SECTION III

MANAGEMENT

A Traditional Perspective on Elephant Management
Traditional Knowledge on Elephants
Management Practices in Kerala
Elephant Management in Tamil Nadu Forest Department
Elephants in Captivity: Some Experiences from North Bengal
Elephant Management in Kerala Forest Department
Care of Pregnant cow Elephants
Care of Elephant Calves
Handrearing and Training of an Elephant Calf
Bathing an Elephant
Elephant Food and Fodder
Timber Elephants of Kerala
Transportation of Elephants

A TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON ELEPHANT MANAGEMENT

Poomulli Neelakanthan Namboothiri Pad

Restraining Tools

The restraining tools used commonly by mahouts of Kerala are stick, hook, long pole and knife. A mahout must know the proper usage of these tools. He must be armed with at least a knife while approaching an elephant. This is for personal safety. It is only through observation, imitation and practise that one can learn the correct usage of the tools. A mahout should also know the marmams on the elephant’s body. Carelessness on the mahout’s part can cause irreparable damage to the elephant.

Grooming

In Kerala, there exists a practise to occasionally scrub elephants, especially timber elephants, with pumice stone. This acts like a muscle relaxant and also provides better skin tone. It is more common in Southern Kerala. This practise should not be repeated very often because it has negative effects too. If the elephants are scrubbed hard with pumice stone, for an hour continuously, their eyes begin to water. Sub adults in juvenile musth, must not be scrubbed with stone as they become very weak. Elephant that are used to being stone scrubbed frequently, will experience difficulties when this practise is discontinued. They may suffer from impaction. For calves and sub adults, the stone must be used only from below the knee.

Mahouts prod their elephants with the sharp end of the coconut husk, while bathing them. This is to make the elephant obey commands such as move or stretch feet etc. This practise must be discouraged. The mahout may accidentally prod on the marmam or sensitive points.

Traditional medications

Eye Injuries

The following herbal preparation may be prepared and used in case of injuries to the eye or conditions where the eye waters constantly or acquires reddish tinge. The tender leaves of Ambazham (Spondias pinnata) are ground well and mixed with honey. The elephant is made to lie on its side and this mixture is applied twice a day on the eye, for 4-5 days.

Swellings

Swellings caused at work site or from being attacked by another elephant, can be treated by the following method. Pepper mixed with crystalline salt are placed in a rough cloth or sack and used as a compress on the swelling. Sand is heated in an iron vessel and maintained at a luke warm temperature. The compress is warmed on the sand and placed on the swellings. This treatment provides immediate relief from pain and the swelling will subside. Most often, elephants get injured near the mouth when attacked by a tusker. This makes it difficult for them to eat fodder. The same method can be applied to treat such swellings.

Swellings that have been present on the body for a long time can be treated as follows: Salt is boiled in sesame or gingelly oil and the mixture is applied on the swelling. The above mentioned compress method is carried out. A paste consisting of the skin of kadukka (Terminalia chebula), nellikka (Emblica officinalis), Thannikka (Terminalia bellarica), shatakoopa, fried ellu (Sesamum indicum) and boiled rice, is prepared and mixed with boiled cow’s milk, butter or ghee (clarified butter). This mixture is then applied over the swelling.

Injuries on sensitive points

Sesame or gingelly oil is initially applied on the swelling. A finely powdered mixture consisting of marmani tablets (available in Ayurvedic shops), and egg white is applied over the swelling. This mixture should be applied every six hours.

Loss of appetite, de worming and stomach ailments

A powdered mixture with, equal quantities of chukku (dry ginger), mulaku (pepper) and tippali (Piper longum) are administered orally along with rice. The powder can be rolled into a lemon sized ball, for an adult elephant. This medicine helps improve appetite.

Ashtachoornam (available in Ayurvedic shops), and ghee are mixed with rice and administered orally.

A mixture consisting of fried Inthuppu (available in Ayurvedic shops), jaggery and asafoetida are pounded and rolled into a lemon sized ball, to be administered with rice. It must be given an hour before the elephant takes a drink of water. This mixture not only improves appetite but also is a de worming agent and also dilates the anal opening during impaction, constipation and other minor intestinal disorders.

Energisers

Rice gruel and milk are excellent energisers. It can be administered to an elephant after a long work session. Tubers of pal murukku (Ipomea paniculata) and chittamruth (Tiniospora cardifolia) are cut into small pieces and pounded. The mixture is mixed with melted butter or ghee and honey and made into a fine paste. The paste can be rolled into balls and can be administered orally to the elephant along with rice for 8-10 days. The medicine should be administered before the elephant is given a drink of water.

General pointers for mahouts

Purchasing elephants: An elephant has to be thoroughly inspected for vices and defects before buying. Discussed below are some methods of checking an elephant’s condition.

The elephant should be able to carry out the following commands and activities:

• Raise trunk and sprinkle water on the back
• Urinate and defecate periodically
• Stand up and lay down, without difficulty.

