citino, S., Murphy, D., 1987. Encephalomyocarditis in zoo animals: Recent experiences with the disease and vaccination. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Zoological and Avian Medicine 491.
Abstract: Encephalomyocarditis (EMC), a specific viral infection caused by a group of antigenically related viruses in the family Picornaviridae, a genus of Cardiovirus, continues to be a source of sporadic mortality loss in zoo animals in Florida. Deaths in a young Nyala antelope, 2 chimpanzees, 3 llamas, a two-toed sloth, 3 ringtail lemurs, a ruffed lemur, and an orangutan have recently been confirmed by virus recovery. Experimental vaccine trials were initiated in pygmy goats, Barbados sheep, and white mice using B-propiolactone inactivated virus preparations. Various adjuvants, including aluminum hydroxide, mineral oil, and dimethyl dioctadecyl ammonium bromide (DDAB) were used to enhance the immune responses to inactivated virus. The vaccine preparations produced varying levels of hemagglutinations-inhibition (HI) antibodies in the immunized animals. Experimental challenge of unvaccinated weaned pigs, pygmy goats, and Barbados sheep demonstrated that, although they seroconverted, they did not become ill when exposed to the virulent EMC virus strains used in this study. Laboratory mice, however, proved to be very susceptible when exposed to these same strains, and either died acutely or developed posterior paresis and paralysis subsequent to challenge. All experimental vaccine preparations protected mice against challenge. In vaccinated goats and sheep, the oil-emulsion-adjuvanted and DDAB-adjuvanted vaccines produced the highest and most persistent HI antibody titers. Sera obtained from African elephants were screened for HI antibodies to EMC virus. Ninety-three African elephant sera from the Kruger National Park in the Republic of South Africa had titers of less than 10 hemagglutination-inhibition units (HIU) while 4 of 76 imported juvenile African elephants had titers from 10-40 HIU and the rest had no titer. EMC virus infections are apparently acquired in Florida from reservoir hosts and HI titers of 40 HIU or higher indicate subclinical infection with the virus. Experimental vaccines may help prevent EMC in susceptible species; HI responses to vaccination in various exotic species are being evaluated.

Morris, P.J., Held, J.P., Jensen, J.M. Clinical pathologic features of chronic renal failure in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Proc.1st.Intl.Conf.Zool.Avian Med. 468-472. 1987.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Rubel, A. Physiological and pathological conditions associated with reproduction of female Asian elephants at the Zurich zoo. Proc.1st.Intl.Conf.Zool.Avian Med. 379. 1987.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Seaman, J.T., Finnie, E.P., 1987. Acute myocarditis in a captive African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 23, 170-171.

1986. Briefly...Death of a desert elephant. Oryx 20, 49.
Abstract: Complete text: An elephant calf died in Western Damaraland when its herd was being driven towards a US television crew by a helicopter. It was shot after it fell and broke its leg in rough terrain. Damaraland conservationist Garth Owen-Smith said that the permit issued to Mr. Jan Oelofse, a game-capture expert, for the exercise should have stipulated that a nature conservator be present. He also said it was particularly tragic that one of Damaraland's elephants should die in this way because the population had begun to increase for the first time in 15 years after a successful anti-poaching campaign. Windhoek Advertiser, 12/13 August 1985.

Jensen, J. Paralumbar kidney biopsy in a juvenile African elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 17. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Same case as Ref # 305.

Johnson, B., Burton, M., Qualls, C.W., Jr., 1986. Interstitial pulmonary fibrosis in an African elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 189, 1188-1190.

Raphael, B.L., Clubb, F.J., 1985. Atypical salmonellosis in an African elephant. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 57.

Scott, W.A., 1984. Salmonellosis in an African elephant. Veterinary Record 115, 391.

Vitovec, J., Kotrla, B., Haji, H., Hayles, L.B., 1984. Fatal infection of an elephant calf caused by the trematode Protofasciola robusta (Lorenz, 1881) in Somaliland. Zentralbl. Veterinarmed. [B]. 31, 597-602.

1983. Accidental electrocution. Med. Leg. Bull. 32, 1-6.

Griner, L.A., 1983. Mammals. Order proboscidea. Pathology of Zoo Animals. Zoological Society of San Diego, San Diego, CA.

