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Elephant
Bibliographic
Database
www.elephantcare.org
References updated October 2009 by date of publication, most recent
first.
Banerjee, A.,
2008. Lucky escape after elephant gore injury of the chest. Emerg. Med.
J. 25, 828.
Mikota, S.K.,
2008. Tuberculosis in elephants. In: Fowler, M.E., Miller, R.E. (Eds.),
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Current Therapy 6th edition.
Saunders/Elsevier, St. Louis, pp. 355-364.
Lacasse, C.,
Terio, K., Kinsel, M.J., Farina, L.L., Travis, D.A., Greenwald, R.,
Lyashchenko, K.P., Miller, M., Gamble, K.C., 2007. Two cases of atypical
mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium szulgai associated with
mortality in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). J. Zoo.
Wildl. Med. 38, 101-107.
Abstract: Mycobacterium szulgai was associated with mortality in two
captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed at Lincoln Park
Zoo. The first elephant presented with severe, acute lameness of the
left rear limb. Despite extensive treatments, the animal collapsed and
died 13 mo after initial presentation. Necropsy revealed osteomyelitis
with loss of the femoral head and acetabulum and pulmonary granulomas
with intralesional M. szulgai. The second elephant collapsed during
transport to another institution with no premonitory clinical signs.
This animal was euthanized because of prolonged recumbency.
Granulomatous pneumonia with intralesional M. szulgai was found at
necropsy. Two novel immunoassays performed on banked serum samples
detected antibody responses to mycobacterial antigens in both infected
elephants. It was not possible to determine when the infection was
established or how the elephants were infected. When reviewing the
epidemiology of this organism in humans, however, transmission between
elephants seemed unlikely because human-to-human transmission of this
organism has never been reported and a third elephant in the herd was
not affected. In addition to Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterial organisms need to be considered
potentially pathogenic in elephants
Une, Y.,
Mori, T., 2007. Tuberculosis as a zoonosis from a veterinary
perspective. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis Aug 13; [Epub ahead of
print].
Abstract: Tuberculosis is an important disease among many zoonoses,
because both Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis, which
are the major causes of tuberculosis, are highly pathogenic, infect many
animal species and thus are likely to be the source of infection in
humans. In particular, monkeys are highly susceptible to these bacteria
and are important spreaders. Recently, two outbreaks of M. tuberculosis
occurred in four different kinds of monkeys and humans were also
infected with the disease in Japan. In zoos, tuberculosis was reported
not only in monkeys, but also in several different kinds of animals,
including elephants. Pets such as dogs and cats are believed to be
generally less susceptible to M. tuberculosis, but in this article we
introduce a case of infection from man to dog by close contact. Japan is
one of the few countries that have been able to control M. bovis
infection. In other countries, however, cases of bovine tuberculosis and
human M. bovis infection have been reported, and thus further attention
is still required in the future.
Isaza, R.,
Davis, R.D., Moore, S.M., Briggs, D.J., 2006. Results of vaccination of
Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) with monovalent inactivated rabies
vaccine. American Journal of Veterinary Research 67, 1934-1936.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the humoral immune response of Asian
elephants to a primary IM vaccination with either 1 or 2 doses of a
commercially available inactivated rabies virus vaccine and evaluate the
anamnestic response to a 1-dose booster vaccination. ANIMALS: 16 captive
Asian elephants. PROCEDURES: Elephants with no known prior rabies
vaccinations were assigned into 2 treatment groups of 8 elephants; 1
group received 1 dose of vaccine, and the other group received 2 doses
of vaccine 9 days apart. All elephants received one or two 4-mL IM
injections of a monovalent inactivated rabies virus vaccine. Blood was
collected prior to vaccination (day 0) and on days 9, 35, 112, and 344.
All elephants received 1 booster dose of vaccine on day 344, and a final
blood sample was taken 40 days later (day 384). Serum was tested for
rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies by use of the rapid fluorescent
focus inhibition test. RESULTS: All elephants were seronegative prior to
vaccination. There were significant differences in the rabies geometric
mean titers between the 2 elephant groups at days 35, 112, and 202. Both
groups had a strong anamnestic response 40 days after the booster given
at day 344. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results confirmed the
ability of Asian elephants to develop a humoral immune response after
vaccination with a commercially available monovalent inactivated rabies
virus vaccine and the feasibility of instituting a rabies virus
vaccination program for elephants that are in frequent contact with
humans. A 2-dose series of rabies virus vaccine should provide an
adequate antibody response in elephants, and annual boosters should
maintain the antibody response in this species
Albrecht, K.,
Breitmeier, D., Fieguth, A., Troger, H.D., 2004. Fatalities after
injuries by wild animals. Arch Kriminol 212, 96-103.
Abstract: The article summarises three fatalities after attacks by wild
animals. The first case describes a 90-year-old woman who died as a
result of pneumonia after a bear fell on her and caused multiple chest
fractures. The second case deals with a 76-year-old woman who was hit in
the middle face by the hoof of a camel and, thereafter, died of
myocardial infarction. The third case describes a 27-year-old biologist
who died from severe blunt trauma after an attack of a wild living
elephant. The article gives a summary of typical injury patterns of
selected wild animals and outlines potential reasons of death as a
result of the injuries. Institut fur Rechtsmedizin, Medizinischen
Hochschule Hannover.
Kruse, H.,
Kirkemo, A.M., Handeland, K., 2004. Wildlife as source of zoonotic
infections. Emerg Infect Dis 10, 2067-2072.
Abstract: Throughout history, wildlife has been an important source of
infectious diseases transmissible to humans. Today, zoonoses with a
wildlife reservoir constitute a major public health problem, affecting
all continents. The importance of such zoonoses is increasingly
recognized, and the need for more attention in this area is being
addressed.Wildlife is normally defined as free-roaming animals (mammals,
birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians), whereas a zoonosis is an
infectious disease transmittable between animals and humans. The total
number of zoonoses is unknown, but according to Taylor et al. (1),
who in 2001 catalogued 1,415 known human pathogens, 62% were of zoonotic
origin. With time, more and more human pathogens are found to be of
animal origin. Moreover, most emerging infectious diseases in humans are
zoonoses. Wild animals seem to be involved in the epidemiology of most
zoonoses and serve as major reservoirs for transmission of zoonotic
agents to domestic animals and humans.Zoonoses with a wildlife reservoir
are typically caused by various bacteria, viruses, and parasites,
whereas fungi are of negligible importance. Regarding prion diseases,
chronic wasting disease occurs among deer in North America. This prion
disease is thus far not known to be zoonotic. However, hunters and
consumers are advised to take precautions.
Osofsky,
S.A., Karesh, W., Kock, M.D., Kock, R., Cook, R.A. Moving conservation
ahead (animal health for the environment and development): Progress at
the intersection of program and policy. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA
JOINT CONFERENCE. 406-407. 2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Our organizations hosted a highly interactive forum at which
invited Southern and East African and other experts shared their vision
for conservation and development success at the wildlife / livestock
interface with IUCN World Parks Congress attendees and invited
representatives from bilateral and multilateral development agencies and
other interested parties. African governmental and nongovernmental
experts from Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa,
Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe participated.1 Our goal was to
foster a sharing of ideas among African practitioners and development
professionals that will lead to concrete and creative initiatives that
address conservation and development challenges related to health at the
livestock/wildlife/human interface. The focus was, appropriately, on
ongoing efforts and future needs in and around the region's flagship
protected areas and conservancies and their buffer zones- the places
where tensions and challenges at the livestock/wildlife interface are
often greatest. Discussions and planning focused on several themes of
critical importance to the future of animal agriculture, wildlife, and,
of course, people: competition over grazing and water resources, disease
mitigation, local and global food security, zoonoses, and other
potential sources of conflict related to the overall challenges of
land-use planning and the pervasive reality of resource constraints. We
have since been working to develop the most promising collaborative
concepts that emerged from this forum into a suite of projects, grounded
in real landscapes but cognizant of the critical need for policy reform,
and based on the solid professional partnerships we believe are
emanating from the AHEAD (Animal Health for the
Environment And Development) enabling environment.
