|
.
... |
Elephant
Bibliographic
Database
www.elephantcare.org
References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent
first.
Banerjee, A.,
2008. Lucky escape after elephant gore injury of the chest. Emerg. Med.
J. 25, 828.
Wiedner, E.B.,
Gray, C., Rich, P., Jacobson, G.L., Isaza, R., Schmitt, D., Lindsay, W.A.,
2008. Nonsurgical repair of an umbilical hernia in two Asian elephant
calves (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 39, 248-251.
Abstract: Umbilical hernias were diagnosed in two captive-born, female
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) calves several weeks after birth. Daily
manual reduction of the hernias for 5 wk in the first case and for 5 mo
in the second resulted in complete closure of the defects. Nonsurgical
repair of uncomplicated, fully reducible umbilical hernias in Asian
elephants can be an alternative to surgery
Fraunfelder,
F.T., Finnegan, M., Wilson, D.J., 2006. Conjunctival-corneal
intraepithelial neoplasm in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). J. Zoo.
Wildl. Med. 37, 424-426.
Abstract: An adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) presented
with an enlarging nasal limbal mass of the left eye. The mass was
excised and the surgical bed treated with liquid nitrogen cryotherapy.
Histopathologic examination of the excised tissue showed the mass to be
a superficial dysplastic ocular lesion, or conjunctival intraepithelial
neoplasm. A 5-yr follow-up period has passed without complications or
recurrence, suggesting that as is the case in humans (Homo sapiens),
excision and cryotherapy is an effective treatment for these lesions in
elephants. This is the first report of any ocular neoplasia in an
elephant
Shakespeare,
A., Steyl, J., Strydom, S., 2006. Investigating the depth of thermal
burns in elephants
375. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 77, 134-140.
Abstract: Histological examination of burn injuries in elephants
revealed that the depth was not as severe as expected from clinical
observation. Although the actual burn depth was deep, the thickness of
elephant skin, especially the dermis, resulted in the lesions being
classified as less severe than expected. Examination of skin samples
from selected areas showed that most lesions were either superficial
(1st degree) or superficial partial-thickness (superficial 2nd degree)
burns with the occasional deep partial thickness (deep 2nd degree)
wound. These lesions however, resulted in severe complications that
eventually led to the death of a number of the elephants
Stetter, M.,
Hendrickson, D., Zuba, J., Stretter, K., Grobler, D., van Altena, J.J.,
Small, L.-A. Laparoscopic vasectomy as a potential population control
method in free ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana).
Proceedings International Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium.
177. 2006. 2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Wynne, J.,
Greer, L. Management of digital osteomyelitis in an Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus).
2006 Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 185-186.
2006.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: A 47-yr-old female Asian elephant was diagnosed with
osteomyelitis of the left front digit 5, involving phalynges 1 and 2.
Based on culture results of Pseudomonas and Bacteroides, enrofloxacin
and metronidazole rectal suppository treatment was started. Serum levels
were measured and different formulations were developed to attempt to
deliver appropriate drug levels. The osteomyelitis progressed over the
next 55 days. Enrofloxacin was discontinued based on culture and
sensitivities (C&S) and regional limb perfusion (RLP) using amikacin
started. From this point on, daily treatments with RLP have been
performed. The 3-g amikacin dose was based on 5% of the elephant's
systemic dose. Two weeks later, RLP with 6 g of ampicillin was started
on alternate days based on C&S, and the following week, 400 mg
fluconazole was added on a third day in response to C&S and tissue
biopsies indicating invasive Candida. Despite aggressive medical
therapy, radiographs and bone biopsy indicated the osteomyelitis
continued. Surgery was performed 3 mo after systemic antibiotics were
initiated. All infected bone and tissue was identified with methylene
blue, and removed. Only the most proximal third of P1 remained post
surgery. Post surgery, daily sterile bandage changes were performed and
rotational RLP treatment was continued with amikacin (8 g), ampicillin
(15 g), and fluconazole (800 mg). This daily treatment regime, with
some drug adjustments, has been continued for 6 mo. One month after
surgery P1 was radiolucent at the distal margin, and was progressing to
a fragmented appearance, indicating the osteomyelitis may still be
present. Amikacin serum levels were collected post RLP, before the
tourniquet was removed. Systemic theraputic levels were reached, but
not the recommended 10 times MIC. Amikacin was replaced with 12 g of
ceftazidime in the RLP rotation. Two months post surgery a fragment of
the remaining P1 was easily biopsied from the healing surgical tract
with culture results indicating Enterococcus, but not Pseudomonas. Three
months post surgery we reinstituted enrofloxacin suppositories at a
higher dose. At 5 mo post surgery, cultures indicated that we had
successfully eliminated Pseudomonas and anaerobic growth; however, the
healing site continued to yield various gram-negative bacteria,
including a Klebsiella resistant to ceftazidine. We replaced
ceftazidine with 12 g of ceftriaxone and continued ampicillin and
fluconazole in the 3-day RLP rotation. Since this last medical
alteration the remaining P1 fragments have been radiographically
unchanged for 3 mo and the surgical wound has been reduced to a tract
that is <2 mm in diameter and 4 cm deep. The current success of this
treatment is attributed to a very tractable patient that has allowed
daily medical care for over 8 mo. We are continuing her daily treatments
and I will give an update on the progression of the case.
Naz, R.K.,
Gupta, S.K., Gupta, J.C., Vyas, H.K., Talwar, A.G., 2005. Recent
advances in contraceptive vaccine development: a mini-review
577. Hum. Reprod. 20, 3271-3283.
Abstract: Contraceptive vaccines (CV) may provide viable and valuable
alternatives to the presently available methods of contraception. The
molecules that are being explored for CV development either target
gamete production [luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH)/GnRH,
FSH], gamete function [sperm antigens and oocyte zona pellucida (ZP)],
and gamete outcome (HCG). CV targeting gamete production have shown
varied degrees of efficacy; however, they either affect sex steroids
causing impotency and/or show only a partial rather than a complete
effect in inhibiting gametogenesis. However, vaccines based on LHRH/GnRH
are being developed by several pharmaceutical companies as substitutes
for castration of domestic pets, farm and wild animals, and for
therapeutic anticancer purposes such as in prostatic hypertrophy and
carcinoma. These vaccines may also find applications in clinical
situations that require the inhibition of increased secretions of sex
steroids, such as in uterine fibroids, polycystic ovary syndrome,
endometriosis and precocious puberty. CV targeting molecules involved in
gamete function such as sperm antigens and ZP proteins are exciting
choices. Sperm constitute the most promising and exciting target for CV.
Several sperm-specific antigens have been delineated in several
laboratories and are being actively explored for CV development. Studies
are focused on delineating appropriate sperm-specific epitopes, and
increasing the immunogenicity (specifically in the local genital tract)
and efficacy on the vaccines. Anti-sperm antibody (ASA)-mediated
immunoinfertility provides a naturally occurring model to indicate how a
vaccine might work in humans. Vaccines based on ZP proteins are quite
efficacious in producing contraceptive effects, but may induce
oophoritis, affecting sex steroids. They are being successfully tested
to control feral populations of dogs, deer, horses and elephants, and
populations of several species of zoo animals. The current research for
human applicability is focused on delineating infertility-related
epitopes (B-cell epitopes) from oophoritis-inducing epitopes (T-cell
epitopes). Vaccines targeting gamete outcome primarily focus on the HCG
molecule. The HCG vaccine is the first vaccine to undergo Phase I and II
clinical trials in humans. Both efficacy and lack of immunopathology
have been reasonably well demonstrated for this vaccine. At the present
time, studies are focused on increasing the immunogenicity and efficacy
of the birth control vaccine, and examining its clinical applications in
various HCG-producing cancers. The present article will focus on the
current status of the anti-sperm, anti-ZP, anti-LHRH/GnRH and anti-HCG
vaccines
Stetter, M.,
Grobler, D., Zuba, J.R., Hendrickson, D., Briggs, M., Castro, L.,
Neiffer, D., Terrell, S., Robbins, P.K., Stetter, K., Ament, B.S.,
Wheeler, L. Laprascopic reproductive sterilization as a method of
population control in free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta
africana). 2005 Proceedings AAZV, AAWV, AZA Nutrition Advisory
Group. 199-200. 2005.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abou-Madi,
N., Kollias, G.V., Hackett, R.P., Ducharme, N.G., Gleed, R.D., Moakler,
J.P., 2004. Umbilical herniorrhaphy in a juvenile Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus)
696. J. Zoo. Wildl. Med. 35, 221-225.
Abstract: An umbilical hernia was diagnosed in a 2-wk-old Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus) by physical and ultrasonographic examinations.