McGavin, M.D., Walker, R.D., Schroeder, E.C., Patton, C.S., McCracken, M.D., 1983. Death of an African elephant from probable toxemia attributed to chronic pulpitis. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 183, 1269-1273.
Abstract: A 31-year-old captive male African elephant (Loxodonta africana) of 5,000-kg body weight died suddenly in ventral recumbency. Lesions seen at necropsy were bilateral purulent pulpitis and periodontitis of both tusks, serous atrophy of coronary groove fat, Grammocephalus cholangitis, myocardial and skeletal lipofuscinosis, and scattered segmental necrosis in the pectoral muscles. Nonhemolytic streptococci, Corynebacterium sp, Pertostreptococcus anaerobius, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and Bacteroides sp were recovered from the exudate around one or both tusks. We postulated that the elephant died of hypoxia from prolonged ventral recumbency because of weakness and inability to rise secondary to toxemia from bilateral pulpitis and periodontitis.

Saunders, G., 1983. Pulmonary Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a circus elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 183, 1311-1312.

Schmidt, M.J., 1983. Antagonism of xylazine sedation by yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine in an adult Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 14, 94-97.
Abstract: Heavy xylazine sedation was successfully antagonized by intravenous injection of yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) in an adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) prior to euthanasia. A total xylazine dose of 1,200 mg intramuscularly plus 600 mg intravenously (approximately 0.33 mg/kg body weight) was given resulting in heavy sedation. After 50 minutes of deep recumbent sedation, 425 mg yohimbine and 1,000 mg of 4-AP were administered intravenously. Xylazine sedation was antagonized and the elephant was up and walking around within 5 minutes of antagonist administration. The elephant remained standing for other 3 hours; at which point euthanasia was performed. Comment: Report concerns animal with arthritis and chronic foot problems.

Five elephants plunge over cliff. The Ann Arbor News May 15. 1982.
Ref Type: Newspaper

Circus elephant electrocuted. The Oakland Press June 9, A2. 1982.
Ref Type: Newspaper

Boyce, L., Sayer, P., Inima, A.A., 1982. Fatal enteritis in a repatriated African elephant. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 75-76.

Jones, W.D., Jr., Good, R.C., 1982. Hazel elephant redux (letter). Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 125, 270.
Abstract: Full text. A recent letter from Greenberg, Jung and Gutter reported the untimely death of Hazel Elephant with Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. The authors concluded that the animal trainer, who was found to have cavitary tuberculosis, was probably the source of infection. The conclusion was based on data available at the time. The isolates from Hazel Elephant and the animal trainer were submitted to us for further study the state health departments of Louisiana and Florida. Using the methodology and classification scheme previously described, we found that the cultures were of different phage types. The isolate from the elephant was type A₀ (7), and the isolate from the trainer was type A₁ (7,13,14). The isolates differed by lysis with one major phage (MTPH 5) and two auxiliary phages (MTPH 13 and 14). We have previously used phage typing of M. tuberculosis in several well-defined outbreaks as an adjunct to other epidemiologic procedures. The isolates were typed without the laboratory's knowing epidemiologic relationships between cases. The results indicated that M. tuberculosis transmitted from one individual to another retained the same phage-type characteristics. In the present study, our phage-type results suggest that the animal trainer and the elephant were infected from two different sources and that occurrence of disease in the animal and the trainer was coincidental. We are still evaluating page typing as a procedure for use in tuberculosis epidemiology and can accept selected cultures for phage typing in special situations if we are contacted before the cultures are submitted.

Paynter, D., 1982. Death of Shingwidzi. African Wild Life 36, 70.

