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The significance of elephants as beasts of burden and a cultural symbol continues to last even today. Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam are some of the states with largest collection of captive elephants, in India. Of these, Kerala is perhaps the only state which continues to buy elephants, on a large scale for cultural reasons. In Kerala there is a great demand for tuskers during festivals. In the absence of a state, breeding programme and due to the ban on elephant capture from wild, the local buyers buy elephants from neighbouring states of Karnataka, Tamilnadu or from North and North eastern India. The greatest market for captive elephants in India is at Sonepur, in the state of Bihar. Sonepur is a town on the banks of river Ganges. In connection with Buddh Purnima, or the full moon, a livestock fair is held every year at Sonepur. People from various parts of India gather here to trade in livestock. Elephant trading is also carried out during this time. Hundreds of elephants, from various parts of N. and N. Eastern India, collect at Sonepur, during the fair.

It requires lot of experience and intelligence to choose the right elephant, from the group. The buyer must choose an elephant suited to the nature of work to be performed. The temperament, period and duration of musth, body structure, age, and health are some factors to consider before purchase. Beauty or external appearance is the priority, for some buyers. In Kerala, elephants with certain external features such as long trunk, large ears, prominent twin domes etc are considered attractive. Most elephants from N. India do not have those characters and are hence branded as unattarctive. Thus the general opinion among Keralites is that elephants from N. India are unattractive. The author is of the opinion that, beauty is a subjective issue and ‘...lies in the eye of the beholder ’.

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PURCHASING ELEPHANTS - TRICKS OF THE TRADE

Dr. V. Krishnamurthy

Most elephants appearing at Sonepur, are ridden with physical defects or illness. These elephants would normally fetch low prices, so the owner or broker tries to hide these defects from prospective buyers. The elephant trade is a very tricky buisness and one can be easily deceived, by clever traders. Discussed below are a few tips to buying a good elephant and making a reasonable bargain.

I. Health and body condition :

Vision: In order to ensure that an elephant has proper vision, it must be approached from both sides ( left and right). Elephants that are blind or with poor vision, are usually more sensitive to their sorroundings. An elephant that is blind on its left eye will be very conscious of movements happening on the left side. It may react violently if approached from the left side. Eyes must be clear without patches. They should be dark brown or honey coloured.
General appearnce: A healthy elephant constantly fans its ears, swishes its tail and trunk and shifts its weight from one feet to another. On the contrary, if an elephant remains motionless, it is an indication of some physical disorder.
Fodder and water consumption: Healthy elephants feed continuously throughout the day. A lack of appetite is an indication of internal disorder.
Composition of excreta: Dung and urine should be clear. The dung should be of the right consistency and expelled at regular intervals.
Motility of limbs: Elephants must be checked for lameness. They must be made to walk forwards, backwards, take right and left turns to check motility of legs. They should also be made to lie down and sit up. If the elephant makes more than two or three swings of its legs and also groans while trying to sit up, it is an indicator of disability and pain. Forelimbs may appear curved inwards, due to abuse by mahouts.
Tusks: Tusks may be infected. False tusks are fixed during the trade, in order to deceive the buyer. Tusk can be inspected for pus or infection by inserting a finger into the region around the tusk. Infected tuks also produce an odour.

II. Temperament

7. The temperament of an important factor irerespective of the nature of work it is suited for. The buyer must observe the elephant, from a distance, in the presence and absence of its mahout. He could also consult experienced people for a second opinion. There is also a practise of drugging elephants with a violent temperament. Thus the elephant may appear docile during inspection.

III. Other factors:

The elephant must also allow its mahout to mount via the front and hind legs. Some elephants may not allow poeple to ride on its back. The elephant must also follow the foot commands of the rider. Elephants display stereotypic movements on chains, such as weaving of head, rocking back and forth, swinging one feet around, etc, must be avoided. If these actions continue even on being unchained, the elephant should be avoided.
An elephant with 17 nails is considered inauspicious. Traders sometimes place an artificial nail made of sea shell to cheat the buyer.
Dark pigmentation on the tongue and the palatte are considered inauspicious.

IV. Purchasing timber elephants:The following are the desired qualities for a timber elephant.

Neck must be short. Such animals are called pig - necked, in local parlance.
Animal must not be tall and lanky. Limbs must not be long.
Animal must appear strong and fleshy with feet place firmly on ground.
Knee must be broad
The callouses from work or laying down must not be prominent.
Spinal ridge must not be visisble.
Tail must be broad, long and fleshy
Temporal region must be convex without depressions
Bones on the briskette (chest) must not be visisble.
Tongue must be pinkish in colour.
Skin must be elastic with several wrinkles.