Umbilical herniorrhaphy was elected because the defect was large
(approximately 7 cm long and 10 cm deep) and could potentially lead to
incarceration of an intestinal loop. General anesthesia was induced with
a combination of ketamine, xylazine, and diazepam and maintained with
isoflurane in oxygen. The hernial sac was explored and contained fibrous
tissue, fat, and an intestinal loop but no adhesions. The hernial sac
was resected and the body wall closed using the technique of simple
apposition. Following a superficial wound infection, the surgical site
healed with no further complications.
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Strike, T., Flach, E., Sambrook, B.S., Dodds, J., Lindsay, N.,
Goeritz, F., Hermes, R., McGowan, M. Fetotomy in the elephant. Proc Amer
Assoc Zoo Vet. 89-92. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: There were several reports about dystocia and its treatment in
elephants since they were kept in captivity in western zoos and safari
parks. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Especially in the last
two years there has been a dramatic accumulation of reports about birth
associated problems (Tab. 1). Causes for this development are probably
the intensified captive elephant breeding programs and the involvement
of more older nulliparous cows.
Over the last 100 years, there were more dystocia cases in captive Asian
elephants than in African elephants. 7 However, this
difference seems to be abolished with enhanced number of pregnancies in
African elephants by now. The fact of an increased percentage of
dystocia cases in both species can have two consequences for captive
management. Firstly, older nulliparous cows will be strictly excluded
from breeding in the future or secondly, the birth management will be
improved.
Three (Table 1, Em 4, 5; La 3) of 10 cows died from the consequences of
dystocia in western zoological institutions over the last two years.
Totally, there were eleven cases of fatal dystocia cases listed in the
literature since 1972 (Table 2). 5, 6, 7 The seven cesarian
performed (Table 2) as the ultimate intervention to treat the dystocia
in elephants ended all with euthanasia or death of the females. The
following presentation will described a potential new way of birth
management in the elephant, the fetotomy. The authors believe that the
fetotomy is prospective tool instead of the unsuccessful cesarian for
saving the life of the dam with severe dystocia. This method is
recommended by the authors as an ultimate tool besides all the other
important preparations in pregnant cows for an upcoming birth. Most
important classical preparations are following: (I) intensive physical
exercise, (ii) optimization of the body weight with a pregnancy
associated diet, (iii) training for safe handling in case of necessary
intervention in free or protected contact. The fetotomy was never
applied before in elephants because of the limited exploration field and
the high degree of skeleton calcification in comparison to domestic and
exotic hoofstock.
In this particular case it was firstly tried to remove the dead fetus by
episiotomy. 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10 However, the episiotomy attempt
failed due to he inability to extract a dead oversized or malpositioned
fetus. From the two options to leave the dead fetus inside the uterus
despite the surgically opened genital tract or to cut out parts of the
fetus it was decided to perform a fetotomy. The initial hesitation to
perform such drastic and complicated procedure led to the complication
of an emphysemic fetus and progressive peritonitis in the female even
before the procedure started. Fetus was successfully removed in six
parts using an extra long and durable carthorse embryotom (Thygesen's
type). Unfortunately, the patient died 3 days later because of the
treatment resistant peritonitis.
In conclusion, it was demonstrated that fetotomy can successfully be
applied in elephants. The authors suggested in order to achieve a
positive outcome for the dam to decide on such ultimate intervention
earlier in the dystocia process. Active elephant birth management should
always be prepared for dystocia treatment ranging from (I) the
administration of oxytocin, (ii) rectal massage of the caudal birth
channel, (iii) episiotomy to the last option (iv) of fetotomy to safe
the life of the mother. Based on the complex preparation for an
elephant birth and the knowledge about the huge range of potential
complications it is advised to consult veterinary elephant specialists
well in advance to ensure maximum expertise and experience.
Acknowledgements
The authors like to thank Charlie Gray who helped us to collect the
relevant data from the dystocia cases and the elephant staff from
Whipsnade Wild Animal Park for their active support. We also like to
acknowledge professor Peter Glatzel, DVM and Andrea Krause for helping
with the logistic preparation.
Literature cited
1.Lang, E.M. 1963. Geburtshilfe bei einem Indischen Elefanten. Acta
Trop. 20, 87-114.
2.Merkt, H., D., Ahlers, H., Bader, H.-P., Brandt, M., Boer and L.
Dittrich.
1985a.
Bildbericht über den Auszug eines toten Elefantenfetus (Elephas
maximus) am 645.
Tag
p.c. und 65 Stunden nach Geburtsbeginn via Damschnitt (vorläufige
Mitteilung).
Praktischer Tierarzt 5: 377-378.
3.Merkt, H., D., Ahlers, H., Bader, H.-P., Brandt, M., Boer and L.
Dittrich.
1985b. Der
Damschnitt, eine geburtshilfliche Interventionsmöglichkeit bei einer
Elefantenkuh. Deutsche tieraerztliche Wochenschrift 92: 428-432.
4.Merkt, H., D., Ahlers, H., Bader, D., Rath, H.-P., Brandt, M., Boer
and L. Dittrich. 1986. Nachbehandlung und Heilungsverlauf bei einer
Elefantenkuh nach Geburtshilfe durch Damschnitt. Berliner Münchner
Tierärztliche Wschrift 99: 329-333.
5.Furley, C.W. 1993. A caesarean section in an elephant (The first in
europe). Help-Newsletter,15: 2931.
6. Foerner, J.J. 1998. Dystokia in the Elephant. In: Fowler, M. E. & E.,
Miller (eds.): Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine. 4. Ed. W. B. Saunders
Company, 522-525.
7.Lange, A., T.B., Hildebrandt, G., Strauss, O., Czupalla, F., Goeritz
and W. Schaftenaar. 1999. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Geburtshilfe bei
Elefanten. Verhandlungsbericht Erkrankungen der Zootiere 39: 47-58.
8.Fluegger, M., F. Goeritz, R. Hermes, E. Isenbuegel, A. Klarenbeek, W.
Schaftenaar, K. Schaller and G. Strauss. 2001. Evaluation of
physiological data and veterinary medical experience in 31 Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus) births in six European zoos.
Verhandlungsbericht Erkrankungen der Zootiere, 40: 123-134.
9.Schaftenaar, W. 1996. Vaginal Vestibulotomy in an Asian Elephant (Elephas
maximus). 1996 Proceedings American Association Zoo Veterinarians,
434-439.
10. Schaftenaar, W., T.B., Hildebrandt, M., Fluegger, F., Goeritz, D.J.,
Schmidt, and G. West. 2001. Guidelines for veterinary assistance during
the reproductive process in female elephants. Proceedings American
Association Zoo Veterinarians, 348-355.
Note: See source for Table 1: Dystocia cases in captive elephants in the
last 2 yr and Table 2: Known dystocia cases with a fatal oucome for the
dam
Hildebrandt,
T.B., Strike, T., Flach, E., Sambrook, L., Dodds, J., Lindsay, N.,
Furley, C.F., Glatzel, P.S., McGowan, M., Wisser, J.ed., Hofer, H.e.,
Frolich, K. Fetotomy in the elephant. Erkrankungen der Zootiere.
315-318. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Sarma, B.,
2003. Foot care and common surgical disorders of elephants. In: Das, D.
(Ed.), Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants. Project
Elephant. Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp. 141-144.
Sleeman, J.M.,
Clyde, V.L., Finnegan, M.V., Ramsay, E.C., Shires, M.G., 2003. Mammary
botryomycosis and mastectomy in an African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). Vet Rec 152, 54-55.
Steenkamp,
G., 2003. Oral biology and disorders of tusked mammals. Veterinary Clin
North Am Exot Anim Pract. 6, 689-725.