Shoshani, J., Alder, R., Andrews, K., Baccala, M.J., Barbish, A., Barry, S., Battiata, R., Bedore, M.P., Berbenchuk, S.A., Bielaczyc, R., Booth, G., Bozarth, N., Bulgarelli, M.A., Church, I., Cosgriff, J.W.Jr., Crowe, H., DeFauw, S.L., Denes, L., Efthyvoulidis, E., Ekstrom, M., Engelhard, J.G., English, P., Fairchild, D.Jr., Fisher, C., Frahm, K., Frederick, D., Fried, J., Gaskins, T., Gatt, J., Gentles, W., Goshgarian, H.G., Grabowski, S., Haase, D., Hajj, K., Hall, G., Hawkins, D., Heberer, C., Helinski, A., Henry, S.R., Heyka, C., Hurt, M., Kemppainen, M., Kendra, C., Koenig, J., Konarske, P., Konwinski, S., Kopacz, S., Lakits, V.T., Jr., Lash, S.S., Laughlin, D.C., Meyers, S., Mizeres, N.J., Morehead, K.M., Muraski, A., Murphy, S., Niebala, J., Overbeck, G., Powitz, R., Rafols, J.A., Raymer, S.L., Rezzonica, L., Rossmoore, H.W., Sabo, D., Schwikert, P.J., Shy, E., Skoney, J., Smith, D., Spodarek, K.L., Sujdak, P.J., Tarrant, T., Thielman, R., Tisch, F., Wolowicz, L., Williams, J., Yehiel, D., 1982. On the dissection of a female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus maximus Linnaeus, 1758) and data from other elephants. Elephant 2, 3-93.
Abstract: A 46-year-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus maximus Linnaeus, 1758), named "Iki", died on July 8, 1980, at the Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey Circus, Circus World, Haines City, Florida, USA. She was transported to Detroit and was dissected by the Elephant Interest Group (EIG) and friends, Department of Biological Sciences, Wayne State University. The purpose of this continuing study has been to collect data supplemental to that of previous workers, and to enrich knowledge of elephant anatomy, particularly in areas not thoroughly investigated in the past. Some of these findings were compared to those observed in other elephants: "Shirley", "Tulsa", and "Toose" and to the organs of "Ole Diamond" and "Hazel" (see Appendix II).

Greenberg, H.B., Jung, R.C., Gutter, A.E., 1981. Hazel Elephant is dead (of tuberculosis) (letter). Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 124, 341.
Abstract: Full text. Hazel Elephant was only 35 years old (by our estimate) when she died. She was cooperative and trusting to the last. Had we known about her illness sooner, we could have saved her. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis, var hominis that killed Hazel was sensitive to our drugs at the following levels: INH to 0.2mcg/ml; PAS to 2 mcg/ml; R to 1 mcg/ml; and MAB to 5 mcg/ml. Hazel worked and performed for a travelling circus. Ordinarily good-humored and loving, she had been off her feed for weeks. She became listless and apathetic, her eyes lost their sparkle, and she lacked her customary elan. Nonetheless, Hazel continued to perform for the children and do her other chores until she came to New Orleans. When Hazel got to New Orleans, she could barely move. The circus's bosses called for help. The brought her to the hospital at the Audubon Park and Zoological Garden. As soon as we saw Hazel, we admitted her to the isolation ward. We have her fluids, electrolytes, and antibiotics. We got cultures and other clinical laboratory tests. We comforted Hazel and tried to put her at ease. It was too late. She fell to the ground, her rheumy eyes gazed at us pitifully, her respirations failed, and she died. Hazel's postmortem examination took six hours. She was an emaciated Asian elephant whose lungs were filled with caseating granulomata. Since microscopy showed myriads of acid-fast bacilli, we examined everyone who had, or who thought they had, contact with Hazel. We found three persons with positive tuberculin skin test results. None had tuberculous disease. Fortunately, Hazel had been kept away from other animals. Hazel's circus did not wait for the results of our autopsy. It left Louisiana. The U.S. Public Health Service tracked it down and found the man, an animal trainer with cavitary tuberculosis, who probably gave Hazel her fatal disease. Now another health department will have to deal with the circus and its animals.