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AUSPICIOUS AND INAUSPICIOUS SIGNS

Dr. K.C.Panicker

In Kerala, as in other states, the presence or absence of certain physical characters determine the quality of an elephant ie its temperament and disposition. Based on these traits, it is also judged if the elephant is auspicious enough to be owned or purchased. Listed below are a few of them

A dignified look with a raised head and low back.
The fore and the hind feet should be placed straight and firm on the ground. The legs must be straight without deformity.
The twin domes on the head (thalakunni), should be big, raised and evenly separated. They must not be close to each other
The forehead bump (vayukumbham) must be broad and projecting forwards.
The portion on the face, between the eyes and the tusk (cheela) must be compact. This portion must be long and broad. In cow-elephants this region is less pronounced.
The eyes must appear clear, with the colour of honey and should be moist. The pupils must be dilated. Red eyes in elephants indicate an aggressive and angry temperament. This is also observed during musth. Eyes may turn red due to injuries. One must be wary of elephants that have a fixed gaze.
The ears must be large. While being fanned, they must strike with a loud flapping sound, in the front. Small ears are not desirable in elephants.
The tusks are decisive in judging an elephant 's appeal. They may be formed in several ways such as, converging in the front, diverging, or curved upwards, etc. The ideal is that, the tusks should grow downwards, rise up, and then be evenly separated. The colour must be that of butter or sandalwood.
The trunk should be fleshy, broad , long and trailing on the ground. The tip of the trunk (thunikkai), must be long, triangular and strong. Injuries to the trunk, especially the thunikkai may disfigure the elephant.
The temporal region, (kannakuzhi), must be swollen and fleshy. If this region appears depressed due to loss of fat or flesh, it can be assumed that the elephant is tired or weak.
The back must slope downwards. The bones of the back must be pronounced and the area where the mahout sits (irikkasthanam), must be broad and fleshy ; otherwise it will not be a comfortable ride. This seat of the mahout, is above the forelegs or the scapular bone.
The body must be long and the stomach must always be full and big.
The tail must be long and end broadly into a fleshy region (vaal kudam). There should be ample hair on the tail. The tail must be long enough to touch the ankle, but not too long to trail on the ground, and should be devoid of twists or turns.
Elephant usually have 18 nails; five each on the forelegs and four each on the hind legs. Rarely some have 20 nails, which is considered very auspicious. Indian mythology claims that Airavat, the elephant of Lord Indra, possessed 20 nails. Elephants that posses 16 nails are considered inauspicious for individuals to own, but institutions like temples could keep them. The nails must be clear and smooth without cracks and must appear pronounced like the shell of a tortoise. Elephants used for labour and physical activity may have broken nails.
The skin must be jet black in colour ( like black teak or a group of rocks). In Malayalam elephants are called kariveeran, meaning the ‘black hero’. The skin must be resilient. Lack of resilience is an indication of dehydration.
When multiple hairs arise from a single root, it is considered an indicator of long life, and is a good sign. These occur usually below the eye or between the eye and the trunk, or on the sides of their chin.
If the insides of the mouth or the upper surface of the tongue is black , the elephant’s character is considered unpredictable.
It is inauspicious to have black markings on the penis.
The elephant makes a gurgling sound, from the throat, on seeing its favourite mahout or owner. Similarly it may excrete dung or urinate, to express its happiness. All these are considered as good signs. If the elephant remains motionless (without fanning its ears), when approached, then one must be wary of it.