As we look around the world, impacts from interactions between livestock
and wildlife (and habitat) are often profound. The issues at this
interface represent an unfortunately all-too-often neglected sector of
critical importance to the long-term ecological and sociopolitical
security of protected areas and grazing lands worldwide. With its
initial focus on Southern and East Africa and its diverse land-use
mosaic, we believe the AHEAD initiative can help facilitate
collaborative work with and among African partners to continue to bring
sound science to bear on natural resource management decisions that
directly affect the livelihoods and cultures of Africa's people,
including those decisions that impact the future of Africa's protected
areas and wildlife resources. As socioeconomic progress demands
sustained improvements in health for humans, their domestic animals, and
the environment, we recognize the need to utilize a "one health"
perspective-an approach that was the foundation of our discussions at
the World Parks Congress, and that has guided the follow-on work since.
Since the September 2003 program launch, AHEAD has helped
catalyze the development of several innovative regional projects that
focus on the health / conservation nexus. In addition, the importance of
these issues was formally recognized by the IUCN World Parks Congress
when it officially included "Disease and Protected Area Management" as a
key emerging issue in its "Emerging Issues" documentation: (http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wpc2003/english/outputs/durban/eissues.htm),
which is the first time ecosystem health issues have been addressed like
this in the Congress' 40-yr history.The text from the "Disease and
Protected Area Management" section is below.
Disease and Protected Area Management
The health of wildlife, domestic animals and people are inextricably
linked. Small improvements in the health of domestic and wild animals
and thus their productivity can lead to dramatic improvements in human
livelihoods and thus the reduction of poverty. Alien invasive pathogens
should be addressed with vigor equal to that devoted to addressing more
'visible' alien invasive species. The role of disease in protected areas
and the land-use matrix within which they are embedded must be
recognized and addressed within the context of protected area and
landscape-level planning and management.
Animal and human health-based indicators may reveal perturbations to
natural systems not detectable by more commonly employed methodologies,
thus improving the quantitative evaluation of trends in a protected
area's health and resilience.
1The WCSAHEAD website is at www.wcs-ahead.org and
includes the complete agenda from the World Parks Congress (Durban)
AHEAD launch, abstracts of presentations, the presentation slidesets
themselves, biographical sketches and contact details for most of the
invitees, as well as a range of downloadable video and audio clips from
the forum.
Stringfield,
C.E., Oh, P., Granich, R., Scott, J., Sun, B., Joseph, M., Flood, J.,
Sedgwick, C.J. Epidemiologic investigation of a Mycobacterium
tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a metropolitan
zoo. 2004 PROCEEDINGS AAZV, AAWV, WDA JOINT CONFERENCE. 46-48.
2004.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: From 1997 to 2000, six cases of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(TB) infection were diagnosed in three species of animals at, or
recently originating from, the Los Angeles Zoo. Restriction fragment
length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis showed that five of six animal
isolates shared an identical IS6110 pattern, with the sixth differing
only by one additional band. A multiinstitutional epidemiologic
investigation was conducted to identify and interrupt possible
transmission among the animal cases, and to screen personnel for active
TB infection and TB skin-test conversion.
Animal Cases
In April and October of 1994, Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
#1 and Asian elephant #2 arrived at the Los Angeles Zoo from a private
elephant facility where they had lived together. They were housed
together at the zoo until November of 1996 when elephant #2 was returned
to the facility for several months before transfer to another zoo. In
the spring of 1997, Elephant #1 (30 yr old) died of salmonellosis, with
M. tuberculosis found in granulomatous lymph node lesions from
the thoracic and abdominal cavities, and Elephant #2 (30 yr old) was
found to have a positive trunk wash culture for M. tuberculosis.
In July of 1998, one of a closed herd of three Rocky Mountain goats (Oreamnos
americanus) consisting of a sire and two offspring, died of
pulmonary M. tuberculosis at 6 yr of age. The goat's asymptomatic
herdmates were screened and had negative chest radiographs and tracheal
wash cultures, but one of the two goats was positive on tuberculin
skin-test. In October of 1998, a clinically normal Black rhinocerus (Diceros
bicornis) was diagnosed with Mycobacerium tuberculosis after
a positive skin test and nasal wash culture. In the winter of 1998, the
two remaining goats were evaluated again with negative chest radiographs
and tracheal wash cultures. However, 1 yr later, both were humanely
euthanatized at 8 and 12 yr of age due to clinical evidence of
tuberculosis on chest radiographs (both animals), and active clinical
signs in one (neither were able to be orally treated). In January of
2001, a rhino was humanely euthanatized after a protracted illness that
was nonresponsive to aggressive treatment. The rhino was found to have
severe multifocal hemosiderosis and atypical mycobacterial infection in
her lungs, with no M. tuberculosis cultured. This animal had
been treated with oral Isoniazid and Rifampin for 1 yr, cultured
routinely, and was never culture positive again.
Epidemiologic Investigation
Investigators examined medical and location histories of the
affected animals, animal handling practices, health-care procedures, and
performed an infection control assessment of the animal compounds and
health-care facilities (including measuring air flow in the compounds by
smoke testing). We conducted a review of zoo employee medical records
for evidence of TB symptoms, tuberculin skin-test results, and chest
radiograph information. A list of current and former employees was
cross-matched with reported TB cases in the California state registry
from 1985 to 2000. As part of the annual occupational health screening
in June of 2000, zoo employees underwent questioning regarding TB
symptoms, received tuberculin skin tests, and completed a questionnaire
on medical history, job type, and history of contact with the infected
animals.
Epidemiologic Findings
No common cross-species contact outside the animal compounds and no
contact with an infectious human were found. The distance at which the
public was kept from the animals and the distance of the compounds from
each other (the elephant compound was 27 meters from the rhino compound
and the goat compound was 90 m from both) suggests that direct
transmission was unlikely. No active TB cases in humans were found, and
no matches were found in the database of reporte d cases. The RFLP
analysis of this strain of M. tuberculosis matched that of three
elephants with which #1 and #2 were housed at a private elephant
facility from September of 1993-February of 1994.1 We hypothesize that
elephants #1 and #2 were infected at the private facility and were
shipped with latent M. tuberculosis infection in 1994, subsequently
infecting the black rhino and Mountain goats at the Los Angeles Zoo.
Of interest, animal caretaking and animal contact were not associated
with a positive tuberculin skin-test, while groundskeepers were found to
have an increased risk of tuberculin skin-test conversion compared with
other job categories. Employees attending the elephant necropsy and
employees who trained elephants were more likely to have tuberculin
skin-test conversion than those who did not.
Conclusion
This is the first documented human and veterinary epidemiologic
investigation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis affecting multiple
species in a zoo. 2 No evidence of transmission from humans
to animals or active infections in humans were found. Genotyping
evidence strongly suggests transmission from one species to another,
although no evidence of transmission was discovered. Human tuberculin
skin-test conversions associated with the elephants were most likely due
to lack of respiratory protection for these employees when the risk of
TB infection was not known. The finding that groundskeepers and not
animal handlers were associated with a higher risk of tuberculin
skin-test conversion was surprising, and we hypothesized that this may
have to do with groundskeepers as a group being more likely to have
been born outside of the United States.
Control measures to eliminate the spread of disease to people and
animals were undertaken immediately and throughout this outbreak, and no
further cases of M. tuberculosis have been diagnosed at the zoo
in the past 3 yr despite ongoing surveillance. Four elephants and three
rhinos that had direct contact with the infected animals remain TB
negative by trunk and nasal wash culture methods as outlined by the USDA
for elephant TB surveillance. Methods of indirect transmission in
mammalian zoo species and causes of variability in infection and
morbidity within and among species warrant further investigation.