Gutter, A. Mycobacterium tuberculosis in an Asian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 105-106. 1981.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Mann, P.C., Bush, M., Jones, D.M., Griner, L.A., Kuehn, G.R., Montali, R.J. Leiomyomas of the genital tract in large zoo mammals. Laboratory Investigation 44[1], 40A. 1981.
Ref Type: Abstract
Abstract: From the 70th Annual Meeting of the International Academy of Pathology, U.S.A. -- Canadian Division, Chicago, Ill,USA, March 2-6, 1981. Abstract. "Leiomyomas of the female genital tract occurred in four Indian rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicoris) and three Indian elephants (Elephas maximus indicus) exhibited at the National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C., Regent's Park Zoo, London, England, San Diego Zoo, San Diego, California, and Los Angeles Zoo, Los Angeles, California. The majority of the animals were aged without recent reproductive activity. Tumors were mainly in the vaginal tract in the rhinoceros and the uterus of the elephants. The tumors in two of the three rhinoceroses were discovered clinically via rectal palpation. A postmortem examination of the rhinoceros at the National Zoo showed endometrial cysts and a large (25 cm) follicular cyst of one ovary. Ovarian cysts were also found in one of the elephants. The tumors consisted of circumscribed collections of interlacing, well differentiated, smooth muscle-like cells with varying amounts of connective tissue. The uterine tumors were all intramural, whereas the vaginal tumors in the rhinoceros were often pedunculated. Although intrauterine leiomyomas (fibroids) are extremely common in women, they are very rare in domestic animals. The role of hyperestrinism in leiomyoma induction remains controversial in humans, and is presently unknown in animals. The prevalence of cystic ovaries and reproductive difficulties may indicate a hormonal relationship with leiomyomas in zoo animals as well."

McGavin, M.D., Schroeder, E.C., Walker, R.D., McCracken, M.D., 1981. Fatal aspiration pneumonia in an African elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 179, 1249-1250.

Brown, T.M., Clark, H.W., Bailey, J.S., 1980. Rheumatoid arthritis in the gorilla: A study of mycoplasma-host interaction in pathogenesis and treatment. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Comparative Pathology of Zoo Animals. Smithsonian Institution, Washington,D.C., pp. 259-265.
Abstract: Rheumatoid arthritis in a gorilla was first observed at the National Zoo in 1969. As the result of our preliminary report, several other gorillas were recognized to have similar symptoms. These true animal models have been observed for seven to nine years with highly successful therapeutic results based upon a pathogenetic concept developed over a 30-year period in a study of the disease in humans. The seriousness of arthritis in the gorilla is reflected by the reports we have received in the past few years of a total of 26 additional captive gorillas variously affected. The systemic aspects of rheumatoid arthritis, such as failure to gain weight and grow normally, hot and swollen joints, migratory arthritis, severe localized muscular atrophy, generalized weakness and depression, presented classical evidence of the rheumatoid disease pattern. Remission occurred in one pregnant gorilla, and a flare reaction followed delivery, which is characteristic of the disease pattern in the human counterpart. Laboratory studies were in support of rheumatoid disease. Immunoglobulin alterations were noted with reversed A/G ratios and elevations of IgC and IgM. Positive bentonite flocculation rheumatoid factor tests were observed, and a positive lupus erythematosus (LE) test was noted in one animal. Abnormal hematologic findings were frequent, with increased sedimentation rates and lymphocytosis. Evidence of mycoplasma association was indicated by complement-fixing antibody response, positive cultures, and demonstration of the mycoplasma antigen in the tissue. Of greatest significance were the induced rise and subsequent fall of mycoplasma antibodies resulting from the challenge to the host with antimycoplasma medication and the production of the Jarisch-Herxheimer flare response. All these mycoplasma relationships have been found in man with the additional demonstration of delayed-type skin reaction with mycoplasma antigen. It has been stressed that in infectious hypersensitivity, the microbial source is obscured, yet it must be defined and the proper therapy planned on an individualized basis. The medication must be given in relatively small, intermittent dosage to avoid the development of delayed hypersensitivity which negates the drug effect. Until more effective medications are developed, the treatment must also be administered over an extended period of time to achieve permanent control of the disease. The demonstration of the importance of the pathogenesis concept speaks for itself in the final analysis with the recovery of severely disabled gorillas. In conclusion, it would appear that a study of rheumatoid arthritis in the gorilla and man, approached from the point of view of comparative pathology and medicine, has opened a new direction for an understanding of the pathogenesis of this complex disease. From these studies, one can now visualize for the first time that rheumatoid arthritis in the gorilla and in man is a controllable and potentially curable disease. It seems that new thinking in regard to further demonstrations of etiologic associations must be given to all species where tissue hypersensitivity to microbial agents is basic. It is suggested that Koch's postulates were not designed to include this area of pathogenesis where the role of the host is as significant as that of the parasite--an omission which has delayed the development of new knowledge in this area for a half a century. Is not the time at hand to revise our concepts and move in a new direction?