Abstract: Tusked mammals can be terrestrial or aquatic. Many of these
magnificent animals are kept in captivity all over the world. Functions
of tusks vary as much as the species in which they occur. Dental
anomalies and disorders of tusks and the rest of the dentition in these
mammals were discussed, with an emphasis on the elephant. The tusk
anatomy, with its large, conically-shaped pulp, makes it an ideal tooth
for partial pulpectomy treatment in trauma cases where the pulp is
exposed. Surgical techniques for tusks have been developed and were
discussed. Oral tumors occur, but are rare.Department of Companion
Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of
Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0010, South Africa. steenkamp@op.up.ac.za
Zuba, J.R.,
Stetter, M.D., Dover, S.R., Briggs, M. Development of rigid laparoscopy
techniques in elephants and rhinoceros. Proc Amer Assoc Zoo Vet.
223-227. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Diagnostic and surgical laparoscopy has become a routine
procedure in human and veterinary medicine and has similar potential
uses in zoological medicine. Surgical telescopes and fiberoptic cables
allow the veterinarian to look inside body cavities of the patient and
specialized instruments provide the ability to perform a wide variety of
diagnostic and surgical procedures. Rigid laparoscopy is considered
minimally invasive surgery and is associated with a more rapid
post-operative recovery rate and an improved prognosis as compared to
conventional surgical techniques.3 Laparoscopic surgery is
commonly being utilized in horses and other zoo animals for a variety of
abdominal surgical procedures including tubal ligation and ovariectomy.7,8,12
Recent advances in technology now provide the ability to perform
laparoscopy in the largest mammalian species maintained in zoological
collections.11
A variety of disease problems and reproductive disorders have been
documented in the rhinoceros and elephant. Due to their size and
anatomy, many of the standard diagnostic tests available in human and
veterinary medicine are not routine in these animals (radiography,
advanced imaging techniques, liver biopsy, abdominal tap, etc.) at this
time. Although conventional abdominal surgery has been performed in
rhinoceros and elephants1,5,10 survival rates have been
extremely low. Laparoscopy can provide a variety of additional
diagnostic options, and may also provide an avenue for performing
surgical procedures that would otherwise be impossible in these animals.
A multi-institutional collaboration has been organized to address common
goals with regard to enhancing diagnostic capabilities and improving
surgical techniques in elephants and rhinoceros. Specifically, we are
aiming to: Develop laparoscopic techniques and equipment for use in
rhinoceros and elephants, which can be used to significantly expand our
diagnostic and treatment capabilities in these large mammals. Improve
international conservation efforts in both rhinoceros and elephants by
helping improve animal health and welfare of these species in captive
and free ranging situations.
This collaborative effort has been organized to critically review
current equipment, techniques and uses with the ultimate goal of
overcoming some of the inherent difficulties with laparoscopy in these
large vertebrates. This includes further development and modification
of equipment, investigation of surgical techniques, and expansion of
clinical applications.
Cooperation in the development of innovative surgical equipment for the
anatomic variety of our zoological species is necessary for the
advancement of zoological medicine. Karl Storz Veterinary Endoscopy of
America (KSVEA, Goleta, California 93117, USA) was instrumental in the
initial development of this specialized equipment at the San Diego Wild
Animal Park and by generously providing research and development for our
continuing investigations. The availability of appropriately sized
equipment has limited the application of laparoscopic techniques to
animals of a size consistent with the intended species of its
production. The largest laparoscopy equipment commercially available is
marketed for use in equine medicine (57 cm telescope and accessories).
This system has been used with limited success in rhinoceros11
and elephants. In many cases, to adequately visualize and manipulate
visceral organs, a longer telescope and associated instrumentation is
required. We continue to work closely with KSVEA on the production of
specialized equipment (Table 1). Standard light source, fiberoptic
light cable and electronic insufflator units manufactured for use in
domestic large animals have been used successfully in megavertebrates.
Due to its compact size and versatility, the authors suggest the use of
a portable, battery operated laparoscopy kit (Techno Pack, KSVEA)
(monitor, light source, camera and digital recording device) especially
under field conditions.
To date we have evaluated the utility of specially designed laparoscopic
equipment in approximately seven elephants and four rhinoceros.
Experiences from these limited cases have identified several technical
and procedural challenges, which need to be overcome if megavertebrate
laparoscopy is to be successfully performed.11 Some of these
challenges are summarized below:
Technical challenges:
·Equine
laparoscopic equipment too fragile and/or short for certain surgical
applications in rhinoceros and elephant
·Size
and disposition of megavertebrates (> 1000 kg)
·Thick,
non-pliable, pachydermatous skin puts unusual pressure (and risk of
damage) on equipment
·Insufflation
and illumination of large abdominal cavity
·Great
depth to visualize and physically reach/manipulate large organs
·Thick,
redundant, fibro-elastic peritoneum which is difficult to puncture
during surgical attempts to enter the abdominal cavity
·Influence
of patient positioning: unable to use conventional laparoscopic
positioning techniques in these species
·Both
rhinoceros and elephants are hindgut fermentors and have very large and
extensive lower intestinal tracts. Gas dilation of these bowel loops
combined with limited positioning options, can make laparoscopic
visualization of certain organs a problem
Procedural challenges:
·Cost
of developing new and specialized laparoscopic equipment is high;
duplicate equipment is not available at this time
·Charismatic
nature of megavertebrates makes it difficult to perform surgery on such
important and high exposure species
·Limited
clinical cases for testing equipment due to the relatively low number of
megavertebrates in zoological facilities
·Use
of laparoscopy in zoo mammals may be out of the comfort zone for many
veterinarians and curators due to lack of experience with this
instrumentation
·Lack
of published surgical procedures in these species
·Inability
to perform laparoscopic procedure in "surgical suite" as with most other
species
·Risks
associated with megavertebrate anesthesia and sedation including
difficulty in providing safe anesthetic procedures, proper restraint,
and safety of personnel
A multidisciplinary, systematic approach has been initiated to
critically review current instrumentation and procedures with the
objective of overcoming these technical difficulties.
The initial phase of our project has been to develop laparoscopic
techniques and equipment (Table 1) for use in rhinoceros and elephants
by utilizing individuals that may have died of natural causes, or live
animals with medical conditions that warrant abdominal surgery. We have
already had the opportunity to perform laparoscopic surgery on both live
and deceased white rhinoceros, black rhinoceros, African and Asian
elephants. From our initial studies, it is apparent that laparoscopy in
these megavertebrates is possible and may greatly enhance our ability to
care for and manage these animals in captive and free ranging
situations. The authors have received some funding and institutional
support that allows us to travel to institutions which may benefit from
the use of this equipment and/or our experience. We are also interested
in those zoological institutions which may find themselves dealing with
a terminal case in an elephant or rhinoceros, to please contact us
directly and to consider allowing laparoscopy to be conducted on the
animal prior to a post-mortem examination.
Ultimately, we envision the results of our studies on captive animals to
be applicable to the management and conservation of elephants and
rhinoceros in the wild. A variety of medical disorders are commonly
reported in black and white rhinoceros. Many of these medical
conditions are difficult to diagnose, monitor and treat. Furthermore,
there is a paucity of information on the incidence of these disease
conditions in free ranging populations. The use of minimally invasive
laparoscopic techniques will greatly enhance our diagnostic abilities in
this species and would be extremely valuable to the understanding of
medical conditions of captive and free ranging rhinoceros and to
conservation efforts overall.
Throughout many parts of Africa, wildlife professionals are seriously
concerned about the negative effects large elephant herds are having on
the native flora and fauna within parks and reserves.2,6,9
The historical rangelands of the elephant have become interrupted by
national borders and artificial barriers. Habitats surrounding wildlife
parks are increasingly being converted to agricultural lands. The
encroachment of human populations has caused a dramatic increase in the
number and severity of human-elephant conflicts.2,9 These
conflicts are commonplace in many parts of East and Southern Africa.