Ongoing vigilance, occupational health programs and infection control
measures in potentially exposed animals are recommended to prevent
ongoing transmission of M. tuberculosis in zoo settings.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Animal Care and Animal Health staff of the Los
Angeles Zoo who cared so well for these animals, and the veterinarians
(including consulting pathologists), technicians, and medical records
staff who collected, analyzed, and organized the clinical data. We could
not have performed this evaluation without Sue Thisdell, Safety Officer
at the Los Angeles Zoo; Jothan Staley and Donna Workman-Malcom of the
City of Los Angeles Occupational Health Services Division; Lee
Borenstein, Elenor Lehnkering, Patrick Ryan, Jeanne Soukup, and Annette
Nita of the Los Angeles County Department of Health Services; and Diana
Whipple for her RFLP expertise.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Mikota, S.K., L. Peddie, J. Peddie, R. Isaza, F. Dunker, G. West,
W. Lindsay, R.S.Larsen, M. D. Salman, D. Chatterjee, J. Payeur, D.
Whipple, C. Thoen, D. Davis, C. Sedgwick, R.J. Montali, M. Ziccardi, J.
Maslow. 2001. Epidemiology and diagnosis of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in captive asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J.
Zoo Wildl. Med. 32: 1-16.
2. Oh, P., R. Granich, J. Scott, B. Sun, M. Joseph, C. Stringfield, S.
Thisdell, J. Staley, D. Workman-Malcolm, L. Borenstein, E. Lehnkering,
P. Ryan, J. Soukup, A.Nitta, J. Flood. 2002. Human exposure following
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a
metropolitan zoo. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 8 (11): 1290-1293.orte
Guidelines
for the control of tuberculosis in elephants. 2003.
Ref Type: Electronic Citation
Albrecht, K.,
Breitmeier, D., Fieguth, A., Troger, H.D., 2003. Fatalities after
injuries by wild animals. Arch Kriminol 212, 96-103.
Abstract: The article summarises three fatalities after attacks by wild
animals. The first case describes a 90-year-old woman who died as a
result of pneumonia after a bear fell on her and caused multiple chest
fractures. The second case deals with a 76-year-old woman who was hit in
the middle face by the hoof of a camel and, thereafter, died of
myocardial infarction. The third case describes a 27-year-old biologist
who died from severe blunt trauma after an attack of a wild living
elephant. The article gives a summary of typical injury patterns of
selected wild animals and outlines potential reasons of death as a
result of the injuries.
Michel, A.L., Venter, L., Espie, I.W., Coetzee, M.L., 2003.
Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
infections in
eight species at the National Zoological Gardens of South Africa,
1991-2001. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 34, 364-370.
Abstract: Between 1991 and 2001 a total of 12 cases of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis infection in eight different species were recorded in
the National Zoological Gardens of South Africa in Pretoria (Tshwane).
The genetic relatedness between seven of the M. tuberculosis
isolates was determined by IS6110 restriction fragment length
polymorphism analysis. For the majority of the isolates that were
analyzed, a high degree of polymorphism suggested different sources of
infection. Evidence of M. tuberculosis transmission between
animals is reported in two chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed
together, from which samples were collected for analysis 29 mo apart.
Pavlik, I.,
Ayele, W.Y., Parmova, I., Melicharek, I., Hanzlikova, M., Svejnochova,
M., Kormendy, B., 2003. Mycobacterium tuberculosis in animal and human
populations in six Central European countries during 1990-1999.
Veterinarni Medicina 48, 83-89.
Abstract: Results of Mycobacterium tuberculosis detection in animals
from six Central European countries (Croatia, the Czech Republic,
Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia) spreading over 610402 km2 with a
population of 11.8 million heads of cattle were analysed. In the
monitoring period between 1990 and 1999, M. tuberculosis from animals
was isolated only in two countries (Poland and Slovak Republic) from 16
animals with tuberculous lesions. These comprise 9 cattle (Bos taurus),
4 domestic pigs (Sus scrofa f. domestica) and three wild animals, an
African elephant (Loxodonta africana), agouti (Dasyprocta aguti) and
terrestrial tapir (Tapirus terrestris) from a zoological garden Gdansk
in Poland. A steady decrease in the incidence of tuberculosis in humans
was recorded during the monitoring period in all countries. The human
population of the study countries was 68.03 million. In the period
monitored, infection caused by M. tuberculosis was identified in a total
of 241040 patients with a decreasing incidence of tuberculosis found in
all countries. The lowest relative bacteriologically confirmed disease
was found in the Czech Republic, Slovak Republic and Slovenia. Given the
low number of infected domestic and wild animals, the epidemiological
and epizootiological situation may be considered auspicious.
Sitati, N.W.,
Walpole, M.J., Smith, R.J., Leader-Williams, N., 2003. Predicting
spatial aspects of human–elephant conflict. Journal of Applied Ecology
40, 667-677.
Abstract: Human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs wherever these
two species coincide, and poses serious challenges to wildlife managers,
local communities and elephants alike. Mitigation requires a detailed
understanding of underlying patterns and processes. Although temporal
patterns of HEC are relatively predictable, spatial variation has shown
few universal trends, making it difficult to predict where conflict will
take place. While this may be due to unpredictability in male elephant
foraging behaviour (the male behaviour hypothesis) it may also be due to
variations in the data resolution of earlier studies. This study tested
the male behaviour and data resolution hypotheses using HEC data from a
1000-km2 unprotected elephant range adjacent to the Masai Mara National
Reserve in Kenya. HEC incidents were divided into crop raiding and human
deaths or injuries. Crop raiding was further subdivided into incidents
involving only male elephants or family groups. A relatively
fine-resolution, systematic, grid-based method was used to assign the
locations of conflict incidents, and spatial relations with underlying
variables were explored using correlation analysis and logistic
regression. Crop raiding was clustered into distinct conflict zones.
Both occurrence and intensity could be predicted on the basis of the
area under cultivation and, for male elephant groups, proximity to major
settlements. Conversely, incidents of elephant-induced human injury and
death were less predictable but were correlated with proximity to roads.
A grid-based geographical information system (GIS) with a 25-km2
resolution utilizing cost-effective data sources, combined with simple
statistical tools, was capable of identifying spatial predictors of HEC.
At finer resolutions spatial autocorrelation compromised the analyses.
Synthesis and applications. These results suggest that spatial
correlates of HEC can be identified, regardless of the sex of the
elephants involved. Moreover, the method described here is fully
transferable to other sites for comparative analysis of HEC. Using these
results to map vulnerability will enable the development and deployment
of appropriate conflict mitigation strategies, such as guarding, early
warning systems, barriers and deterrents. The utility of such methods
and their strategic deployment should be assessed alongside alternative
land-use and livelihood strategies that limit cultivation within the
elephant range.
Ziccardi, M.,
Wong, H.N., Tell, L.A., Fritcher, D., Blanchard, J., Kilbourn, A.,
Godfrey, H.P. Further optimization and validation of the antigen 85
immunoassay for diagnosing mycobacteriosis in wildlife. Proc Amer Assoc
Zoo Vet. 219-220. 2003.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis, M.
tuberculosis and M. avium has been a well-documented health
problem for zoological collections as long ago as the late 19th
century. Prevalence estimation in these captive wildlife populations,
however, has been hampered by diagnostic test methods that are
oftentimes difficult or impossible to conduct and/or interpret (due to
the requirement for multiple immobilizations for measurement of
response), the occurrence of non-specific results with methods such as
the intradermal skin test, and/or the near-total lack of validation,
optimization and standardization of any of the available test methods in
the species of interest. Additionally, because intradermal skin testing
is the primary screening method for many of these species, the ability
to compare exposure in captive wildlife with exposure in free-ranging
populations has been limited due to the difficulty with follow-up in
free-ranging populations. Lastly, unlike testing methods that use
serological techniques, skin testing precludes retrospective studies of
banked samples to determine onset of reactivity.