The elephant should also have certain auspicious signs such as 18-20 nails. The palate must not have dark spots. The tip of trunk must be long, indicating long life span.

Precautions at work

The mahout must check the condition of vakka or logging rope. Old ropes must be replaced. Nylon vakkas must not be used often. They injure the elephant’s mouth. Tuskers must not be allowed to carry extremely heavy logs on their tusks.

During long marches, mahouts must provide drinking water to the elephants at regular intervals. It is also advisable to make bull elephants carry fodder on their tusks. Elephants must be allowed to rest every few hours and allowed to eat the fodder. Carrying fodder on the tusk also acts as a psychological barrier.

Return to top of page

TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE ON ELEPHANTS

Krishnan Kutti Nayar

Spirituality of a mahout:

The traditional elephant management system of Kerala had an element of spirituality, about it. In order to be successful, a mahout would have to seek the blessings of his Ashan (Master) and Lord Ganesha. The elephant is worshipped in India, because it is considered to be a representation of Lord Ganesha. It is believed that several Gods inhabit elephant’s body. Listed below are the names of the various Gods and the position they occupy on the elephant’s body.

Return to top of page

Approaching an elephant:

A mahout must always carry his restraining devices, while approaching the elephant. He must be calm and pray to his teacher and favourite God before mounting. The elephant must be approached from the left side and the mahout must command the elephant, to move to his right. If the elephant is co operative and in a favourable mood, it will indicate so by beating its trunk on the ground, urinating and defecating. If not, it will sniff the mahout with its trunk, shake its head or rub its body against a tree. These are signs of protest. In such a case, the elephant should be given commands to sit and lie down, before unchaining, to ensure that the elephant is subservient.

Ezhunnallippu or festival parade:

Handling elephants for festivals, requires practice and extreme care. Elephants of Kerala are trained at a very early age for ezhunnallippu.

• During ezhunnallippu, some elephants become restless and agitated due to the strain of standing for long hours in the sun, the noise from the crowd, and presence of other tuskers in the parade. The mahout must be prepared to control the elephant before it decides to bolt.
• A mahout must be aware of the vices and temperament of not only his elephant but also the adjacent elephants, in a parade. Some elephants have a tendency to attack another male standing next to it. There have been several incidents of elephants attacking each other during festivals. While standing next to such an elephant, the mahout must position his elephant in such a way that the two elephants are not standing exactly adjacent to each other. The mahout must make his elephant stand a few paces behind the parade line. This helps in avoiding the first attack and the elephant and mahout will have time to escape.
• Elephants must be hobbled during ezhunnallippus. Hobbles act as a physical and psychological restraint on the elephant. Some mahouts consider it unnecessary to hobble their elephant, due to an arrogant assumption that their elephant will not go out of control. A sensible mahout has to hobble his elephant, even though it has a mild temperament and is very docile.
• Mahout must stand close to the elephant holding the tip of the right tusk. The tusk is held at the tip, to avoid the first attack, in case the elephant hits out with its tusk. Holding an elephant’s tusk act as a psychological restraint.
• Some elephants are afraid of fire crackers at the ezhunnallippu. Such elephants must definitely be hobbled and the mahout must stand close, to reassure and comfort the elephant. elephants may lean closer to the mahout and thus a bond or trust develops, between the mahout and the elephant.
• During ezhunnallippu that last for several hours, elephants fall asleep on their feet. The mahout then should wake the elephant only by patting it on its back first or by talking loudly, before holding the tusks. If the mahout abruptly hold the tusk, the elephant may attack the mahout.
• If a mahout wants to lead his elephant across or right in front of another elephant, he must inform the mahouts of the other elephant before doing so. This is to make them alert to watch their elephant , because it may come forwards to attack.
• Mahouts must never punish their elephants in public. The elephant may cause panic among people if it steps aside or turns around to avoid a blow.
• A mahout and elephant must be familiar with the routine of the temple and the ezhunnallippu, to avoid confusion.
• It is essential to apply body chains on the elephant during ezhunnallippu. One end of the chain goes around the left hind leg and the rest goes around the body. The ezhunnallippu accompaniers, who are supposed to sit on elephant back, mount via the right leg.
• A mahout must not punish the elephant when the ezhunnallippu accompaniers, are seated on top.
• A mahout must ensure that the elephant stays still, while the thalekettu, (the head gear or decoration) is being tied. The mahout seated on top, is in a very precarious position, while tying the thalekettu and may topple over if the elephant does not stay still.

Ketti-azhikkal or breaking:

In Kerala there is a practice called ketti-azhikkal which is carried out when a new mahout is assigned to an elephant, in the absence of its old one. The mahouts use various methods, especially the valiya kol or long stick to bring the elephant under their control. Ketti-azhikkal is literally a battle between the mahouts and the elephant. The elephant in the end, succumbs to the torture by the mahouts. Several elephants have died or been severely mutilated during the process. Ketti-azhikkal is also done while unchaining the elephant after musth. An elephant, after its musth period, does not accept its mahout easily. This is due to the fact that while in musth there is very little contact between the mahout and elephant. Thus the degree of control the mahout has over the elephant, diminishes. Hence the mahout has to re-establish his control over the elephant after its musth and he may have to perform another ketti-azhikkal.