Although there have been a variety of plans to reduce human-elephant and
elephant environment impacts, little overall success has been achieved
in most countries.9
Historically elephant population control has primarily been limited to
culling and translocation of small groups.2,6
Immunocontraception has been attempted with a small population of
elephants but is not currently realistic in many situations.4,6
In wildlife parks where large herds of elephants exist there is
currently no effective, humane method of population control.
One of our long-range goals is to develop laparoscopic techniques, such
as ovariectomy and tubal ligation, in free ranging African elephants
that can be used to sterilize reproductive females. Once these
techniques have been developed, it is our intention to train local
wildlife veterinarians and health professionals to perform laparoscopic
sterilization of elephants in the field and thus provide local wildlife
officials with a tool to help manage elephant populations. It is our
hope this will improve conservation efforts across Africa by reducing
human-elephant conflicts and helping to save critical ecosystems.
Acknowledgements
This ongoing project is possible due to the generous contributions of
the following individuals: Hans Lunneman, Christopher Chambliss,
Michele McCutcheon, Lynn Richardson, Dean Hendrickson, Robin Radcliffe,
Rolf Radcliffe, Laurie Gage, Larry Galuppo, Bill Lindsay, John Olsen,
Genny Dumonceaux, and the veterinary staffs at the San Diego Wild Animal
Park and Disney's Animal Programs.
LITERATURE CITED
1.Byron, H., J. Olsen, M. Schmidt, J. Copeland, and L. Byron. 1985.
Abdominal surgery in three adult male Asian elephants. J Am Vet Med
Assoc. 187:1236-1237.
2.Chalfota J. and Owen-Smith N. 1996. Options for the management of
elephants in northern Botswana. Pachyderm. 22:67-73.
3.Cook, R.A., and D.R. Stoloff. 1999. The application of minimally
invasive surgery for the diagnosis and treatment of captive wildlife.
In: Fowler, M., Miller, E. (Eds): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current
Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. Pp 30-40.
4.Delsink, A.K., van Altena, J.J., Kirkpatrick, J. Grobler, D., and
Fayrer-Hosken, R.A. 2002. Field applications of immunocontraception in
African elephants (Loxodonta africana). J Soc.Reprod. Fert. 60:
117-124.
5.Fowler, M.E., and R. Hart. 1973. Castration of an Asian elephant using
etorphine anesthesia. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 163: 539-543.
6.Garai, M.E. 2001. Managing elephants on private reserves in South
Africa. Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research
Symposium. Vienna, Austria. 259-261.
7.Hendrickson, D.A. 2002. New techniques for performing equine
laparoscopic ovariectomy. DVM Best Practices Magazine. Oct. 2002.
8.Hendrickson, D.A., and D.G. Wilson. 1996. Instrumentation and
techniques for laparoscopic and thoracoscopic surgery in the horse. Vet.
Clin. N.A. Equine Pract.12; 2: 235.
9.Hoare, R., Update on the study and management of human-elephant
conflict in Africa. Pachyderm. 33: 91-92.
10.Olsen, J., and H. Byron. 1993. Castration of the elephant. In:
Fowler, M. (Ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3, 3rd
ed. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. Pp. 441-444.
11.Radcliffe R.M., D.A. Hendrickson, G.L. Richardson., J.R. Zuba, and
R.W. Radcliffe. 2000. Standing laparoscopicguided uterine biopsy in a
southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum). J. Zoo
Wildl. Med. 31:201207.
12.Rogerson, D., M. Brown, B. Watt, C. Keoughan, and M. Hanrath. 2002.
Hand-assisted laparoscopic technique for removal of ovarian tumors in
standing mares. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 220(10):1503-1507.
See source for Table 1. Current laparoscopy equipment specifically
manufactured for use in megavertebrates.a
a All equipment was specially manufactured by Karl Storz
Veterinary Endoscopy of America (KSVEA, Goleta, California, USA) and is
not commercially available at this time.
Cheeran, J.V., Radhakrishnan, K., Chandrasekharan, K., 2002.
Musth.
Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7, 28-30.
Nayar, K.N.M.,
Chandrasekharan, K., Radhakrishnan, K., 2002. Management of surgical
affections in captive elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary
Association Kerala 7, 55-59.
Sarma, B.,
Pathak, S.C., Sarma, K.K., 2002. Medetomidine a novel immobilizing agent
for the elephant (Elephas maximus). Research in Veterinary Science 73,
315-317.
Abstract: Medetomidine was injected by the intramuscular route at the
rates of 3 and 5 microg/kg body weight into two groups of Indian
elephants (Elephas maximus). Sedation was induced at 6.20 (0.81) and
5.90 (0.60) min respectively after injection. The duration of
anaesthesia was 66.20 (10.4) and 134.20 (24.12) min, respectively and
recovery occurred at 125.80 (25.23) and 205.89 (29.3) min. The notable
signs of sedation exhibited by the elephants were protrusion of penis,
complete relaxation of trunk, flaccidity of tail and drooping of the
ears with a head down position. During sedation, physiological
parameters recorded were bradycardia, decreased respiration and
hypothermia.
Boardman,
W.S.J., Jakob-Hoff, R., Huntress, S., Lynch, M., Reiss, A., Monaghan,
C., 2001. The medical and surgical management of foot abscesses in
captive Asiatic elephants: case studies. In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L.,
Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University Press,
Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 121-126.
Cooper, R.M.,
Honeyman, V.L., French, D.A., 2001. Surgical management of a chronic
infection involving the phalange of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
In: Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 133-134.
Fagan, D.A.,
Oosterhuis, J.E., Roocroft, A., 2001. Captivity disorders in elephants
impacted molars and broken tusks. Zool. Garten 71, 281-303.
Finnegan, M.,
Monti, M., 2001. Surgical management of phalangeal osteomyelitis in a
female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). In: Csuti, B., Sargent,
E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot. Iowa State University
Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 135-137.
Schmitt, D.,
Krywko, R., Reichard, T.A., Shellabarger, W., Bailey, K., Short, J.
Surgical approach to artificial insemination in elephants. Proceedings
American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of
Wildlife Veterinarians, Association of Reptilian and Amphibian
Veterinarians, and the National Association of Zoo and Wildlife
Veterinarians Joint Conference. 338. 2001. USA. 1.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Artificial insemination is a recent development for assisted
reproduction in elephants. Non-surgical insemination requires a
cooperative elephant, well-habituated to the various procedures. In
addition, a well-trained and equipped insemination team is needed to
successfully complete the procedure. A surgical approach for artificial
insemination in elephants reduces both the technology needed for success
and the level of cooperation needed from the elephant to be
inseminated. The first successful, surgical, artificial insemination
was accomplished by making a 3-cm incision into the urogenital canal
just below the anus. The vestibulotomy incision was guided by the
placement of 8-cm PVC tube with a 3-cm opening at the upper end, up
through the vulva to a level just below the anus. The opening in the
PVC tube was used as a guide by palpating the opening through the skin.
The incision was made following injection of a local anesthetic above
the proposed incision site. The PVC guide prevents incision into the
opposite wall of the urogenital tract. After the incision is complete a
sterile disposable vaginal speculum is introduced into the urogenital
canal. The intact hymen or cervix can be visualized directly with a
flashlight or, for documentation of the procedure, a short endoscope can
be utilized. Placement of semen into the vagina can be accomplished
with little difficulty using sterile disposable horse insemination
pipettes. Multiple inseminations are possible through the incision for
the 2-3 days of estrus. Following the last insemination, a local
anesthetic is administered and the edges of the incision are freshened
and four to six simple interrupted sutures are placed to close the
incision. Healing of the incision requires 4 to 6 weeks with good
aftercare.