Recently, human tuberculosis researchers working with tuberculosis in
humans have developed an immunoassay that detects a serum protein
complex (the antigen 85, or Ag85, complex) produced by mycobacteria in
the early stages of mycobacterial infections1. Previous work
has shown that this method is a promising diagnostic tool in the
evaluation of tuberculosis exposure in some primate (including orangutan
(Pongo pygmaeus), a species known for non-specific tuberculin
responses)2 and captive hoofstock species3. In
order to determine the feasibility and applicability of a widespread use
of this method for captive and free-ranging wildlife species, we have
undertaken a number of pilot studies on different populations of
interest, with the goals of optimizing and validating the immunoassay
through analysis of serum from known infected and non-infected
individuals and through comparisons with other diagnostic methods. Thus
far, we have begun evaluating the applicability of the antigen 85
immunoassay in various avian, primate, rhinoceros and hoofstock species
for detecting tuberculosis and/or paratuberculosis (Johne's disease)
infections. Preliminary results, a summary of which will be presented,
indicate that this method may be a valuable adjunct to other testing
methods (including gamma interferon and multiple-antigen ELISA) to allow
a better evaluation of true mycobacterial status in these species.
LITERATURE CITED
1.Bentley-Hibbert, S. I., X. Quan, T. G. Newman, K. Huygen and H. P.
Godfrey. 1999. Pathophysiology of Antigen 85 in patients with active
tuberculosis. Infect Immun. 67(2):581-8.
2.Kilbourn, A. M., H. P. Godfrey, R. A. Cook, P. P. Calle, E. J. Bosi,
S. I. Bentley-Hibbert, K. Huygen, M. Andau, M. Ziccardi and W. B. Karesh.
2001. Serum Antigen 85 levels in adjunct testing for active
mycobacterial infections in orangutans. J. Wildl. Dis. 37(1): 65-71.
3.Mangold, B. J., R. A. Cook, M. R. Cranfield, K. Huygen, and H. P.
Godfrey. 1999. Detection of elevated levels of circulating antigen 85
by dot immunobinding assay in captive wild animals with tuberculosis.
J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 30(4): 477-483.
Alexander,
K.A., Pleydell, E., Williams, M.C., Lane, E.P., Nyange, J.F.C., Michel,
A.L., 2002. Mycobacterium tuberculosis : An Emerging Disease of
Free-Ranging Wildlife. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8, 598-601.
Abstract: Expansion of ecotourism-based industries, changes in land-use
practices, and escalating competition for resources have increased
contact between free-ranging wildlife and humans. Although human
presence in wildlife areas may provide an important economic benefit
through ecotourism, exposure to human pathogens
may represent a health risk for wildlife. This report is the first to
document introduction of a primary human pathogen into free-ranging
wildlife. We describe outbreaks of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a
human pathogen, in free-ranging banded mongooses (Mungos mungo)
in Botswana and suricates (Suricata suricatta) in South Africa.
Wildlife managers and scientists must address the potential threat that
humans pose to the health of free-ranging wildlife.
Mikota, S.K.,
Maslow, J. Epidemiology and Treatment of Tuberculosis in Elephants:
2002. Baer, C. K. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Annual
Conference. 384-387. 2002. 2002.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Oh, P.,
Granich, R., Scott, J., Sun, B., Joseph, M., Stringfield, C., Thisdell,
S., Staley, J., Workman-Malcolm, D., Borenstein, L., Lehnkering, E.,
Ryan, P., Soukup, J., Nitta, A., Flood, J., 2002. Human exposure
following Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal
species in a Metropolitan Zoo. Emerg Infect Dis 8, 1290-1293.
Abstract: From 1997 to 2000, Mycobacterium tuberculosis was diagnosed in
two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), three Rocky Mountain goats (Oreamnos
americanus), and one black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in the Los
Angeles Zoo. DNA fingerprint patterns suggested recent transmission. An
investigation found no active cases of tuberculosis in humans; however,
tuberculin skin-test conversions in humans were associated with training
elephants and attending an elephant necropsy.
Payeur, J.B.,
Jarnagin, J.L., Marquardt, J.G., Whipple, D.L., 2002. Mycobacterial
isolations in captive elephants in the United States. Ann N Y Acad Sci
969, 256-258.
Abstract: Interest in tuberculosis in elephants has been increasing over
the past several years in the United States. Several techniques have
been used to diagnose mammalian tuberculosis. Currently, the test
considered most reliable for diagnosis of TB in elephants is based on
the culture of respiratory secretions obtained by trunk washes.
Turenne, C.,
Chedore, P., Wolfe, J., Jamieson, F., May, K., Kabani, A., 2002.
Phenotypic and molecular characterization of clinical isolates of
Mycobacterium elephantis from human specimens. J Clin Microbiol 40,
1230-1236.
Abstract: Eleven strains of a rapidly growing mycobacterium were
isolated from patient specimens originating from various regions of the
province of Ontario, Canada, over a 2-year period. Unique
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and PCR-restriction enzyme
pattern analysis (PRA) profiles initially suggested a new Mycobacterium
species, while sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene revealed a sequence match
with Mycobacterium sp. strain MCRO 17 (GenBank accession no. X93028), an
isolate determined to be unique which is to date uncharacterized, and
also a close similarity to M. elephantis (GenBank accession no.
AJ010747), with six base pair variations. A complete biochemical profile
of these isolates revealed
a species of mycobacteria with phenotypic characteristics similar to
those of M. flavescens. HPLC, PRA, and 16S rRNA sequencing of strain M.
elephantis DSM 44368(T) and result comparisons with the clinical
isolates revealed that these strains were in fact M. elephantis, a newly
described species isolated from an elephant. All strains were isolated
from human samples, 10 from sputum and 1from an axillary lymph node.
Clifton-Hadley, R.S., Sauter-Louis, C.M., Lugton, I.W., Jacson, R., Durr,
P.A., Wilesmith, J.W., 2001. Mycobacterial diseases. In: Williams, E.S.
(Ed.), Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals. Iowa State University Press,
Ames, Iowa, pp. 340-361.
Davis, M.,
2001. Mycobacterium tuberculosis risk for elephant handlers and
veterinarians. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 16, 350-353.
Langley, R.L.,
Hunter, J.L., 2001. Occupational fatalities due to animal-related
events. Wilderness Environ Med 12, 168-174.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To better understand the extent of animal-related
fatalities in the workplace. METHODS: This study utilized Census of
Fatal Occupational Injuries files from the US Department of Labor for
the years 1992-1997 to describe the events surrounding human workplace
fatalities associated with animals. RESULTS: During the 6-year time
period, 350 workplace deaths could be associated with an animal-related
event. Cattle and horses were the animals primarily involved, and
workers in the agricultural industry experienced the majority of events.
Many deaths involved transportation events, either direct collision with
the animal or highway crashes trying to avoid collision with an animal.
Exotic animals, primarily elephants and tigers, were responsible for a
few deaths. A small number of workers died of a zoonotic infection.
CONCLUSIONS: We found that approximately 1% of workplace fatalities are
associated with an animal-related event. Methods to decrease the
frequency of an animal injury are suggested.
Mikota, S.K.,
Peddie, L., Peddie, J., Isaza, R., Dunker, F., West, G., Lindsay, W.,
Larsen, R.S., Salman, M.D., Chatterjee, D., Payeur, J., Whipple, D.,
Thoen, C., Davis, D.S., Sedgwick, C., Montali, R., Ziccardi, M., Maslow,
J., 2001. Epidemiology and diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in
captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine 32, 1-16.
Abstract: The deaths of two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in August
1996 led the United States Department of Agriculture to require the
testing and treatment of elephants for tuberculosis. From August 1996 to
September 1999. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection was confirmed by
culture in 12 of 118 elephants in six herds. Eight diagnoses were made
antemortem on the basis of isolation of M. tuberculosis by culture of
trunk wash samples; the remainder (including the initial two) were
diagnosed postmortem. We present the case histories, epidemiologic
characteristics, diagnostic test results, and therapeutic plans from
these six herds. The intradermal tuberculin test, enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay serology, the blood tuberculosis test, and nucleic
acid amplification and culture are compared as methods to diagnose M.
tuberculosis infection in elephants.