Gaskin, J.M., Jorge, M.A., Simpson, C.F., Lewis, A.L., Olson, J.H., Schobert, E.E., Wollenman, E.P., Marlowe, C., Curtis, M.M., 1980. The tragedy of encephalomyocarditis virus infection in zoological parks of Florida. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1-7.

1979. "Motty" -- Birth of an African/Asian elephant at Chester Zoo. Elephant 1, 36-40.

Garlt, C., Kiupel, H., Ehrentraut, W., 1979. Botulism in elephants. Erkrankungen der Zootiere 13, 207-211.

Ralls, K., Brugger, K., Ballou, J., 1979. Inbreeding and juvenile mortality in small populations of ungulates. Science 206, 1101-1103.

Rathore, B.S., Khera, SS. Mortality in elephants in India. State Level Workshop on Elephants. 75. 1979. India, College of Veterinary and Animal Sicences, Kerala Agricultural University.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding

Caple, I.W., Jainudeen, M.R., Buick, T.D., Song, C.Y., 1978. Some clinicopathologic findings in elephants (Elephas maximus) infected with Fasciola jacksoni. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 14, 110-115.
Abstract: Severe submandidular and ventral abdominal edema was observed in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in which liver flukes ( Fasciola jacksoni) were recovered from the bile ducts at post-mortem examination. Clinico-pathologic examination of blood samples and serum from this elephant and another 8 elephants showed that most had anemia and hypoproteinemia. Fecal samples from 6 of the elephants contained from 6 to 83 eggs per gram. Treatment of elephants with nitroxynil (10 mg/kg) by subcutaneous injection produced severe local reactions at the injection site. Feces collected 2 and 4 months after treatment were free of trematode eggs. Hematologic values measured 4 months after treatment showed that the hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, erythrocyte count and plasma protein concentration had increased to within the normal range.

Mollel, C.L., 1978. Cervico-vaginal prolapse in an African elephant. East African Wildlife Journal 16, 59.

von Richter, W., Drager, N., Patterson, L., Sommerlatte, M., 1978. Observations on the immobilization and marking of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Botswana. Akademie-Verlag 14, 185-191.
Abstract: 58 elephants were successfully immobilized in their natural environment in the Chobe Nation Park and on privately owned farms in Botswana using a drug mixture of etorphine (M99 Reckitt) and acetylpromazine. The specific antidote cyprenorphine (M285 Reckitt) was used in most cases to resuscitate the animals. One known mortality occurred. For the long term monitoring of social organization and long and short term movements collars manufactured from machine belting and fitted with colour codes or symbols proved most satisfactory. Stamping the tusks near the lip provided a permanent marking although not useful for field observation. Various other marking techniques were tested but were considered unsatisfactory for long term identification. Various behavioral aspects associated with the immobilizing of elephants are described and discussed.

Effron, M., Griner, L., Benirschke, K., 1977. Nature and rate of neoplasia found in captive wild mammals, birds, and reptiles at necropsy. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 59, 185-198.
Abstract: The nature and rate of neoplasia found at necropsy of captive wild animals of the Zoological Society of San Diego collection were studied. Neoplasia was present at necropsy in 2.75% of 3,127 mammals, 1.89% of 5,957 birds, and 2.19% of 1,233 reptiles. Neoplasms were not detected during 198 necropsies of amphibians. Gross and histologic examinations were performed on the 92 mammalian, 111 avian, and 28 reptilian neoplasms. The lesions were diagnosed. The findings included a high frequency of lymphosarcomas in birds and reptiles, multiple endocrine tumors in 2 European mouflons (Ovis musimon), and proliferative lessions of the billiary duct and pancreatic ductal systems in several species. Note: Only elephant tumor is Asian female--Papillomatous tumor of vulva.