Schmitt, D.L.,
Krywko, R.L., Reichhardt, T., Shellabarger, R.W., Bailey, K.M., Short,
J.N. Surgical approach to artificial insemination in elephants. A
Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the
International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11,
2001. 129-131. 2001. Vienna, Austria, Schuling Verlag. 2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Artificial insemination in elephants is a recent development
for assisted reproduction in elephants. Non-surgical insemination
requires both a cooperative and well-habituated elephant to the various
procedures. In addition a well-trained and equipped insemination team is
needed to successfully complete the procedure. A surgical approach for
artificial insemination reduces the technology needed for success and
the level of cooperation needed from the elephant to be inseminated. The
first successful surgical artificial insemination was accomplished by
making a 3cm incision into the urogenital canal just below the anus. The
vestibulotomy incision was guided by placement of an 8 cm diameter PCV
tube, with a 3cm opening near the upper end, through the vulva up to the
level just below the anus. The opening in the PCV tube was used as a
guide by palpating above the proposed incision site. This guide prevents
incision into the opposite wall of the urogenital tract. After the
incision is complete a sterile disposable vaginal speculum is introduced
into the urogenital canal. The intact hymen or cervix can be visualized
directly with a flashlight or, for documentation of the procedure, a
short endoscope can be utilized. Placement of semen into the vagina or
hymen can be accomplished with little difficulty through the incision
for the two to three days of estrus. Following the last insemination, a
local anesthetic is administered and the edges of the incision are
freshened and four to six simple interrupted sutures are placed to close
the incision. Healing of the incision requires four to six weeks with
good aftercare.
Schmitt, D.L.,
Krywko, R., Reichard, T.A., Shellabarger, W. Surgical approach to
artificial insemination in elephants. Kirk Baer, C. and Wilmette, M. W.
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American
Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, Association of Reptilian and
Amphibian Veterinarians and the National Association of Zoo and Wildlife
Veterinarians Joint Conference 2001. 338. 2001. American Association
of Zoo Veterinarians. 9-18-2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Sorensen, D.,
2001. A History of Elephant Foot Care at the Milwaukee County Zoo. In:
Csuti, B., Sargent, E.L., Bechert, U.S. (Eds.), The Elephant's Foot.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, USA, pp. 65-68.
Abstract: The Milwaukee County Zoo's management of foot care for four
female Asian and two female African elephants evolved over the last
twenty years. During this time, we went from virtually no foot care,
through a period of extensive foot care, and finally to the moderate
amount of foot care we currently perform. Problems with overgrown nails
and cuticles, minor to serious nail and pad necroses, and a recurring
open tract in the foot of one of our elephants were treated in a variety
of ways. Methods used included traditional trimming and soaking of the
feet, freezing necrotic tissue, minor surgery, and the wearing of a
protective boot. We are currently experimenting with a polymer-based
floor covering. This chapter presents a brief history of elephant foot
problems seen at the Milwaukee County Zoo and the treatment of those
problems. Examples are given from foot care for only three of our Asian
Elephants. While these elephants shared many of the foot problems
described, each had her own type of problem that is best illustrated by
her particular case. Information was collected principally from medical
records and supplemented with information from keepers' daily report
sheets and my memory of events.
Fowler, M.E.,
Steffey, E.P., Galuppo, L., Pascoe, J.R., 2000. Facilitation of Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus) standing immobilization and anesthesia with a
sling. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 31, 118-123.
Abstract: An Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) required general
anesthesia for orthopedic foot surgery. The elephant was unable to lie
down, so it was placed in a custom-made sling, administered i.m.
etorphine hydrochloride in the standing position, and lowered to lateral
recumbency. General anesthesia was maintained with isoflurane
administered through an endotracheal tube. After surgery, the isoflurane
anesthesia was terminated, with immobilization maintained with
additional i.v. etorphine. The elephant was lifted to the vertical
position, and the immobilizing effects of etorphine were reversed with
naltrexone. The suspension system and hoist for the sling were designed
specifically for the elephant house.
Pandey, S.K.,
2000. Management of sinus due to necrosis of right transverse process of
second lumbar vertebra in an elephant. Zoos' Print Journal 15,
328.
1999. Equine
Medicine and Surgery. Mosby, St. Louis MO USA.
Foerner, J.J.,
1999. Dystocia in the elephant. In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.),
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. W.B. Saunders,
Philadelphia; USA, pp. 522-525.
Lange, A.,
Hildebrandt, T.B., Strauss, G., Czupalla, O., Göritz, F., Schaftenaar,
W., Schmitt, D.L. Feasibilities and limits of obstetrics in elephants.
Verh ber Erkg Zootiere. 47-57. 1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Stegmann, G.F.,
1999. Etorphine-halothane anaesthesia in two five-year-old African
elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of the South African Veterinary
Medical Association 70, 164-166.
Abstract: Anaesthesia of 2 five-year-old female African elephants
(Loxodonta africana) was required for dental surgery. The animals were
each premedicated with 120 mg of azaperone 60 min before transportation
to the hospital. Before offloading, 1 mg etorphine was administered
intramuscularly (i.m.) to each elephant to facilitate walking them to
the equine induction/recovery room. For induction, 2 mg etorphine was
administered i.m. to each animal. Induction was complete within 6 min.
Surgical anaesthesia was induced with halothane-in-oxygen after
intubation of the trunk. During surgery the mean heart rate was 61 and
45 beats/min respectively. Systolic blood pressures increased to 27.5
and 25.6 kPa respectively, and were treated with intravenous azaperone.
Blood pressure decreased thereafter to a mean systolic pressure of 18.1
and 19.8 kPa, respectively. Rectal temperature was 35.6 and 33.9 degrees
C at the onset of surgery, and decreased to 35.3 and 33.5 degrees C,
respectively, at the end of anaesthesia. Etorphine anaesthesia was
reversed with 5 mg diprenorphine at the completion of 90 min of surgery.
Abou-Madi,
N., Kollias, G.V., Sturmer, A.T., Hackett, R.P. Umbilical herniorrhaphy
in a juvenile Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Proceedings AAZV
and AAWV Joint Conference. 212-216. 1998.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Hildebrandt,
T., Goritz, F., Pratt, N.C., Schmitt, D., Quandt, S., Raath, J.P.,
Hofmann, R.R., 1998. Reproductive assessment of male elephants (Loxodonta
africana and Elephas maximus) by ultrasonography. Journal of
Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 29, 114-128.
Abstract: Transrectal ultrasonography was performed on five wild and two
captive male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and four
captive male Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to develop
standards for assessment of reproductive health and status. The entire
internal urogenital tract was visualized ultrasonographically by using a
3.5 MHz or a 7.5 MHz transducer in combination with a probe extension
adapted for elephant anatomy. The findings were verified by postmortem
ex situ ultrasound examinations in several individuals of each species.
Each part of the internal urogenital tract was sonographically
detectable except for the bulbourethral glands and the cranial portion
of the ureters and ductus deferentes, which were only observed in situ
in the neonate. Each structure visualized was measured and described.
The size and morphology of the urogenital structures, especially the
accessory glands, were indicative of breeding status, if known. There
was a notable difference between African and Asian males in the size and
morphology of the prostate gland and a slight difference in the shape of
the ampullae. No other structure showed significant species
differences. The detection of the location and description of the
testes may provide information for modifying present castration
procedures. Furthermore, ultrasound examination of the male accessory
glands may aid in the identification of potential semen donors for
assisted reproduction programs in captive elephants.
Krzywicki,
Z., 1998. Surgical treatment of the bilateral nictitans prolapse in an
elephant. Magazyn Weterynaryjny 7, 29-30.
Gage, L.J.,
Fowler, M.E., Pascoe, J.R., Blasko, D., 1997. Surgical removal of
infected phalanges from an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 28, 208-211.
Abstract: A 40-yr-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
developed cellulitis in her left front leg. A draining tract behind the
lateral nail of her left front foot was discovered. This lesion was
treated by aggressive irrigation using a variety of disinfectant
solutions. Radiographically, there was degeneration and fragmentation
of the distal phalanx of the fifth digit and patterns suggestive of
osteomyelitis of the second (middle) phalanx. The fragments of the
distal phalanx and the affected portion of the second phalanx were
removed surgically. Six months after surgery the incision had healed
but fistulous tract remained on the palmar surface of the foot. The
tract extended to the second phalanx, and there was radiographic
evidence of osteomyelitis in the second phalanx and the distal portion
of the proximal phalanx. The remainder of the second phalanx and the
distal potion of the proximal phalanx were surgically removed.
Aggressive aftercare allowed complete wound closure by second intention.
Kuntze, A.,
1997. Surgical diseases in circus elephants.
Praktische Tierarzt 78, 194-205.
Sharma S.P., 1997.