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THE IMAGE AND THE PROFESSION OF MAHOUTS IN THE NORTH EASTERN INDIA

Parbati Baruah

Usually the mahouts in the N.E. India come from among the tribals and the so called "low castes". But the Muslims and the upper caste Hindu mahouts are also not uncommon. Until recently, there were many families in Assam which produced generations after generations of mahouts.
Elephants have been domesticated in the N.E. India since time immemorial and both the elephant and the mahout have become a part of the folklore and the folksongs. Stories of brave and expert phandis (noosers) and mahouts are passed on from generation to generation. In the rural Assam mahouts are looked upon with awe and admiration and it is not unusual for village belles to fall in love with young mahouts.
An average Assamese mahout is a jolly, good natured person an accompalished folk singer and is very much in demand in local functions and ceremonies. With his capacity to control such a big and powerful animal as elephant, mahouts are often associated with supernatural powers and invited to act as "faith healers" or "Ojhas". Some of them practise witchcraft. Many of the mahouts have made a name for their knowledge of medicinal herbs.
Grass cutters, mahouts and phandis form their own closely knit society - having their own rules, regulations and code of discipline. They have their own informal "university" and their own system of "examination". A mahout becomes a "phandi" after passing a rigorous test conducted by other phandis. Only a few phandis can aspire to become "Baro - Phandi" which is equivalent to a master’s degree in elephant management. Phandis and Baro-Phandis derive maximum respect in the society of mahauts and they are also held in esteem by the elephant owners and government officials. In the elephant catching operation in N.E. India, phandis and Baro-Phandis are the key persons and they are often known to dictate their own terms.
Besides the Forest Department, there are hundreds of private persons owning elephants in the N.E. India. Given the typical terrain of N.E. India, elephants are going to stay as a means of transportation, logging, tourism and forest protection. As such, demand for good mahouts and phandis will always be there.

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EVOLUTION OF ELEPHANTS - THE MYTHOLOGICAL STORY

Dr. K.C. Panicker

Elephants are worshipped and respected almost all over India, by the Hindus. Indian mythology contains several stories about them. There is one such story about their origin. Lord Brahma, created elephants with his divine powers of creation. At first, he rolled up some loose soil, into a sphere. He chanted some Vedic mantras and the mud ball acquired divinity. This divine sphere was consumed by Aditi, a Devadasi or celestial beauty . After a gestation period of 1000 years, Aditi delivered the sphere, and it split immediately into 2 halves. Brahma took the two halves and transformed it into elephants. The male was named Airavat and the female, Abramu. Both these elephants had white skin, 4 tusks and a pair of wings. It is believed that these two are procreators of all elephants that are living. These divine elephants were very strong. The Gods in heaven, thought it would be good to have a few more to protect them against demons. Lord Brahma therefore created 7 more pairs of elephants. These seven pairs of elephants along with Airavat and Abramu were posted at the 8 entrances to heaven as guards. They were collectively called as Ashtadikpalakas, meaning 8 divine guards. The Ashtadikpalakas were,

Males	Females
Pundareekan	Kapila
Pushpadantan	Tamarakarni
Vamanan	Angana
Supradeekan	Anupama
Anjanan	Anjanavati
Sarvabhowman	Subradanti
Kumudan	Penkala
Airavatam	Abramu

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The elephants became arrogant with their newly acquired status and powers. They misused their powers to annoy and disturb rishis (saints) who were meditating. The outraged rishis cursed the elephants which deprived them of their wings and one pair of tusks. One of the rishis also banished the elephants from heaven and ordered them to live on earth there after. Before leaving heaven, the elephants requested Lord Indra, (king of heaven), to arrange for a physician , who would treat and take care of them on earth. In response to the request, Brahma, created an Apsara or celestial beauty named Gunavati. Gunavati was very proud of her looks and this displeased Indra. He turned her into a cow elephant and banished her from heaven to earth. Gunavati was however granted that she would be redeemed of her curse, if she consumed the semen of Samagayana rishi. She also had to produce his child before she could return to heaven.

Gunavati thus lived on earth, near Samagayana rishi’s ashram (camp), as a cow elephant. One day by luck and accident she was able to consume the rishi’s semen and became impregnated with his child. A child (boy) was born to her, after 1000 years of gestation. She abandoned the boy in the jungle, and left for heaven. The boy was adopted by the elephants and was named Palakapya. Palakapya grew up among elephants and as he grew older, also became their caretaker and physician.

As years went by, the elephant population continued to grow in the jungle. They began to encroach the nearby villages and terrify the human inhabitants. King Romapada, of the kingdom of Champa, was distressed by the misery of his subjects. He ordered the capture of all the elephants around the jungle. Palakapya was upset by this incident and he asked the king to release his elephants. He also assured the king that they would not cause any more trouble to people. The king was impressed with Palakapya’s love for elephants and released the elephants immediately. Palakapya returned with the elephants to the jungle. He then wrote the Sanskrit text, Hastayayurveda.

This text discusses the various elephant diseases and Ayurvedic treatments to cure them. It is believed that Palakapya, wrote the book himself, based on his experiences with treating elephants during his life. The book is in Sanskrit, and is not easily understood by lay men. A few Sanskrit and Ayurveda scholars are attempting to translate the book into Malayalam and later into English.

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