Simpson, C.F., Lewis, A.L., Gaskin, J.M., 1977. Encephalomyocarditis virus infection of captive elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 171, 902-905.
Abstract: Four Asian elephants at each of 2 widely separated zoologic gardens in Florida died following a fulminating illness. Tissue suspensions obtained from an elephant from each of the zoologic gardens were inoculated into newborn mice, 3- to 4-week-old mice, buffalo green monkey and baby hamster kidney cell cultures. Encephalitis and myocarditis developed in the mice. The cell cultures were destroyed within 24 to 72 hours, and intracytoplasmic viral inclusions were observed in infected cells by electron microscopy. The viral agent was neutralized by known antiserum to encephalomyocarditis virus.

Burke, T.J., 1975. Probable tetanus in an Asian elephant. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 6, 22-24.

Huber, D., Kardum, P., Gomercic, H., 1975. Blood vessels of the fore limb in Indian elephant, Elephas maximus. Veterinarski Arhiv 45, 311-320.

Alford, B.T., Burkhart, R.L., Johnson, W.P., 1974. Etorphine and diprenorphine as immobilizing and reversing agents in captive and free-ranging mammals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 164, 702-705.
Abstract: Summary: Etorphine, an opium alkaloid derivative of thebaine, and its specific antagonist, diprenorphine, were evaluated by research workers and zoo veterinarians in captive and free-ranging animals. An intramuscular injection of etorphine usually resulted in rapid immobilization, sedation, analgesia, and muscle relaxation in Equidae, Ursidae, Cervidae and Bovidae, when given at a rate of 0.44, 0.5, 0.98 and 1.09 mg/45 kg (100 lb.), respectively. Satisfactory immobilization was usually achieved within 5 to 15 minutes after intravenous administration of diprenorphine at twice the etorphine dosage. Procedures performed after etorphine administration included dehorning, blood sampling, tail docking, antibacterial injection, radiography, orthopedic surgery, and obstetrical manipulation. Side effects were commonly noticed in free-ranging mammals. The type and degree of reaction varied according to the species and included tachycardia, bellowing, bradycardia, respiratory depression, opisthotonos, muscular tremors, mydriasis, and hyperpyrexia. Of 1,600 animals tested, 2.9% died as a result of severe heat prostration, inhalation pneumonia, respiratory depression, severe excitement due to underdosing, cardiac arrest, and inapparent disease.

Brummer, H., Scheurmann, E., 1973. Euthanasia on an elephant. Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 86, 94.

Decker, R.A., Krohn, A.F., 1973. Cholelithiasis in an Indian elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 163, 546-547.
Abstract: Cholelithiasis with accompanying dilation of the bile ducts was found on necropsy on a young Indian elephant ( Elephas maximus). Salmonella london was isolated from a composite of minced intestine, liver, spleen and heart.

Gainer, B., 1973. A joint injury in an elephant. East African Wildlife Journal 11, 209.

Warwick, M., 1973. Death of a young elephant. East African Wildlife Journal 161.

Sokoloff, J., 1972. The pathology of rhematoid arthritis and allied disoders. In: Hollander, J.L., McCarty, D.J. (Eds.), Arthritis and Allied Conditions. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia,PA, pp. 309-332.

Windsor, R.S., Ashford, W.A., 1972. Salmonella infection in the African elephant and black rhinoceros. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 4, 214-219.
Abstract: Salmonellosis in two captive African elephants and a black rhinoceros is described. Necropsy findings and characteristics of the salmonellae isolated are outlined. Possible sources of infection are discussed and on the basis of their findings, the authors make recommendations for the care of newly captured wild animals.

Basson, P.A., McCully, R.M., de Vos, V., Young, E., Kruger, S.P., 1971. Some parasitic and other natural diseases of the African elephant in the Kruger National Park. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 38 , 239-254.

Prescott, C.W., 1971. Blackleg in an elephant. Veterinary Record 88, 598-599.

Rao, A.T., Acharjya, L.N., 1970. A case of fibrosarcoma in a baby elephant. Indian Veterinary Journal 47, 593.