Surgical
treatment of gunshot wounds under xylazine and ketamine anaesthesia in
an elephant: clinical case report. Indian Veterinary Journal 74,
973-974.
Kwon, S.,
Hwang, B., Lee, G., Jung, H., Shin, N., Choi, C., Kweon, O., Lee, H.,
1996. Repair of a fractured tusk in an Asian elephant by pulp capping.
Korean Journal of Veterinary Clinical Medicine 13, 208-211.
Schaftenaar,
W. Vaginal vestibulotomy in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 434-439. 1996.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Due to its dimensions, dystocia in elephants presents a
difficult problem. This paper describes the delivery of a dead calf by
surgical intervention. A vestibulotomy was performed under local
anesthesia. Complications in wound healing resulted in a permanent
fistula of the vestibulum. The difficulties in decision making and the
interpretation of clinical signs are discussed.
Still, J.,
Raath, J.P., Matzner, L., 1996. Respiratory and circulatory parameters
of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) anaesthetised with etorphine
and azaperone. J S Afr Vet Assoc 67, 123-127.
Abstract: Department of Companion Animal Medicine and Surgery, Medical
University of Southern Africa, Medunsa, South Africa.
Respiratory rate, heart rate, blood-gas tensions (PO2 and PCO2) and pH
of arterial (a) and peripheral venous (v) blood, concentration of
haemoglobin in arterial blood (Hb), saturation of arterial haemoglobin
with oxygen and the end-expiratory concentration of oxygen were measured
in 22 juvenile African elephants (Loxodonta africana) anaesthetised with
etorphine and azaperone during a period of 35-65 minutes after they had
assumed lateral recumbency. Based on these parameters the
alveolar-arterial and arterial-peripheral venous differences of PO2
[P(A-a)O2 and P(a-v)O2 respectively] and oxygen content of arterial
blood (CaO2) were calculated. Elephants with body mass of < or = 600 kg
showed statistically significant changes in the following parameters,
compared with elephants with a body mass of more than 600 kg (x +/- SD):
PaO2 (64 +/- 11 versus 82 +/- 8 mmHg), P(a-v)O2 (9 +/- 5 versus 22 +/- 9
mmHg), P(A-a)O2(37 +/- 16 versus 15 +/- 8 mmHg) and Hb (148 +/- 20
versus 130 +/- 10 g/l) (p < 0.05). These findings suggested a tendency
towards impaired oxygen exchange in the lungs, reduced peripheral
extraction of oxygen and elevated oxygen-carrying capacity of arterial
blood in smaller elephants. These changes were theoretically attributed
to the respiratory-depressant and sympathomimetic effects of higher
dosages of etorphine used in the smaller elephants to maintain a
clinically acceptable anaesthetic plane. Individual elephants spent
35-150 minutes under anaesthesia and all recovered uneventfully after
reversal of etorphine with diprenorphine.
Gage, L.J.,
Blasko, D., Fowler, M.E., Pascoe, J. Surgical removal of infected
phalanges from an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Proc Joint
Conference AAZV / WDZ / AAWV. English. 1995.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Dunlop, C.I.,
Hodgson, D.S., Cambre, R.C., Kenny, D.E., Martin, H.D., 1994.
Cardiopulmonary effects of three prolonged periods of isoflurane
anesthesia in an adult elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 205, 1439-1444.
Abstract: Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary
Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort
Collins 80523.
An adult 3500-kg female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was
anaesthetized 3 times for treatment of subcutaneous fistulas over the
lateral aspect of each cubitus (anaesthesia 1 and 2) and for repair of a
fractured tusk (anaesthesia 3). Lateral recumbency and anaesthesia were
achieved with etorphine (anaesthesia 1 and 2) or etorphine and azaperone
(anaesthesia 3). The trachea was intubated and anaesthesia was
maintained by isoflurane and oxygen delivered through 2 standard large
animal anaesthesia machines joined in parallel. The range of total
recumbency time was 2.4 to 3.3 h. Breathing and heart rates, systemic
arterial pressure, rectal temperature, PaO2, pH and end-tidal gases were
monitored. After administration of etorphine, measurements were made
while the elephant was recumbent and breathing air, then every 5 min
(cardiovascular) or 15 min (blood gases) after the start of
administration of isoflurane and oxygen. Tachycardia and hypertension
were detected after administration of etorphine, but heart rate and
systemic arterial pressure decreased to within normal ranges after
administration of isoflurane and oxygen. The elephant remained well
oxygenated while anaesthetized and breathing a high oxygen mixture. The
elephant had an uneventful recovery from each anaesthesia.
Foerner, J.J.,
Houck, R., Copeland, J.F.Jr., Schmidt, M.J., Byron, H.T., Olsen, J.H.,
1994. Surgical castration of the elephant (Elephas maximus and
Loxodonta africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 25,
355-359.
Abstract: The purpose of this project was to develop a reliable, safe,
and efficient technique for surgical castration of elephant (Elephas
maximus and Loxodonta africana). To achieve this, there have been
several modifications in the surgical technique. Initially,
sterilization by injecting caustic agents into the testicles via
laparotomy was attempted, but results were unpredictable and had serious
side effects. Castration of young males under 5 years of age was
relatively easy using a standard equine chain ecraseur through a single
laparotomy incision. For larger males, most cases required two
laparotomy incisions with several variations in techniques for removal
of the testicles. Initially, self-locking stainless steel bands were
placed on the cord as ligatures, and the testicles were removed with an
obstetrical wire saw. Because of technical difficulties, this method was
abandoned, and an alternative technique was developed. The testicle was
removed with an obstetrical wire saw, and then the artery was isolated
by digital palpation. A Kelly forceps was secured on the vessel. The
forceps was passed through a loop of an equine chain ecraseur and the
chain positioned over the artery. The ecraseur was then closed, crushing
the vessel. The most promising technique is the development of a large
chain ecraseur that will allow removal of both testicles through a
single laparotomy approach.
Gross, M.E.,
Clifford, C.A., Hardy, D.A., 1994. Excitement in an elephant after
intravenous administration of atropine. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 205, 1437-1438.
Abstract: A 28-year-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was
anaesthetized for cesarean section to remove a dead calf. The elephant
was sedated with azaperone, and atropine was administered i.v. 90
minutes later in preparation for induction of anaesthesia with etorphine
HCl. Within a minute of the injection of atropine the elephant began
swaying kicking and moving in an agitated manner around the stall. It
was concluded that there is considerable variation among species in the
toxicity of atropine, although development of toxicosis usually is
associated with overdosage.
Wallace, C.,
Byron, T.H., Foerner, J.J., Weston, H., Kilpatrick, J., Jastremski, M.S.
Clinical case report: the medical management and treatment of a 36 year
old premiparturient Asian elephant cow with a dystocia and following a
Caesarian section. 1994.
Ref Type: Unpublished Work
Abstract: The medical history and management of a 36 year old
premiparturient Asian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) with a
dystocia requiring a caesarian section are discussed. The examination
and complete medical evaluation to determine the health of the cow and
viability and position of the calf are described. The medical
management of the post-operative complications and the changes in
complete blood counts, differential, serum biochemistry values and
urinalysis prior to the elephant's death are described. Complications
included peritonitis with systemic sepsis, renal failure, and hepatic
failure. Pertinent necropsy findings on the cow included severe diffuse
subacute peritonitis, uterine transmural necrosis, diffuse renal tubular
nephrosis, and hepatic centrolobular degeneration.
Dubiel, A.,
Gucwinski, A., Bielas, W., Birger, M., Nizanski, W., Bakaj, W., 1993.
Treatment of vaginal prolapse in an elephant (Elaphas maximus).
Zycie-Weterynaryjne 68, 138-139.
Fowler, M.E.,
1993. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders,
Philadelphia.
Lloyd, M.,
Goddard, M., Zeinowicz, R., Harper, J.S., III, 1993. One approach to the
removal of an aural rhabdomyoma in a 7 year old african elephant.
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 115-119.
Olsen, J.H.,
Byron, H.T., Jr., 1993. Castration of the elephant. In: Fowler, M.E.
(Ed.), Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 3. W.B. Saunders
Company, Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 441-444.
George, P.O.,
1992. Some common surgical conditions encountered in elephants. In:
Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian Elephant:
Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of
the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 173.