Ketti-azhikkal is criticised very much through out the state and condemned, by the mahouts themselves. In the present scenario of Kerala, it has how ever, become inevitable. Mahouts change their jobs from one elephant to another, very often. Elephants are also changed hands frequently between owners. Thus the time a mahout spends with one elephant and vice versa, is very short. Therefore there is very little bonding between the elephant and mahout. The mahouts are thus forced to control the elephant by harsh methods.

During Ketti-azhikkal, one of the front feet and the diametrically opposite hind feet are chained. Two or more mahouts approach the elephant. These mahouts agitate the animal and induce it to attack or chase them, while still tethered onto the chain. The mahout who intends to be the actual mahout, gives verbal commands to the elephant. The elephant disobeys and so the mahouts use the long pole or short stick on the elephant. This process is continued until the elephant becomes exhausted. Gradually the elephant stops resisting and begins to obey the commands. There are however some unspoken rules about kett I-azhikkal, which is that the mahout must not attack the elephant stealthily i.e. the elephant must be able to see or feel the blow from the pole, coming. The elephant must be allowed to fight back or resist as much as it can. It is improper to attack the elephant on its sensitive points, as it will cause permanent damage and tremendous pain.

If the mahouts are convinced that the elephant is submissive, they should command the elephant to lie down. They should approach the elephant with caution. One mahout may mount the elephant, while the other stays on the ground. The elephant is thus taken for a walk and tethered at a new site. The mahouts must be wary of the elephant for at least a month after ketti-azhikkal. It is also safer if both mahouts handle the elephant together.

Musth:

A healthy elephant goes into musth after 15 years of age. During this growing period, mahouts have to handle their elephant carefully. The training or handling during juvenile musth, moulds the elephant’s character. The elephant will continue to show the same characters in adulthood also. Mahouts must be careful that the elephant does not turn too aggressive or into a killer, during its juvenile musth. Some of the symptoms shown at the early stages of musth are listed below.

• Quick response to commands, i.e. quick movements
• Frequent sniffing of mahout and people with trunk
• Swift changes in moods and behaviour
• Fixed gaze. Elephants stare at objects for a long time.
• Saliva dribbles constantly from the trunk.
• Eyes appear bright and red
• Elephants dig around the tethering area
• During a scrub bath, dirt comes off easily
• Temporal region swells up
• Urine dribbles constantly

A few elephants go into musth twice, in a year. This reduces the work utility of the animal. To prevent the recurrence of musth, elephants are subjected to intense physical activity, such as logging. Physical exertion and strain delays the onset of musth.

Herbal preparations can be administered to the elephant, to induce musth.

1kg each of amukkuram (Withania somnifera), gingelly seed (Sesamum indicum) black gram (Phaseolus mungo), thippali (Piper longum) and 250 gms each of vayalchulli seeds (Astercantha longifolia) and naykornam seed  (Mucana prurita) are powdered together. An equal quantity of jaggery is melted and mixed with the prepared powder. The entire mixture is rolled into smaller lemon sized balls and dipped in honey. One such ball can be administered to the elephant every day along with rice, a few weeks before the expected musth period.

3 kgs of raw rice with 1¹/_{2 ,} kgs of black gram (Phaseolus mungo), and green gram (Phaseolus aureus) can be made into a gruel. This gruel, mixed with 3 litres of cow’s milk can be administered to the elephant every morning around the musth period to induce musth.

During musth, elephants must be given special foods like, cucumber or curds mixed with rice, to lower their internal temperature.

Herbal remedies for minor ailments:

Mahouts must know a few herbal medicines to treat minor ailments in his elephant. These medicines are all time tested and completely harmless.

1. To improve digestion:

Juice obtained from the stalk of lotus flower, is boiled with sesame seeds (Sesamum indicum). This mixture can be administered along with rice every day for improved digestion.

2. Eye ailments:

a. Eye itches: Thriphala (an Ayurvedic medicine), may be mixed with honey and applied on the eyes to reduce or stop itching of the eyes.

b. Opacity, Watering of eyes: Tender buds of ambazham (Spondias pinnata), can be mashed in honey. The mixture can be poured into the corners of the eye, using a thin cloth. The cloth filters out the granular substances in the mixture. This medicine can be used to treat opacity or watering eyes. It an also be used when the elephant is unable to open its eyes due to injuries.

3. Injuries and wounds:

Elephants may get injured by the use of restraining devices or by accidents. Buffalo dung can be boiled in water, until it becomes thick in consistency. One of the following plants odichutti, nochi and nelli may be used as a brush. In the absence of these plants any other spraying or sprinkling device can be used. The brush is dipped into the mixture and sprayed onto the injured region with considerable force.