Greve, J.H., 1969. Strongyloides elephantis sp.from an Indian elephant, Elephas indicus. Journal of Parasitology 55, 498-499.
Abstract: Strongyloides elephantis sp.parasitic females were recovered from the small intestine of a captive Indian elephant suffering from multiple parasitism. Principal features of S. elephantis are its size (2.6 to 3.6 mm), the presence of nontwisted ovaries, salient vaginal musculature and vulvar lips, and the posterior position (73% of the body length from anterior end) of the vulva. Intrauterine eggs measured 23 by 49 microns. The form passed in the feces and free-living forms were not observed.

Short, R.V., 1969. Notes on the teeth and ovaries of an African elephant of known age. Journal of Zoology (Lond) 158, 421-425.
Abstract: A captive female African elephant, known to be 27 years old, died as a result of trauma. Her growth rate was similar to that of other captive African elephants, and slightly greater than that of wild animals. The 5th molar was in full wear, and the 6th was just coming into wear. There was extensive dental caries of the labial, lingual and occlusal surfaces of the 5th molars, presumably due to the unnatural diet. The ovaries contained a large number of cystic follicles, and at least 50 regressing corpora lutea. These abnormalities are probably related to the fact that the elephant had never been mated.

Sikes, S.K., 1969. Habitat and cardiovascular diseases, observations made on elephants (Loxodonta africana) and other free-living animals in East Africa. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 32, 1-104.
Abstract: A field survey to investigate the ecology of cardiovascular disease in free-living East African wild animals is described. Its aim was to assess the susceptibility of such animals to arteriosclerosis, and particularly to atherosclerosis, and to examine in greater detail the ecology of cardiovascular disease in a single, naturally-susceptible species in relation to dietary change and stress in naturally occurring situations. A total of 201 specimens, representing 43 species of mammals and 25 of birds, was examined: 37 species of mammals had uncomplicated lipid deposits in the arterial intima, thought to represent a normal physiological occurrence; ten had atheroma-like lesions of the intima, and a number had medial sclerosis and/or other arteritides. Twenty species of birds had intimal lipid deposits. The African elephant was selected for special study. The ecology of its cardiovascular disease patterns was studied in three different habitat types: one "natural" (the "control") and two degenerate ("stressed" or "disturbed"). Atherosclerosis and medial sclerosis were not found in elephants living in the "natural" habitat type, but were correlated with habitat degeneration in the other two "stressed" or "disturbed" ranges, where potential "stress" factors included excessive continuous exposure to sunlight, dietary changes, frustration of the migratory habit, disrupted calving patterns, and over-population. Neither disease was found to be directly related to age, and each had a distinct intra-arterial development pattern: the aetiology of each is therefore thought to be basically independent, although in advanced cases interaction had occurred. Incidental original observations include comparisons, in various species, or the functional anatomy of the arterial supportive thickenings at ostia, bifurcations and regions of mechanical strain in relation to the normal intra-aortic distribution of intimal lipid deposits; a note on the nutrition of the Spring hare; a note on the formulation of a new field technique for assessing relative age in the African elephant; notes on abnormalities other than cardiovascular disease, and discussion on ecological data collected which may have practical relevance to current problems of wildlife management.

Sikes, S.K., 1968. The disturbed habitat and its effect on the health of animal populations, with special reference to cardiovascular disease in elephants. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 61, 160-161.

Sikes, S.K., 1968. Observations on the ecology of arterial disease in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Kenya and Uganda. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 21, 251-273.
Abstract: Complete aortae, and samples of selected arteries, were recently collected for detailed study from forty African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Kenya and Uganda. In every case a wide range of additional data was obtained, relating to the status of each individual elephant from which the material was collected and its ecological background. These elephants were collected from three distinct habitat types, and a correlation is indicated between the occurrence of certain arterial abnormalities which have been found in the elephants and ecological differences in the habitat types. It seems possible that the effects of the modern human pressures, which frequently directly affect the vegetational cover, soil character and animal migrations in a given environment, may also indirectly influence the behaviour patterns and physiological rhythms of the elephants. Such combined pressures may also result in nutritional imbalance, influencing calcium and lipid metabolism, and producing associated changes in the arterial structure.