Montali, R.J., Mikota, S.K., Cheng, L.I., 2001.
Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in zoo and wildlife species. Revue Scientifique et
Technique Office International des Epizooties 20, 291-303.
Abstract: Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and M.
tuberculosis-like organisms has been identified in a wide range of
species: non-human primates, exotic ungulates and carnivores, elephants,
marine mammals, and psittacine birds. Disease associated with M.
tuberculosis has occurred mostly in captive settings and does not appear
to occur naturally in free-living mammals. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
is probably a zooanthroponosis of humans but from the zoonotic
standpoint, non-human primates, Asian elephants and psittacine birds
have the potential of transmitting this disease to humans. However, its
overall prevalence in these target species has been low and documented
transmissions of M. tuberculosis between animals and humans are
uncommon. M. tuberculosis causes progressive pulmonary disease in
mammals and a muco-cutaneous disease in parrots, and in all cases it
can disseminate and be shed into the environment. Diagnosis in living
animals has been based on intradermal tuberculin testing in non-human
primates, culturing trunk secretions in elephants, and biopsy and
culture of external lesions in parrots. Ancillary testing with DNA
probes and nucleic acid amplification, and enzyme-linked
immunoabsorbent (ELISA) tests have been adapted to some of these species
with promising results. Additionally, new guidelines for controlling
tuberculosis in elephants in the U.S., and programs for tuberculosis
prevention in animal handlers have been established.
Shellabarger,
W., Reichard, T.A. A close call: salient points of a serious elephant
keeper injury by an adult African elephant (Loxodonta africana).
Kirk Baer, C. and Wilmette, M. W. Proceedings American Association of
Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians,
Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians and the National
Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians Joint Conference 2001.
273-274. 2001. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 9-18-2001.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Larsen, R.S.,
Salman, M.D., Mikota, S.K., Isaza, R., Montali, R.J., Triantis, J.,
2000. Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in captive
elephants. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 31, 291-302.
Abstract: Mycobacterium tuberculosis has become an important agent of
disease in the captive elephant population of the United States,
although current detection methods appear to be inadequate for effective
disease management. This investigation sought to validate a
multiple-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for screening
of M. tuberculosis infection in captive elephants and to document the
elephant's serologic response over time using a cross-sectional
observational study design. Serum samples were collected from 51 Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) and 26 African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) from 16 zoos and circuses throughout the United States from
February 1996 to March 1999. Infection status of each animal was
determined by mycobacterial culture of trunk washes. Reactivity of each
serum sample against six antigens was determined, and the linear
combination of antigens that accurately predicted the infection status
of the greatest number of animals was determined by discriminant
analysis. The resulting classification functions were used to calculate
the percentage of animals that were correctly classified (i.e.,
specificity and sensitivity). Of the 77 elephants sampled, 47 fit the
criteria for inclusion in discriminant analysis. Of these, seven Asian
elephants were considered infected; 25 Asian elephants and 15 African
elephants were considered noninfected. The remaining elephants had been
exposed to one or more infected animals. The specificity and sensitivity
of the multiple-antigen ELISA were both 100% (91.9-100% and 54.4-100%,
respectively) with 95% confidence intervals. M. bovis culture filtrate
showed the highest individual antigen specificity (95%; 83.0-100%) and
sensitivity (100%; 54.4-100%). Serum samples from 34 elephants were
analyzed over time by the response to the culture filtrate antigen; four
of these elephants were culture positive and had been used to calculate
the discriminant function. Limitations such as sample size, compromised
ability to ascertain each animal's true infection status, and absence of
known-infected African elephants suggest that much additional research
needs to be conducted regarding the use of this ELISA. However, the
results indicate that this multiple-antigen ELISA would be a valuable
screening test for detecting M. tuberculosis infection in elephant
herds.
Larsen, R.S.,
Salman, M.D., Mikota, S.K., Isaza, R., Triantis, J. Validation and use
of a multiple-antigen ELISA for detection of tuberculosis infections in
elephants. Proc. AAZV and IAAAM Joint Conf. 231-233. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Lyashchenko,
K., Singh, M., Colangeli, R., Gennaro, M.L., 2000. A multi-antigen print
immunoassay for the development of serological diagnosis of infectious
disease. Journal of Immunological Methods 242, 91-100.
Mikota, S.K.,
Larsen, R.S., Montali, R.J., 2000. Tuberculosis in Elephants in North
America. Zoo Biology 19, 393-403.
Abstract: Within the past 4 years, TB has emerged as a disease of
concern in elephants. The population of elephants in North America is
declining (Weise,1997), and transmissible diseases such as TB may
exacerbate this trend. Guidelines for all elephants for TB, were
instituted in 1997 (USDA, 1997, 2000). Between August 1996 and May 2000,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis was isolated form 18 of 539 elephants
in North America, indicating an estimated prevalence of 3.3%. Isolation
of the TB organism by culture is the currently recommended test to
establish a diagnosis of TB; however, culture requires 8 weeks. Further
research is essential to validate other diagnostic tests and treatment
protocols.
Shojaei, H.,
Magee, J.G., Freeman, R., Yates, M., Horadagoda, N.U., Goodfellow, M.,
2000. Mycobacterium elephantis sp. nov., a rapidly growing non-chromogenic
Mycobacterium isolated from an elephant. International Journal of
Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 50, 1817-1820.
Abstract: A strain isolated from a lung abscess in an elephant that died
from chronic respiratory disease was found to have properties consistent
with its classification in the genus Mycobacterium. An almost complete
sequence of the 16S rDNA of the strain was determined following the
cloning and sequencing of the amplified gene. The sequence was aligned
with those available on mycobacteria and phylogenetic trees inferred by
using three tree-making algorithms. The organism, which formed a
distinct phyletic line within the evolutionary radiation occupied by
rapidly growing mycobacteria, was readily distinguished from members of
validly described species of rapidly growing mycobacteria on the basis
of its mycolic acid pattern and by a number of other phenotypic
features, notably its ability to grow at higher temperatures. The type
strain is Mycobacterium elephantis DSM 44368T. The EMBL accession number
for the 16S rDNA sequence of strain 484T is AJ010747.
Ziccardi, M.,
Mikota, S.K., Barbiers, R.B., Norton, T.M. Tuberculosis in zoo
ungulates:Survey results and surveillance plan. Proc. AAZV and IAAAM
Joint Conf. 438-441. 2000.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Biberstein,
E.L., Hirsch, D.C., 1999. Mycobacterium species: The agents of animal
tuberculosis. Veterinary Microbiology. Blackwell Science, Maiden, MA,
pp. 158-172.
Durrheim, D.N.,
Durrheim, D.N., 1999. Risk to tourists posed by wild mammals in South
Africa. J Travel Med 6, 172-179.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: One of South Africa's principal tourist
attractions is the opportunity to encounter Africa's large mammals in
the wild. Attacks by these mammals can be exceptionally newsworthy with
potentially deleterious effects on tourism. Little is known about the
risk of injury and death caused by wild mammals to visitors to South
Africa's nature reserves. The aim of this study was to determine the
incidence of fatal and nonfatal attacks on tourists by wild mammals in
South Africa and to ascertain avoidable factors, if any. METHODS:
Commercial press records covering all South African Newspapers archived
at the Independent Newspapers' central library were systematically
reviewed for a 10-year period, January 1988 to December 1997 inclusive,
to identify all deaths and injuries to domestic and international
tourists resulting from encounters with wild mammals in South Africa.
All of these incidents were analyzed to ascertain avoidable factors.