4. Swellings:

Equal quantities of salt and pepper are powdered and heated in ghee (melted butter) or gingelly oil. The mixture is allowed to cool to a lukewarm temperature before applying on the swelling.

Snake gourd juice along with inthuppu (Ayurvedic medicine) are boiled and cooled to be applied on the swelling.

5. Colic:

Fried crystalline salt diminishes the effects of colic in a remarkable manner. Salt makes the animal thirsty and consequently it drinks a lot of water. During colic it is very essential to prevent dehydration as it may worsen the condition. Salt can be mixed with concentrate feed or water to be administered to the elephant. Salt must be administered during the day. The quantity of salt to be used should depend on the elephant’s size. An average adult elephant between (7-9 feet) may be given 100 gms of salt per day.

The bark of madakka tree, a pinch of salt and a few flowers of thumba (Leucas aspera) can be fried on fire. The mixture can be administered along with rice, during colic.

Return to top of page

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN KERALA

Dr. Jacob. V. Cheeran

Feeding:

Mature elephants feed continuously for a considerable length of time. In Kerala, the main cut fodder in captivity is palm and coconut leaves. Working animals are fed with concentrates consisting of grains, millet and pulses. Common salt should also be added. Elephant’s capacity to digest food is poor and only 40% is digested and the rest (60%) is passed out as faeces. The standard practice is to supply fodder at the rate of 5% of the body weight. So a cow elephant will need 150-175 kg of fodder and a bull will need 200-275 kg of fodder. The growing calves, pregnant and lactating cows may take more food. The concentrate can be powdered and cooked depending on its nature. This will help in better digestion and assimilation of food given. Horse gram, rag, salt (100 gm) and jaggery are common ingredients of the concentrate. Ordinarily 12-15 kgs of the concentrate are fed everyday. On rest days concentrate ration is reduced. It has been found from practice in Kerala that, if sufficient greens are available, the concentrate is unnecessary, unless the animal is put to heavy work, like timber hauling.

Restraining devices:

Elephants are not ordinarily let loose but tethered to a tree or a strong pole made of iron or concrete. Usually only one hind limb is tethered with one chain. During musth, special heavy chains are used. The forelimb also is tethered to the front. This will help to clean the hind portion. When the animal is not taken out regularly in musth, the chain of the hind limb is alternated. The chain that is tied is released only after one chain has been put on to the other hind limb. During musth, special heavy chains (musth chains) are used and both the alternate fore and hind limbs are tied. i.e. the right hind limb and the left forelimb. Chains should be of the following sizes. ½, ", 5/8" and 3/4" in thickness. Both fore and hind limbs can be hobbled with one chain. Another chain called the cross chain, is tied between the chains of the fore and hind limb. The chains should have special locking devices at various lengths so that it can be shortened and lengthened depending upon the requirement.

Another chain known as the body chain goes around the body and is tied to the hind limb. If an animal misbehaves, the rider can easily release the chain and push it down into the ground. This will act as a trailing chain and can be tethered on a tree or strong pillar. A trailing chain is always used when the mahout is not sure about the temperament of the animal.

A double rope is used around the neck and this is useful when the animal is being ridden. The mahout can put his feet through the rope to keep his feet in position and can also give toe commands. Ordinarily a rope with a length of 625 cms and 2 ½ - 3 cms in diameter is used for this purpose.

Elephant hooks are of different sizes and shapes. In Kerala it is made up of wood like teak, 100-125 cms long and the hook is made of brass, with a rounded prod at the tip. But in many other parts of the country, it is short, with a large hook, and made of iron. Mahout will also carry a big knife as well as a stick, of one meter length made from the branches of tree which is flexible and tough.

A long rod made of hard wood of 3-3 ½ meter long is used to prod the elephant from a distance. This is also used to punish or control the elephant, by placing it against the back of the ear. The animals are trained to remain in the same place and not push the rod down. This is also a test of obedience.

All of this restraining instruments must be used, very sparsely only. The knife is used very sparingly. It is often used to cut down the fodder and to dress it

Tethering site:

The tethering site should have shade and proximity to water. Surface should not be too hard and must be preferably muddy. These should be provision for drainage and convenience to dispose dung, urine and fodder refuse. These wastes also can be incinerated periodically.

Return to top of page

ELEPHANT MANAGEMENT IN TAMIL NADU FOREST DEPARTMENT

Dr. V. Krishnamurthy

Tamilnadu Forest Department owns 2 elephant camps, one at Topslip, Anamalais and the other at Mudumalai. Departmental elephants were used extensively for timber extraction and hauling until a few years ago. This activity has been reduced to a large extent these days, following the ban by the Indian Government, on tree felling. Now the departmental elephants are used for tourist rides, safaris and shows. They also work in the departmental plantations occasionally.