Nayar, K.N.M.,
Radhakrishnan, K., Chandrasekharan, K., Cheeran, J.V., Ravindran, S.,
George, P.O., 1992. Anaesthesia for surgical manipulations in the
elephant. In: Silas, E.G., Nair, M.K., Nirmalan, G. (Eds.), The Asian
Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management
(Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the
Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989). Kerala
Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 156-158.
Abstract: Anaesthesia using chloral hydrate, thiopentone sodium,
xylazine and ketamine was induced in ten elephants. The effects,
duration of induction and anaesthesia were recorded. Post anaesthesia
complications were not encountered in any of the animals. Surgical
manipulations could be carried out under anaesthesia induced with these
drugs.
Brahmasa, A.,
1991. Cryosurgery of cutaneous papilloma in two Asian elephants: a case
report. Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 21, 151-159.
Kuruwita, V.Y.,
Abeysinghe, A.B. Surgical correction of blindness due to mature cataract
in a domesticated Asian elephant. International Seminar on Veterinary
Medicine in Wild & Captive Animals, Bangalore, India, November 8 to 10,
1991. 23. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Full text: Cataract is a common condition affecting the vision
of about 6-8% domesticated elephants in Sri Lanka. A thirty five year
old, Asian elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) was presented to
the veterinary teaching hospital with a complaint of impaired vision in
both eyes. At initial examination it was revealed that the animal was
blind in the right eye by birth and subsequently developed a cataract in
the other eye. Native treatment was sought and despite continuous
treatment the vision deteriorated over a period of two years and the
animal became totally blind and helpless, depending totally on the
mahout for ambulation. The affected eye was examined and was diagnosed
as a mature cataract with the possibility of partial anterior
displacement of the lens. Subsequent to complete clinical evaluation of
the patient a total lendectomy was performed on the left eye. This paper
describes the anesthetic methods adopted, the surgical approach the post
operative care and the prognosis of the unique operation.
Wagner, R.A.,
Bentz, G.H., 1991. An African elephant tusk pulpotomy: a conservative
approach. Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1-5.
1990. The
story of Babe, the Asian elephant. Veterinary Viewpoints 2.
Foerner, J.J.
Caesarian Section in the Elephant. 11th International Elephant Workshop
Proceeding, Oct 24-27, 1990, Milwaukee County Zoo. 65-71. 1990. 1990.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Kertesz, P.
The principles of elephant tusks and their extraction. The Fourth
Elephant Keepers Workshop (hosted by Port Lympne Zoo Park). 18-20.
1990.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Oosterhuis,
J.E., 1990. The performance of a caesarian section on an Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus indicus). Proceedings American Association of
Zoo Veterinarians 157-158.
Pathak, S.C.,
Saikia, J., Lahon, D.K., Deka, K.N., Barua, S.K., Dewan, J.N., Vety,
A.H., 1990. Attempted ventral herniorrhaphy in an Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) using xylazine sedation. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 21, 234-235.
Abstract: Ventral herniorrhaphy in a female Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) under xylazine hydrochloride sedation was attempted. A
dose of 0.16 mg/kg body weight was adequate to produce sedation,
analgesia, and muscle relaxation for the procedure. The postoperative
management of the surgical wound was difficult and resulted in the
failure of the surgery.
Caffee, H.H.,
1989. Reconstruction of the distal trunk of an African elephant. Plastic
and Reconstructive Surgery 83, 1049-1051.
Abstract: A 5-year-old African elephant was treated for an amputation
injury of the distal trunk. It was determined that replantation was
impractical and, therefore, an operation was designed and performed with
the intention of recreating the prehensile tip.
Franz, W.,
Seidel, B., Jacob, A. Surgical treatment of purulent pododermatitis in
an Indian elephant. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des
31. Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und
Wildtiere, Dortmund 1989. 195-199. 1989. Berlin, German Democratic
Republic, Akademie Verlag.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Kuntze, A.
Disorders of performing elephants: perineal hernia, prepatellar bursitis
and olecranal tyloma. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des
31. Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo und
Wildtiere, Dortmund 1989. 185-187. 1989. Berlin, German Democratic
Republic, Akademie Verlag.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Kuntze, A.,
1989. Dermatopathies in elephants and their treatment. Kleintierpraxis
34, 405-415.
Welsch, B.,
Jacobson, E.R., Kollias, G.V., Kramer, L., Gardner, H., Page, C.D.,
1989. Tusk extraction in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 20, 446-453.
Abstract: Unilateral dentoalveolar abscesses and/or tusk fractures were
identified and tusk extractions performed in seven 3.5-21-yr-old African
elephants (Loxodonta africana) of both sexes weighing 650-3,000
kg. Following immobilization with etorphine hydrochloride or
carfentanil citrate, six of seven elephants were intubated and
maintained on a 1-1.5% halothane in oxygen mixture; one elephant was
maintained in lateral recumbency by multiple i.v. injections of
etorphine. All elephants were positioned with the affected tusk up.
For one elephant, two surgical procedures were required to remove the
tusk. In six of seven elephants, the tusks were sectioned transversely
and the tusk wall thinned by enlarging the pulp cavity with carbide
burs. In those tusks with remaining pulp, the pulp was removed with
stainless steel rods and hooks. Next, the tusk was sectioned
longitudinally into three or four segments using a wood saw within the
pulp chamber. bone gouges, osteotomes, and a mallet were used to free
the outer epithelial and alveolar attachments from the tusk. Starting
with the smallest segment, the sections were removed using long
screwdriver-shaped stainless steel rods. The alveolar chamber was then
periodically flushed postsurgically with a dilute organic iodine
solution. For six of seven elephants, complete granulation of the
alveolar chamber was evident by 4 mo postsurgery; the seventh elephant
showed partial healing with granulation tissue at 2 mo following
surgery.
Briggs, M.,
Schmidt, M., Black, D., Roach, R., Opdahl, J., Stark, G., Owens, D.,
Driver, M., 1988. Extraction of an infected tusk in an adult African
elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 192,
1455-1456.
Abstract: An 18-year-old African elephant was determined to have a
nonrepairable crack in its left tusk. Treatment included extraction of
the tusk, using rotational and extractional forces, and administration
of antibiotics, followed by 1 year of flushing the opened tusk cavity
with warm tap water. Two years after surgery, the elephant was healthy,
and the tusk cavity was 80% filled with normal tissue.
Grussen, B.
Comparative survey of all literature findings about the anatomy of
Indian and African elephants as a basis for practicing veterinary
surgeons. Vergleichende Zusammenstellung der Literaturbefunde uber die
Anatomie des Indischen und Afrikanischen Elefanten als Grundlage fur
tierartzliches Handeln. 1-276. 1988. Hanover.
Ref Type: Report
Mihm, F.G.,
Machado, C., Snyder, R., 1988. Pulse oximetry and end-tidal CO2
monitoring of an adult Asian elephant. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 19, 106-109.
Abstract: The adequacy of ventilation during etorphine anesthesia of a
20-yr-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was monitored with a
pulse oximeter to measure arterial hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SaO2)
and a CO2 analyzer to measure end-tidal CO2
concentrations (PetCO2). Immediately after the first
anesthetic induction, SaO2 values of 45% were noted while the
animal was breathing room air at a rate of 6/min. The SaO2
readings increased to 93% 15 min after administration of 5 liters/min of
oxygen via the trunk. Seven arterial blood gas samples obtained during
two anesthetics, and once while unanesthetized, provided PaO2
and PaCO2 values which compared favorably with SaO2
and PetCO2. In the anesthetized animal, PaO2
ranged between 31 and 70 mmHg while SaO2 values were 70-95%.
At the same time, measurements of PaCO2 ranged from 42 to 57
mmHg while values of PetCO2 ranged from 35 to 57 mmHg. Pulse
oximetry and end-tidal CO2 monitoring are easy to apply and
should increase the safety of anesthesia for these animals.
Morris, P.J.,
Held, J.P., Jensen, J.M. Clinical pathologic features of chronic renal
failure in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).