RESULTS: During the review period seven tourists, including two students
from Thailand and a German traveler, were killed by wild mammals in
South Africa. Three of the four deaths ascribed to lions resulted from
tourists carelessly approaching prides on foot in lion reserves. A
judicial inquiry found that the management of a KwaZulu-Natal Reserve
was culpable for the remaining death. Tourist ignorance of animal
behavior and flagrant disregard of rules contributed to the two
fatalities involving hippopotami. The unusual behavior manifested by the
bull elephant responsible for the final death, resulted from discomfort
caused by a dental problem to this pachyderm. During the same period
there were 14 nonfatal attacks on tourists, including five by hippo,
three by buffalo, two by rhino, and one each by a lion, leopard, zebra
and musth elephant. Only the latter occurred while the visitor was in a
motor vehicle. Tourist ethological naivete and failure to determine the
experience of trail guides prior to travel, resulted in inadvertent
agonistic behavior, unnecessary risk-taking and avoidable injury.
CONCLUSIONS: This retrospective study has shown that attacks on tourists
by wild mammals in South Africa are an uncommon cause of injury and
death. Sensible precautions to minimize this risk include remaining in a
secure motor vehicle or adequately fenced precincts while in the
vicinity of large mammals, rigidly observing nature reserve
instructions, never approaching animals that appear ill, malnourished,
displaying aggressive behavior traits or female wild mammals with young,
and demanding adequately trained and experienced game rangers when
embarking on walking trails. Any behavior that might be construed as
antagonistic and which could provoke an attack by large mammals should
be avoided (e.g., driving directly at a lion). Visitors need to be
informed of classic signs of aggression, in particular in elephants,
which will allow timely avoidance measures to be taken. The
risk-enhancing effect of excessive alcohol intake is undesirable in the
game reserve setting, as is driving at high speed after dusk in areas
where hippos graze. Local advice on personal safety in wildlife reserves
and the credentials of trail guides should be obtained from lodge or
reserve management, tourism authorities or the travel industry prior to
travel to game reserves.
Montali, R.J.
Important aspects of zoonotic diseases in zoo and wildlife species. Verh.
ber. Erkg. Zootiere 39. 149-155. 1999.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Mahato, G.,
Rahman, H., Sharma, K.K., Pathak, S.C., 1998. Tuberculin testing in
captive Indian elephants (Elephas maximus) of a national park. Indian
Journal of Comparative Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases
19, 63.
Abstract: Full text:Tuberculosis, an important zoonotic disease, has
been reported in wild African and Asian domestic elephants (Seneviratna
and Seneviratna, 1966). Under this communication 25 cative Indian
elephants of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, were tested for allergic
reaction by injecting 0.1 ml PPD at the base of ear tip. The thickness
of skin was measured after 48 and 72 h and an increase of 4 mm or more
was taken as positive. Out of 25 elephants tested, 3 adults were found
reactors. Base of the ear was found more appropriate site as it remained
protected from rubbing against hard object due to irritation caused by
the tuberculin and needle. The trunk also could not disturb this
inoculation site.
Mbise, A.N.,
Mlengeya, T.D.K., Mollel, J.O., 1998. Septicaemic salmonellosis of
elephants in Tanzania. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in
Africa 46, 95-100.
Abstract: The first isolation of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica
serovar typhimurium (S. typhimurium) from an African elephant (Loxodanta
africana) that died in August 1997 at the Tarangire National Park near a
campsite in Northern Tanzania is reported. This and other findings
suggest the potential role of wildlife in the epidemiology of Salmonella
sp. infections. Also, the isolation of this S. typhimurium serovar as a
zoonosis demonstrates the danger that humans and animals in the
Tarangire ecosystem are exposed to, as this serovar is ubiquitous among
different species of animals.
Michalak, K.,
Austin, C., Diesel, S., Bacon, M.J., Zimmerman, P., Maslow, J.N., 1998.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection as a zoonotic disease: transmission
between humans and elephants. Emerg Infect Dis 4, 283-287.
Abstract: Between 1994 and 1996, three elephants from an exotic animal
farm in Illinois died of pulmonary disease due to Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. In October 1996, a fourth living elephant was
culture-positive for M. tuberculosis. Twenty-two handlers at the farm
were screened for tuberculosis (TB); eleven had positive reactions to
intradermal injection with purified protein derivative. One had
smear-negative, culture-positive active TB. DNA fingerprint comparison
by IS6110 and TBN12 typing showed that the isolates from the four
elephants and the handler with active TB were the same strain. This
investigation indicates transmission of M. tuberculosis between humans
and elephants.
Montali,
R.J., Spelman, L.H., Cambre, R.C., Chattergee, D., Mikota, S.K. Factors
influencing interpretation of indirect testing methods for tuberculosis
in elephants. Proceedings AAZV and AAWV Joint Conference. 109-112.
1998.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Serologic and other laboratory tests (such as BTB, ELISA, and
gamma interferon) are often used in conjunction with the intradermal
tuberculin test to detect tuberculosis (TB) in animals. The skin test
is considered the "gold standard" in domestic cattle and humans, and the
BTB test has been highly rated for use in cervid species. However,
these indirect methods for TB diagnosis have not been proven valid in
most exotic species susceptible to Mycobacterium tuberculosis
complex (which includes M. bovis) infection. In addition, many
of the tuberculin skin testing methods used in exotic species are not
uniform in terms of tuberculin type(s) and sites used and interpretation
of the end points.
Maslow, J.
Tuberculosis and other mycobacteria as zoonoses. Proceedings American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians. 110-115. 1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Mycobacterial infections are common among humans. Of theses,
infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) is the most common
and of greatest concern. Non-tuberculous species of mycobacteria may
also cause infections in man, especially among immunosuppressed
individuals. Human TB is typically acquired by inhalation of aerosols
carrying tubercle bacilli fowwoing exposure to a person with active
pulmonary infection; non-tuberculous species of mycobacteria are
acquired from environmental sources. Since zoonotic transmission of TB
does occur, the identification of acid fast bacilli (AFB) in clinical
specimens from animals is a cause of concern, unease, and occasionally
misconception for animal care handlers and zoo personnel.
Mikota, S.K.,
Maslow, J. Theoretical and technical aspects of diagnostic techniques
for mammalian tuberculosis. Proceedings, American Association Zoo
Veterinarians. 162-165. 1997.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Ryan, C.P.,
1997. Tuberculosis in circus elephants. Pulse Southern California
Veterinary Medical Assoc. 8.
Whipple, D.L.,
Meyer, R.M., Berry, D.F., Jarnagin, J.L., Payeur, J.B. Molecular
epidemiology of tuberculosis in wild white-tailed deer in michigan and
elephants. Proceedings One Hundred and First Annual Meeting of the
United States Animal Health Association, Louisville, Kentucky, USA,
18-24 October, 1997. 543-546. 1997. Richmond, VA,USA, United States
Animal Health Association.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Cambre, R.C.,
Buick, W.W., 1996. Special challenges of maintaining wild animals in
captivity in North America. Rev Sci Tech 15, 251-266.
Abstract: The maintenance of wild animals in captivity in North America
is regulated by a number of different laws and government agencies in
each country. Member institutions of zoo and aquarium associations in
Canada, the United States of America and Mexico experience an extra tier
of regulation in the form of industry standards, which are sometimes
stricter than those imposed by government. Climate, natural disasters
and harmful pest species all contribute to the challenge of keeping
animals in certain locales. Vigilance against zoonotic disease
transmission is maintained through industry and government-mandated
sanitation standards, which are fortified by reporting regulations of
local, regional and Federal health agencies. Current controversies in
the keeping of particular taxa in North America include the threat to
non-human primate breeding programmes precipitated by strict new import
regulations, the fear of herpesvirus B infection, and commercial airline
transport bans. Successive human fatalities among elephant handlers have
prompted the industry and governments to re-examine the manner in which
these potentially dangerous creatures are maintained in captivity.
Moda, G.,
Daborn, C.J., Grange, J.M., Cosivi, O., 1996. The zoonotic importance of
Mycobacterium bovis. Tubercle and Lung Disease 77,
103-108.