Camp routine

Elephant are usually released overnight into the forests for grazing. A long trailing chain is fastened on the hind leg and a bell is tied around the neck. Next morning, the mahouts fetch their elephants from the forests. Mahouts follow the trail of their respective elephant and can easily determine their location from the tinkling of bells. The elephants are brought back to the camp to be washed and fed. They assemble in front of the kitchen quarters for their daily ration or concentrate feed. A forest officer is present during the feed time. After the feed, mahouts and elephants proceed to their respective work sites. The departmental rules permit the elephant to be worked for only six hours in a day, i.e. 8 -11 AM and 2-5 PM. Mahouts and elephants rest for a few hours in the afternoon, before proceeding for work. Elephants are scrubbed and released into the forests once again, at the end of the day. Elephant that are used for pleasure rides, work for only 1 - 1¹/₂ hours in the morning and afternoon.

Veterinary care

A veterinary surgeon are appointed in - charge of elephants. The veterinary officer decides the feed quantity and work load of every elephant, based on its size and age.

Camp sites

A two month rest period is available for elephants during the months of March and April. This is the dry season and fodder is usually scarce in the forest. During this period, the camp is shifted temporarily to an alternate site with sufficient fodder and water. This change of camps allows the vegetation to regenerate in the previous camp.

Before deciding a camp site, the following points must be considered.

• Availability of sufficient water
• Availability of forest lands rich with elephant fodder
• Accessible and safe terrain
• Safe from wild elephants
• Proximity to work site

Education and Publicity

The two camps are open to the general public. The Tamil nadu Forest Department has developed an educational package at Mudumalai camp, for tourists. Video shows explaining the plight of elephants in the wild, efforts being taken for their conservation and elephant shows are all part of the package. The shows keep the elephants fit and occupied. The programme not only educates and entertains the public, but also generates sufficient income, which can sustain the camp expenses.

Return to top of page

ELEPHANTS IN CAPTIVITY: SOME EXPERIENCES FROM NORTH BENGAL

S.S. Bist

1. I NTRODUCTION

In the northern part of West Bengal (Commonly referred to as North Bengal), the Forest Department has been maintaining captive elephants for over a century. At present, there are about 50 elephants (including calves) with the Forest Department, mostly in Jaldapara Sanctuary, with some in Gorumara National Park and Buxa Tiger Reserve. These elephants have either been caught from the wild, born in captivity, purchased from Sonepur or some other elephant fair.

These elephants are used for the following purposes:

1. Patrolling by the forest staff.
2. Carrying tourists to the sanctuaries and national parks for watching wildlife.
3. Conducting census of wild animals and monitoring particular wild animal if needed.
4. Controlling wild animals straying outside & helping in capturing them, if required.

Elephants are not used for timber-hauling in North Bengal, not withstanding a successful trial in Buxa Tiger Reserve in 1995. There are, at present, only two privately owned elephants in North Bengal.

2. TRAINING OF MAHOUTS

There is no formal system of training of mahouts. Quite often, it is a simple family matter -- a mahout teaching his son whatever he knows about elephants. An outsider, however, has to start his career as a daily waged labourer, helping the mahout and the grass-cutter with various chores. Gradually, he becomes a grass-cutter and spends a lot of time in learning the tricks of the trade from his mahout, or from other mahouts. Finally he becomes a mahout whenever there is a vacancy, and automatically assumes the role of trainer for other grass-cutters and labourers. So the cycle continues. In this way a mahout learns good as well as bad points of his teacher or teachers, as the case may be. There are many standing orders issued by the authorities from time to time regarding the use of elephant and its care, but these orders are often flouted because the mahout finds it difficult to change his habit grown over the years. Supervising officers, therefore, have to play an important role in the overall management of elephants.

3. COMMON AILMENTS OF CAPTIVE ELEPHANTS

Eye inflammation, foot rot (locally called "Karrhi" and "Chhajan") and back-sore are the most common ailments noticed in the captive elephants. Problems relating to eye and foot are not seen in wild elephants. These are in fact, characteristics of the captive animals living in unhygienic conditions. A great emphasis is, therefore, given on cleanliness in pilkhanas (elephant stables). Mahouts, grass-cutters and other forest staff living near a pilkhana are also discouraged from rearing livestock, to reduce the chances of spread of cattle-borne diseases among captive elephants.

Back-sore in captive elephants is mostly because of ill designed gears and uneven distribution of load on the elephant. With a little precaution, this problem can be avoided and the working life of captive elephants can be greatly enhanced.

4. PREGNANCY IN CAPTIVE ELEPHANTS

Strange as it may appear, pregnancy in captive cow elephants has always been noted to be caused by wild bulls rather than by captive bulls despite better opportunities available to the latter. Many experts believe that working bull elephants lose their potency. There are others who believe that captive cow elephants show a distinct partiality for wild bulls. The fact remains that at any given point of time, there are many captive elephants who are either pregnant or have recently delivered calves.