Sikes, S.K. A survey of cardiovascular disease in free-living wild animals with particular reference to the African elephant. 1967. England, Ph.D. Thesis, London University.
Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation

Ratnesar, P., 1966. Can elephants transmit disease to man? Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69, 215-216.

Seneviratna, P., Wettimuny, S.G., Seneviratna, D., 1966. Fatal tuberculosis pneumonia in an elephant. Veterinary Medicine Small Animal Clinician 60, 129-132.
Abstract: A fatal case of tuberculosis pneumonia with anemia and helminthiasis in a Ceylon elephant is reported. Acid-fast organisms resembling Mycobacterium tuberculosis and tubercular nodules were seen in large numbers in sections of the lung.

West, L.J., Pierce, C.M., 1962. Lysergic acid diethylamide: Its effects on a male Asiatic elephant. Science 138, 1100-1103.
Abstract: Summary:Researchers gave LSD to a zoo elephant in order to "induce a behavioral abberation that might resemble the phenomenon of going on musth." Elephant cause of death was asphixiation secondary to laryngeal spasm.

Hashimoto, Y., Yamauchi, S., Yasunobo, E., 1956. Dissection of an elephant. Bulletin University Osaka Prefecture series B 6, 30-52.

Lindsay, S., Skahen, R., Chaikoff, I.L., 1956. Arteriosclerosis in the elephant. Arch. Pathol. 61, 207-218.

Nicholson, B.D., 1956. The African elephant: How to shoot it humanely, when necessary. African Wild Life 10, 25-36.

Taylor, J.I., 1955. The rearing of an African elephant in captivity. Veterinary Record 67, 301-302.

McGaughey, C.A., Schmid, E.E., Velaudapillai, T., Weinman, A.N., 1953. Salmonella typhimurium in young elephants and chimpanzees. Veterinary Record 65, 431-432.

Sutherland, A.K., O'Sullivan, P.J., Ohman, A.F.S., 1950. Helminthiasis in an elephant. Australian Veterinary Journal 26, 88-90.

Buttiauz, R., Gaumont, R., 1948. Infection mortelle d'un elephant par Salmonella oslo. Bull. Acad. Vet. Fr. 21, 399-342.

Pfaff, G., 1940. Diseases of Elephants. Superintendent, Govt. Printing and Stationary, Burma, Rangoon.

Curasson, G., 1936. Treatise on the pathology of exotic animals. Vigot Freres, Paris.

Morris, R.C., 1935. Death of an elephant (Elephas maximus Linn.) while calving. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 37, 722.

Morris, R.C., 1935. Death of 14 elephants (Elephas maximus Linn.) by food poisoning. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 37, 722-723.

Datta, S.C.A., 1934. Report of the pathology section. Ann. Rep. Imp. Inst. Vet. Research Muktesar 25-33.

Beckett, J., 1932. Death of an elephant from rabies. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 36, 242-243.

Scott, H.H., 1927. Report on the deaths occurring in the society's gardens during the year 1926. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 1927, 173-198.

Coyler, E.J., 1926. The pathology of the teeth of elephants. Dental Record 46, 1-80.

Todd, T.W., 1913. Notes on the respiratory system of the elephant. Anatomischer Anzeiger 44, 175-183.

Bland-Sutton, J., 1910. The diseases of elephants' tusks in relation to billiard balls. The Lancet 2, 1534-1537.

Shaw, W., 1900. Castration of an elephant. Veterinary Journal of London,N. S. 2, 151-152.

Bonvicini, A., 1897. Necropscopia di una elefantessa Cisti d'echinococco nel fegato e nei polmoni. Bologna.
Abstract: Note: Citation may be incomplete. May be a book.

Busch, F., 1890. Ueber Verletzungen, Abscesse und Dentikel am Stosszahn des Elephanten. Dtsch. Mschr. Zahnheilk. 8, 62-65.

Garrod, A.H., 1875. Report on the Indian elephant which died in the society's gardens on July 7th, 1875. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 1875, 542-543.

Mullen, A., 1682. An anatomical account of the elephant accidentally burnt in Dublin, on Fryday, June 17, in the year 1681. London.

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