Abstract: The zoonotic importance of Mycobacterium bovis has been
the subject of renewed interest in the wake of the increasing incidence
of tuberculosis in the human population. This paper considers some of
the conditions under which transmission of M. bovis from animals
to humans occurs and reviews current information on the global
distribution of the disease. The paper highlights the particular threat
posed by this zoonotic disease in developing countries and lists the
veterinary and human public health measures that need to be adopted if
the disease is to contained. The association of tuberculosis with
malnutrition and poverty has long been recognized and the need to
address these basic issues as as crucial as specific measures against
the disease itself.
Datye, H.S.,
Bhagwat, A.M., 1995. Man-Elephant Conflict: A Case Study of Human Deaths
Caused by Elephants in Parts of Central India. In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A
Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian
Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press,
Bombay, India, pp. 340-349.
Datye, H.S.,
Bhagwat, A.M., 1995. Estimation of Crop Damage and the Economic Loss
Caused by Elephants and its Implications in the Management of Elephants.
In: Daniel, J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the
International Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History
Society; Oxford University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 375-388.
Thouless,
C.R., Sakwa, J., 1995. Elephant Fences in Northern Kenya. In: Daniel,
J.C. (Ed.), A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International
Seminar on Asian Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford
University Press, Bombay, India, pp. 523-528.
Petrini, K.,
Keyler, D.E., Ling, L., Borys, D. Immobilizing agents - developing an
urgent response protocol for humans. Proceedings American Association of
Zoo Veterinarians. 133-140. 1993.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
John, M.C.,
Nedunchelliyan, S., Raghvan, N., 1991. Tuberculin testing in Indian
elephants. Indian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 11, 48-49.
Khadri, S.M.,
Nanjappa, K.A. Experiences of the forest veterinarians in capture and
translocation of wild elephants. International Seminar on Veterinary
Medicine in Wild & Captive Animals, Bangalore, India, November 8 to 10,
1991. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: The rich coffee growing belt of Kodagu District faced serious
menace due to intrusion of wild elephants to the plantations causing
crop and property damage along with loss of human life die to trampling.
To effectively solve the problem faced by the plantation management,
efficient technique of chemical capture was adopted to capture and
translocate the wild elephants. In all, 28 wild elephants were captured
and translocated to a safer larger forest habitat. The chemical capture
operations thus conducted proved to be safe, swift and efficient
technique to rehabilitate wild elephants.
Kuruwita, V.Y.
Successful capture and translocation of ten adult crop-raiding elephants
from a sugar cane plantation in Sri Lanka. International Seminar on
Veterinary Medicine in Wild & Captive Animals, Bangalore, India,
November 8 to 10, 1991. 14. 1991.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Abstract: Full: Pelawatte Sugar Industries is located in the dry zone.
The annual rainfall varies between 1000mm and 1350mm, with a mean annual
temperature about 30`C. Until 1982 this area was a defuse secondary
forest interspersed with grass land and thorny scrub. Elephants were
present in this area previously but at a very low density until 1984
when sugar cane became the main cash crop of farmers living in this
area. The problem aggregated this year with the elephant population
increasing due to migratory herds. There were 3 to 4 human deaths per
month while damages to houses were at much higher rate. It was decided
to identify, capture and translocate 10 animals from the area as the
first phase of this operation. This paper describes the methods used in
capturing, securing and translocation of these animals to a sanctuary
70Km away.
Hammond, R.
Elephant attack -- My case study. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 10. 38-40.
1989.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Sukumar, R.,
1989. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Sukumar, R.,
1989. Manslaughter by elephants. The Asian Elephant: Ecology and
Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 135-140.
Armstrong,
R.A., Neill, P., Mossop, R.T., 1988. Asthma induced by ivory dust: a new
occupational cause. Thorax 43, 737-738.
Abstract: A case of asthma is reported that was due to ivory from the
tusk of the elephant, a cause of occupational asthma unique to Africa.
Thoen, C.O.,
1988. Tuberculosis. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical
Association 193, 1045-1048.
Gopal, T.,
Rao, B.U., 1984. Rabies in an Indian wild elephant calf. Indian
Veterinary Journal 61, 82-83.
Snider, D.E.,
Jr., Jones, W.D., Good, R.C., 1984. The usefulness of phage typing
Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 130,
1095-1099.
Abstract: Mycobacteriophage typing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
isolates was used as an epidemiologic aid in investigating the
transmission of tuberculosis in community, industrial, and institutional
outbreaks. The technique was also useful in other situations, e.g.,
documenting congenital transmission of infection and distinguishing
exogenous reinfection from endogenous reactivation. Additional studies
are indicated to further explore the value of phage typing for tracking
the transmission of tuberculosis in the community
Kaufman, R.L.
First response to an elephant attack. Proc.Ann.Elephant Workshop 4.
35-38. 1983.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Saunders, G.,
1983. Pulmonary Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a circus
elephant. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 183,
1311-1312.
Wallach,
J.D., Boever, W.J., 1983. Tuberculosis. Diseases of Exotic Animals. pp.
791-792.
Woodford, M.H.,
1982. Tuberculosis in wildlife in the Ruwenzori National Park, Uganda
(Part II). Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 14, 155-160.
Abstract: The results of post-mortem examinations of 90 warthog (Phacochoerus
aethiopicus) conducted in the Ruwenzori National Park, Uganda during a
survey of tuberculous infection in wildlife are described. Nine per cent
of warthog were found to show gross lesions on autopsy and of these
organisms which could by typed, Mycobacterium bovis was isolated in 2 of
6 cases and 5 atypical mycobacterial strains were isolated from the
remaining 4. The distribution and character of the lesions is described
and it is concluded that the route of infection in the warthog is
alimentary. A mycobacterial survey of 8 other species of mammals, 7
species of birds, 5 species of fish and 1 species of amphibian is
described. None of the mammals (except possibly 1 elephant), birds, fish
or amphibia was harbour atypical, probably saprophytic, mycobacterial
types. The origin of tuberculosis in buffalo and warthog in the
Ruwenzori National Park is discussed and is concluded to have been
previous contact with domestic cattle.
Greenberg,
H.B., Jung, R.C., Gutter, A.E., 1981. Hazel Elephant is dead (of
tuberculosis) (letter). Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 124, 341.
Abstract: Full text. Hazel Elephant was only 35 years old (by our
estimate) when she died. She was cooperative and trusting to the last.
Had we known about her illness sooner, we could have saved her. The
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, var hominis that killed Hazel
was sensitive to our drugs at the following levels: INH to 0.2mcg/ml;
PAS to 2 mcg/ml; R to 1 mcg/ml; and MAB to 5 mcg/ml. Hazel worked and
performed for a travelling circus. Ordinarily good-humored and loving,
she had been off her feed for weeks. She became listless and apathetic,
her eyes lost their sparkle, and she lacked her customary elan.
Nonetheless, Hazel continued to perform for the children and do her
other chores until she came to New Orleans. When Hazel got to New
Orleans, she could barely move. The circus's bosses called for help.
The brought her to the hospital at the Audubon Park and Zoological
Garden. As soon as we saw Hazel, we admitted her to the isolation
ward. We have her fluids, electrolytes, and antibiotics. We got
cultures and other clinical laboratory tests. We comforted Hazel and
tried to put her at ease. It was too late. She fell to the ground, her
rheumy eyes gazed at us pitifully, her respirations failed, and she
died. Hazel's postmortem examination took six hours. She was an
emaciated Asian elephant whose lungs were filled with caseating
granulomata. Since microscopy showed myriads of acid-fast bacilli, we
examined everyone who had, or who thought they had, contact with Hazel.
We found three persons with positive tuberculin skin test results. None
had tuberculous disease. Fortunately, Hazel had been kept away from
other animals. Hazel's circus did not wait for the results of our
autopsy. It left Louisiana. The U.S. Public Health Service tracked it
down and found the man, an animal trainer with cavitary tuberculosis,
who probably gave Hazel her fatal disease. Now another health
department will have to deal with the circus and its animals.
Gutter, A.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis in an Asian elephant. Proc.Am.Assoc.Zoo Vet.
105-106. 1981.