It is believed that gestation period for a female calf is 17-18 months and that for male calf is 21-22 months. Standing orders provide that a pregnant elephant should perform its normal work during the first six months. It should be given very light duties for the next six months. During the 13th to 15th months of pregnancy, it should be given no other duty except carry its own fodder. Its "Peti" (belly-belt) should also not be used. Thereafter, until the delivery, the elephant should be given full rest and also a special nutritious diet. The rest and the special diet should continue till the calf is six months old. The elephant can, thereafter, be gradually put to its normal duties. Calf is weaned at age of 18-24 months when it attains a height of 4 feet or above.

Obviously, rest and light duties for the pregnant elephant means a comfortable time for a mahout. Therefore, he makes no attempt or only a half hearted attempt to chase away a wild bull paying visit to the cow elephant in his charge. But pregnancy of a captive elephant is very costly to the forest department in terms of the expenditure and the working hours lost -- a mahout must realise it.

Standing orders regarding care of pregnant elephants are useful, but they can be properly followed only if the pregnancy is detected in time. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. There is the example of the elephant Matangini of Jaldapara Sanctuary, who was being engaged for normal duties till about a week before the delivery of its calf in August 1991. The result was a sick and weak mother with no milk to feed to its calf . The mother died within a few months survived by an ever-ailing and ill-grown calf. There have also been the cases when a mahout wrongly claimed that his elephant was pregnant, availed himself and his elephant of all the prescribed facilities and put the entire blame on the elephant when it "failed" to deliver even after the due date was long over. Fortunately, such cases are not common.

There is yet another noteworthy case of a young cow elephant Anusuya of Jaldapara, which calved twice in 1991 and 1993 -but trampled its calf to death shortly after the birth on both the occasions. The elephant had since long been posted in a remote area away from the company of other cow elephants. It is believed that the reason for its abnormal behaviour is the psychological fear arising out of its inexperience with calves. It has been recommended that the elephant should be kept in a big pilkhana where it should be able to witness other cow elephants delivering and rearing their calves .

5. PECULIAR BEHAVIOUR IN CAPTIVE ELEPHANTS

A careful observation of the behaviour of captive elephants over a period of time is enough to indicate that like human beings, each elephant has its own personality, I.Q., moods, likes, dislikes and perhaps also a philosophy to look at life.

There is the example of the saintly Jatra Prasad, a tusker, who remains cool even while in musth and does not respond to overtures from its female companions. The cow elephant Chanchal Payari could not resist the call of a wild bull and would escape to forests whenever it got an opportunity, its favourite moment being the bathing time. It died after one such escapade in 1994. The tusker Lal Bahadur, despite its enormous size and big tusks, continues to be a timid and nervous elephant. It remains close to the forest camps for fear of wild elephants whenever it escapes to forests (which it does almost every year). The tusker Rajkant is mortally afraid of buffaloes. There are some elephants who would not get on to a truck, come what may. There are some others who will not take a particular fodder.

Elephants in a pilkhana are also known to have a strong liking or disliking for a particular elephant and would express their feelings by sounds of greeting or signs of aggression. Experience also tells that captive born bull elephants usually do not have a fear of the human beings including their own mahout and grass-cutter and may be difficult to handle. A mahout must understand the psychology of his elephant and also the other elephants of the pilkhana. This will help him in managing his elephant properly and also in getting maximum output from him.

7. SIGNS OF INAUSPICIOUS ELEPHANTS

Elephants of Jaldapara offer a unique opportunity for testing various theories regarding the so-called inauspicious elephants. There are elephants with 16 or 17 toes, elephants with cat eyes, elephants with black under-tongue, elephants with torn ear-lobes and elephants with whatever is believed to be an inauspicious sign. There are also elephants with apparently auspicious signs. There are sufficient number of exceptions under each category to raise doubts about the reliability of such theories. What can not be doubted, however, is that well trained and well-kept elephants under the charge of knowledgeable and caring mahouts are always the best of the lot. Instances of a very good elephant getting spoiled under the charge of an indifferent or ill-trained mahout are aplenty.

8. INTER-RELATIONSHIP WITH WILD ELEPHANTS

Wild elephants -- usually solitary bulls, often visit pilkhanas, either for a date with a cow elephant or for sharing fodder with their captive brethren. Cases of wild bulls assaulting a captive elephant (usually bulls) and injuring them seriously are common. Captive elephants, who are usually tied with chains and hobbles, can not protect themselves. If one believes the stories given by some mahouts, most of these attacks are for a "revenge". There is the famous case of the departmental tusker Shibji in the late sixties , who was constantly pursued by a particular wild bull for a number of days even when it was sent to different pilkhanas, and was finally killed. The story goes that the wild elephant in question was an escapee from an elephant capturing operation in which Shibji was used as a koonkie. The wild elephant allegedly bore a grouse against Shibji and killed it when the opportunity came.