Proc.1st.Intl.Conf.Zool.Avian Med. 468-472. 1987.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Apapayya, M.K.,
1986. Operation elephant detusking. Myforest 22, 149-151.
Briggs, M.,
Schmidt, M., Black, D., Roach, R., Owens, D., Driver, M. Extraction of
an infected tusk in an adult African elephant. Proc.Ann.Elephant
Workshop 7. 22-24. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Jensen, J.
Paralumbar kidney biopsy in a juvenile African elephant.
Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 17. 1986.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Same case as Ref # 305.
Merkt, H.,
Ahlers, D., Bader, H., Rath, D., Brandt, H.P., Boer, M., Dittrich, L.,
1986. Aftercare and recovery of a female Indian elephant after delivery
of a dead fetus by episiotomy. Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 99,
329-333.
Munson, L.,
Heuschele, W., O'Banion, M.K., Sundberg, J.P., Oosterhuis, J.E., 1986.
Polyp in the urogenital canal of an African elephant. Journal of the
American Veterinary Medical Association 189, 1190-1191.
Byron, H.T.,
Copeland, J.F., Schmidt, M.J., Olsen, J., Houck, R. Surgical approach to
the abdomen of the elephant. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Zoo Vet. 2. 1985.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Byron, H.T.,
Olsen, J., Schmidt, M.J., Copeland, J.F.Jr., Byron, L., 1985. Abdominal
surgery in three adult male Asian elephants. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 187, 1236-1237.
Jacobson, E.R.,
Sundberg, J.P. Cutaneous fibrous polyps in a captive herd of african
elephants. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Zoo Vet. 71. 1985.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Lateur, N.,
Kusse, M.D., van der Velden, M., Stolk, P., Abdul, J.B. Surgical
management of traumatic pulpitis of the tusks in a male Indian elephant.
Proc. Amer. Assoc. Zoo Vet. 125. 1985.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Merkt, H.,
Ahlers, D., Bader, H., Brandt, H.P., Boer, M., Dittrich, L., 1985.
Episiotomy, a new obstetrical intervention in elephant-cows. Deutsche
Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 92, 428-432.
Allen, J.L.,
Welsch, B., Jacobson, E.R., Turner, T.A., Tabeling, H., 1984. Medical
and surgical management of a fractured tusk in an African elephant.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 185,
1447-1449.
Wyatt, J.D.
The medical and surgical management of bilateral tusk pulp infections in
an African elephant. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 5. 21-25. 1984.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Flanagan, H.O.,
Flanagan, F.O., 1983. Castration of African elephant Loxodonta
africana africana. Zimbabwe Veterinary Journal 13, 50-51.
Abstract: The successful castration of an African bull elephant,
Loxodonta africana africana, is described, with a resultant increase
in docility. It is possible that, with castration, more use could be
made of baby bulls captured during culling operations.
Gehring, H.,
Schroder, H.D., 1982. Castration of an elephant Elephas maximus.
Zoologische Garten 52, 365-368.
Altmann, D.,
Krebs, W., 1981. Combined Vetalar-Combelen anesthesia of elephant for
surgical removal of foreign body from eye. Erkrankungen der Zootiere
261-265.
Fagan, D.A.,
1981. Extraction of elephant's tooth requires 4-hour procedure. Norden
News 56, 36-37.
Jarofke, D.,
1981. Use of halothane oxygen anesthesia in elephants (Elephas
maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 12, 93-95.
Abstract: Note: This anesthesia paper also briefly mentions a humeral
fracture which was repaired with a medullary pin, and the removal of the
pin.
Oosterhuis,
J.E., Nelson, L.S. Management of a tibial fracture in an adult African
bush elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 109. 1981.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Sikarski, J.G.,
Riebold, T., Stick, J., Washburn, J. Management of esophagotomy in an
Asian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet. 106-108. 1981.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Sundberg,
J.P., Russell, W.C., Lancaster, W., 1981. Papillomatosis in Indian
elephants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 179,
1247-1249.
Swaim, S.F.,
1980. Management of contaminated and infected wounds. Surgery of
Traumatized Skin. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 119-213.
George, P.O.
Common surgical conditions in elephants. State Level Workshop on
Elephants. 63-67. 1979. India, College of Veterinary and Animal
Sicences, Kerala Agricultural University.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Gruenberg,
K., Jarofke, D., 1978. Surgical removal of excessive callous growth from
the vulva of an Indian elephant (Elephas maximus). Erkrankungen
der Zootiere 14, 301-304.
Robinson,
P.T., Meier, J.E., 1977. Surgical removal of a tumor from an Asian
elephant. Veterinary Medicine Small Animal Clinician 72,
1638-1640.
Bush, M.,
Heese, D.W., Gray, C.E., James, A.E., Jr., 1976. Surgical repair of tusk
injury (pulpectomy) in an adult, male forest elephant (Loxodonta
africana cyclotis). Journal of the American Dental Association 93,
372-375.
Abstract: A 15-year-old male forest elephant housed in a zoo sustained a
fracture of the right tusk that was 10 cm inside the cheek pouch, thus
exposing the tusk canal. Treatment of the cavity by packing, topical
application of antibiotics, and administration of various antiseptic
preparations failed; however, the tusk grew. To treat the infected,
growing tusk's root canal or pulp, surgery -- comparable to a pulpectomy
in man-- was performed with successful results.
Alford, B.T.,
Burkhart, R.L., Johnson, W.P., 1974. Etorphine and diprenorphine as
immobilizing and reversing agents in captive and free-ranging mammals.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 164,
702-705.
Abstract: Summary: Etorphine, an opium alkaloid derivative of thebaine,
and its specific antagonist, diprenorphine, were evaluated by research
workers and zoo veterinarians in captive and free-ranging animals. An
intramuscular injection of etorphine usually resulted in rapid
immobilization, sedation, analgesia, and muscle relaxation in Equidae,
Ursidae, Cervidae and Bovidae, when given at a rate of 0.44, 0.5, 0.98
and 1.09 mg/45 kg (100 lb.), respectively. Satisfactory immobilization
was usually achieved within 5 to 15 minutes after intravenous
administration of diprenorphine at twice the etorphine dosage.
Procedures performed after etorphine administration included dehorning,
blood sampling, tail docking, antibacterial injection, radiography,
orthopedic surgery, and obstetrical manipulation. Side effects were
commonly noticed in free-ranging mammals. The type and degree of
reaction varied according to the species and included tachycardia,
bellowing, bradycardia, respiratory depression, opisthotonos, muscular
tremors, mydriasis, and hyperpyrexia. Of 1,600 animals tested, 2.9%
died as a result of severe heat prostration, inhalation pneumonia,
respiratory depression, severe excitement due to underdosing, cardiac
arrest, and inapparent disease.
Fowler, M.E.,
1973. Castration of an elephant. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 4,
25-27.
Fowler, M.E.,
Hart, R., 1973. Castration of an Asian elephant, using etorphine
anesthesia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 163,
539-543.
Abstract: A 9-year-old Asian elephant was castrated, using etorphine HCl
for anesthesia. The intraabdominal surgery was completed in 2 stages.
Respiratory and heart rates were normal throughout each surgical
procedure. Normal PaCO2 and PaO2 were maintained
without the need of intermittent positive pressure ventilation.
Fowler, M.E.,
1972. Castration of an elephant. Proceedings American Association of Zoo
Veterinarians 25-27.
Kunize, A.,
1972. Operations performed on Indian circus elephants (Elephas
maximus). Monatshefte fuer Veterinaermedizin 27, 747-750.
Stringer, B.G.,
1972. Case report: The removal of a tusk in an African elephant.
Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 271-272.
Seetharam,
S.B., 1971. Umbilical hernia in an elephant calf. Ceylon Veterinary
Journal 48, 533-536.
Singh, B.S.,
1971. Umbilical hernia in an elephant calf. Indian Veterinary Journal 48,
533-536.
Fowler, M.E.,
Mottram, W., 1970. Amputation of the tail in an Asian elephant. Journal
of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 1, 22-25.
Pfaff, G.,
1940. Diseases of Elephants. Superintendent, Govt. Printing and
Stationary, Burma, Rangoon.
Shaw, W.,
1900. Castration of an elephant. Veterinary Journal of London,N. S. 2,
151-152.
|