Ref Type: Conference Proceeding
Mann, P.C.,
Bush, M., Janssen, D.L., Frank, E.S., Montali, R.J., 1981.
Clinicopathologic correlations of tuberculosis in large zoo mammals.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 179,
1123-1129.
Abstract: In August 1978, a black rhinoceros at the National Zoological
Park died with generalized tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis. A
2nd black rhinoceros was euthanatized 9 months after M bovis was
cultured from its lungs. After these 2 deaths, numerous large zoo
mammals that had been potentially exposed were subjected to various
procedures to ascertain their status regarding tuberculosis. The
procedures were: intradermal tuberculin testing, evaluation of delayed
hypersensitivity reaction on biopsy specimens, enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) testing, and culture of various secretions
and organs. Several of the animals in this series died during the study.
These were necropsied and examined for evidence of mycobacterial
infection. The results of tuberculin testing varied from species to
species and from site to site within a species. Delayed hypersensitivity
responses generally correlated well with the amount of swelling at the
tuberculin site. In some cases, however, positive reactions were found
without any delayed hypersensitivity response. Results of ELISA testing
were confirmatory in tuberculous animals. Several species were judged to
be nonspecific reactors, based on positive or suspect tuberculin test
results, with negative ELISA results and necropsy findings.
Murname, T.G.,
1981. Encephalomyocarditis. In: Steele, J.H. (Ed.), CRC Handbook Series
in Zoonoses, Section B: Viral Zoonoses. The Iowa State University Press,
Ames, Iowa, pp. 137-147.
Thoen, C.O.,
Himes, E.M., 1981. Tuberculosis. In: Davis, J.W., Karstad, L.H.,
Trainer, D.O. (Eds.), Infectious diseases of wild mammals. The
University of Iowa Press, Ames, Iowa.
Thoen, C.O.,
Mills, K., Hopkins, M.P., 1980. Enzyme linked protein A: An
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay reagent for detecting antibodies in
tuberculous exotic animals. American Journal of Veterinary Research 41,
833-835.
Abstract: An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed,
using protein A labeled with horseradish peroxidase for detecting
antibodies in tuberculous exotic animals (llamas, rhinoceroses,
elephants). The modified ELISA provides a rapid procedure for screening
several animal species simultaneously for tuberculosis without the
production of specific anti-species conjugates. Heat-killed cells of
Mycobacterium bovis and M. avium and purified
protein-derivative tuberculin of M. bovis were used as antigens
for ELISA.
Thoen, C.O.,
Himes, E.M., 1980. Mycobacterial infections in exotic animals. In:
Montali, R.J., Migaki, G. (Eds.), The comparative pathology of zoo
animals. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington,D.C., pp. 241-245.
Abstract: Mycobacteria were isolated from 59% of the 826 specimens
submitted from exotic animals suspected of having tuberculosis.
Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis accounted
for 61% of the isolations from nonhuman primates. Mycobacterium
bovis was the organism most frequently isolated from hoofed animals
and Mycobacterium avium was most commonly isolated from birds.
The distribution, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and control of tuberculosis
in exotic animals is discussed.
Baxby, D.,
Shackleton, W.B., Wheeler, J., Turner, A., 1979. Comparison of
cowpox-like viruses isolated from European zoos. Archives of Virology 61,
337-340.
Abstract: Poxvirus isolated from captive carnivores in Russia (Moscow
virus) and elephants in Germany (elephant virus) were very
closely-related to cowpox virus. Immunological analysis with absorbed
sera separated elephant virus but not compox and Moscow virus, whereas
polypeptide analysis separated compox but not elephant and Moscow
virus. A combination of biological test separated all three. The
epidemiological implications are briefly reviewed.
Begoian,
A.G., 1979. Death from compression of the neck by an elephant's trunk.
Sud Med Ekspert 22, 56-57.
Marennikova,
S.S., Maltseva, N.N., Korneeva, V.I., Garanina, N., 1977. Outbreak of
pox disease among carnivora (felidae) and edentata. J Infect Dis 135,
358-366.
Abstract: An outbreak of pox disease in Carnivora of the family Felidae
occurred in the Moscow Zoo. Two forms of the disease were found: (1)
fatal, fulminant pulmonary without skin lesions and (2) dermal with
rash. The severity of the dermal form varied from subclinical to lethal.
The pulmonary form was characterized by pneumonia and exudative
pleuritis, and large concentrations of virus were observed in the lungs
and exudate. In addition to Carnivora of the family Felidae, two giant
anteaters had a severe form of the disease (dermal with hemorrhages) and
died. The agent of the outbreak appeared to be very closely related to
cowpox virus; however, pocks developed at a lower temperature than do
those that result from infection with cowpox virus. Strains isolated
from sick animals were identical to the virus previously isolated from
an outbreak of pox among elephants and okapi. The most probable sources
of infection were rats that were fed to some of the animals. During the
outbreak, a female attendant at the zoo became infected.
Thoen, C.O.,
Richards, W.D., Jarnagin, J.L., 1977. Mycobacteria isolated from exotic
animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 170,
987-990.
von Benten,
K., Fiedler, H.H., Schmidt, U., Schultz, L.C., Hahn, G., Dittrich, L.,
1975. Occurrence of tuberculosis in zoo mammals; a critical evaluation
of autopsy material from 1970 to the beginning of 1974. Deutsche
Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 82, 316-318.
Mayer, J.,
1973. Vaccinia in humans caused by generalized infection of a circus
elephant. Zentralblatt fur
Bakteriologie,Parasitenkunde,Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene 1. Abt.
Originale 224, 448-452.
Pinto, M.R.M.,
Jainudeen, M.R., Panabokke, R.G., 1973. Tuberculosis in a domesticated
Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus. Veterinary Record 93,
662-664.
Abstract: A case of tuberculosis in a domesticated Asiatic elephant,
Elephas maximus, was diagnosed on post-mortem examination.
The causal organism was identified as Mycobacterium tuberculosis var
hominis on the basis of cultural, biochemical and virulence
studies. Microscopically, the lesions resembled tuberculous lesions as
seen in man and other domestic animals, but an important difference was
the apparent absence of Langerhan's type giant cells. The problems
associated with the clinical diagnosis of tuberculosis in the elephant
are discussed.
Gehring, H.,
Mahnel, H., Mayer, H., 1972. Elephant pox. Zentralbl. Veterinarmed. [B].
19, 258-261.
Gorovitz, C.,
1969. Tuberculosis in an African elephant. American Association of Zoo
Veterinarians Newsletter January 20.
Ratnesar, P.,
1966. Can elephants transmit disease to man? Journal of Tropical
Medicine and Hygiene 69, 215-216.
Neitz, W.O.,
1965. A check-list and host-list of the zoonoses occurrring in mammals
and birds in South and South West Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of
Veterinary Research 32, 189-374.
Gorovitz, C.,
1962. Tuberculosis in an African elephant. Nord Vet Med 14,
351-352.
Seidemann,
R.M., Wheeler, H.M., 1947. Human anthrax from elephant's tusks. Journal
of the American Veterinary Medical Association 135, 837.
Griffith, A.S.,
1939. Infections of wild animals with tubercle and other acid-fast
bacilli. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 32,
1405-1412.
Urbain, A.,
1938. Tuberculosis in wild animals in captivity. Annales de L'Institute
Pasteur 61, 705-730.
Winogradradsky, S., 1938. La microbiologie ecologique ses principes -
son procede. Annales de L'Institute Pasteur 64, 715-730.
Iyer, A.K.,
1937. Veterinary science in India, ancient and modern with special
reference to tuberculosis. Agric. Livest. India 7, 718-724.
Scott, H.H.,
1927. Report on the deaths occurring in the society's gardens during the
year 1926. Procedings of the Zoological Society of London 1927,
173-198.
Narayanan,
R.S., 1925. A case of tuberculosis in an elephant. Journal of
Comparative Pathology 38, 96-97.
Thieringer,
H., 1911. About tuberculosis in an elephant. Berl. Tierarztl. Wschr. 27,
234-235.
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