Quite often, during a raid by wild elephants on a pilkhana, a captive elephant may break free from its chains and escape to the forest -- alone or with the wild elephants. To trace the elephant and recapture it poses considerable difficulties. Experience suggests that captive bulls are not welcome among their wild brethren, while the captive cow elephants may soon join some herd or the other. At least two captive cow elephants, Lady Marie in the fifties and Champakali in the early eighties, are known to have joined wild elephant herds in North Bengal.

Whatever be the case, it is the duty of the mahout and the grass-cutter to protect their elephant. In North Bengal, wild elephants are kept away from pilkhana with the help of crackers and search-lights. Elephant-proof trenches and electric fencings are also used to protect big pilkhanas.

9. RELATIONSHIP OF ELEPHANT WITH ITS KEEPERS

An elephant spends most of its time with its mahout or grass-cutter. It depends on them for its food and other needs. It takes its orders from its mahout and grass-cutter for executing various works. It is, therefore, understandable that the elephant should have some affinity with its keepers. In fact, some elephants become so used to receiving orders from a particular mahout that other mahouts may find it very difficult to manage it.

However, in a large number of cases, it is seen that an elephant likes its grass-cutter more than its mahout. In some cases, particularly during musth, elephants have been seen to display their disliking for their mahouts through violent behaviour. Cases of elephants killing their mahouts are also on record. It is generally believed that mahouts involved in all such cases, confined themselves mostly in governing the elephant, always shouting orders and goading the elephant into following the same, thus earning a disliking from the elephant. In contrast, the grass cutter mostly feeds the elephant, bathes it and nurses it whenever needed -- thus earning its goodwill. It is, therefore, suggested that while the mahout must be firm in handling his elephant and making him follow his instructions, he should be equally kind to his elephant and must take care of his requirements regarding food, water, rest and working conditions.

10. SOME BAD PRACTICES

Many mahouts and grass-cutters have the habit of using their elephants to uproot grasses for collection of fodder. It saves them the trouble of cutting fodder themselves. But it is a harmful practice in as much as it leads to the depletion of fodder resources in the forest. Moreover, for the elephant who is probably already tired after a hard duty in the morning, it means extra work and a strain on his health. Standing orders of the forest department do not allow this practice.

Patrolling duties in national parks and sanctuaries can often be very gruelling for a captive elephant - involving long march at odd hours. The standing orders prohibit duty by elephants for more than 6 hours in a day, either in a single shift in morning or in two shifts - one in the morning and other in the late afternoon. But the duty hours are often exceeded either due to negligence of the mahout or lack of planning by the accompanying forest staff. Quite often, the elephant, after a night-march, is not provided with adequate rest and food before the next round of duty. The feeding hours of the patrolling elephants are also not regular. Therefore, it is not unusual to find patrolling elephants weak and sick.

Tourist duty is considered to be a rather light work, involving fewer hours of duty and a fixed daily routine. Many mahouts, in their zeal to oblige tourists with a closer view or a photograph (in consideration for a reward of course), chase wild animals (usually a Rhino or Gaur) and take their elephants dangerously close to them. The standing orders discourage this practice because it often irritates the wild animals. Incidences of rhinos having charged at the elephant inflicting serious injuries are on record.

The mahouts in North Bengal are not particularly fond of bull elephants and support many misgivings about them. The worst practice adopted by many a mahout is to give opium or any other intoxicant to a bull elephant to "keep it under control". This practice is also adopted to suppress "musth" in a bull elephant. The experience tells that elephants used to opium and other intoxicants are quite unpredictable and fall easy prey to diseases and do not live long.

11. Qualities of a Good Mahout

Elephant is a big and intelligent animal. Taking care of such an animal is itself a strenuous job and also needs a lot of understanding and thinking on the part of a mahout. The daily routine of a mahout of a working elephant is also very demanding. Therefore, a good mahout must possess a good health and should pay attention to his as well as his elephant’s hygiene. Mahouts given to heavy drinking or other kinds of addiction, seldom make a good mahout. In fact, many cases of drunk mahouts having lost their life or injured themselves seriously after a fall from their elephant, are on record. In North Bengal, a good mahout is one who keeps his elephant well. Fortunately in the recent years, there has been a distinct improvement in the professionalism among the mahouts of the Forest Department and they have become much more conscious about the well-being of their elephants. The following factors have contributed to this improvement:

1. Frequent interaction of mahouts with elephant experts and scientists and participation in such operations as tranquillising, capturing and radio-collaring of wild animals which call for considerable skill on the part of the mahouts.
2. The realisation that the market prices of working elephants are sky-rocketing and in case of loss of an elephant, replacement may be a difficult proposition.
3. Interest shown by the senior forest officers in improving the conditions of the elephants and their mahouts and grass-cutters.

Return to top of page

ELEPHANT MANAGEMENT IN KERALA FOREST DEPARTMENT

Dr. Mohan Das

The Kerala Forest Department currently owns 20 elephants in various elephant camps around the State. There are 7 elephant camps in Kerala and they are at Konni, Aryamkavu, Thekkady, Kodanadu, Nilambur, Muthanga and Tholpetti. Elephant management in the various elephant camps is based on a standard guideline and management system enforced by the Kerala Forest Department.

Diet : Elephants are divided into 5 classes based on their height and dietary requirements.

Return to top of page

Elephants above 60 years of age are retired from work and their diet consists of wheat-3kg, ragi-3kg, Horse gram-nil, salt-200gms, karipatti (a variety of jaggery)-100 gms.

Special diet:

The forest veterinary officer is authorised to prescribe a special diet for ailing elephants, bulls in musth and pregnant cows etc. Mahouts are not allowed to cut fodder from outside but they do so in cases of sickness or musth when the elephant may require more food.

The concentrate feed is prepared within the camp and the official feeding timings are 8 am and 6 pm. The cut fodder system is practised in areas where the elephants cannot be let out to graze in the forest. If forest areas are available around the camp site, the elephants are allowed to graze in the forest. A long, trailing chain is tied to their hind leg and a bell is tied around their necks before being released into the forest for grazing. The next morning the mahouts go in to the forest to bring the elephants back.

Work schedule:

According to the guidelines of the forest department, elephants are allowed to work for 6 hours a day. The schedule is adjusted according to the climate and temperature.

08.00 - 11.00 Hours & 15.00 -18.00 Hours - on normal days

07.00 - 10.00 Hours & 16.00 - 19.00 Hours - on hot days.

Elephants do not work in the month of April or May or on weekends and State/National Holidays.

Health care:

The Forest Veterinary Officers (FVO) recommend the use of deccamilli oil as a preventative medicine for foot rot. It is also a good insect repellant. Castor oil must be applied on the chains to prevent chain sores. Elephants need physical exercise and have to be marched a certain distance everyday, depending on their size. The FVO decides the length of a march for each elephant. Each elephant has two mahouts irrespective of its size or age.

Return to top of page

CARE OF PREGNANT COW ELEPHANTS

Dr. V. Krishnamurthy

Wild tuskers mate with cow elephants belonging to the forest department. Mating takes place among the camp elephants also. Most often, mating takes place in forests, when the elephants are let out to graze. If the mating has not been witnessed and recorded, by either the mahouts or camp officials, it is impossible to know, if an elephant is pregnant or not.

Detecting pregnancy

The mahout is certainly the first to detect pregnancy. If he suspected mating to have taken place, he could look for the following signs:

1. Scars or marks of the male’s feet, on the cow elephant’s back
2. Remnants of seminal fluid, along the insides of thighs, and at the vulva

The mating lasts for several days. During this period, the elephants stay close to each other and mate repeatedly. If a cow and bull were spending considerable time together, then it can be assumed that mating has taken place.

If all of the above signs have been noted, it is likely that the cow would get pregnant and the approximate date of delivery can be predicted. The gestation period in elephants ranges from 20-22 months. Cow - elephants mature from 13 years onwards and can deliver any time, after maturity. How ever, there are exceptions to the rule.

Physical changes:

The first physical signs of pregnancy begin to manifest from the first month.

1. Cows delivering for the first time, will show an enlargement of breasts. This is not so obvious for those that have delivered before.
2. Gait becomes slower and hence quality of work also decreases.
3. A viscous fluid oozes out when the breasts are squeezed.
4. Breasts tilt laterally
5. During the 13th month, it is possible to feel the foetus kicking inside the womb, from outside (quickening). This can be checked when the elephant is being given her scrub bath.

Care during and after pregnancy:

1. The cow should not be allowed to work, after the 13th month, until the calf is born and 6 months of age.
2. The quantity of ration or concentrates is raised. A special diet consisting of vitamins, minerals, soaked green grams and coconuts are provided. 6 -10 coconuts per day are provided before and 8-10 coconuts after delivery. Coconut milk contains several nutritious materials and enhances the quality of mother’s milk.

In the wild, pregnant and lactating elephants, feed on the bark of certain tree species, especially during dry season. The bark of these trees are rich in nutritive value.

Return to top of page

CARE OF ELEPHANT CALVES

Dr. V. Krishnamurthy

An elephant calf in the wild is orphaned due to several reasons.

1. If the mother of a calf dies, it will be rejected by other lactating mothers of the herd. So the entire herd may abandon the calf.
2. Sometimes mothers reject their calves which is more likely in captivity
3. When the entire herd is hurrying away from some danger, a calf may trail behind and get lost.
4. Calves sometimes fall into old pits and are abandoned by the herd.
5. Calves also follow buffalo herds, that come into the forest to graze. Thus they become separated from their own herd.

Hand rearing elephant calves

I. Monitoring

Abandoned elephant calves are brought into the elephant camp or zoo by villagers. Raising orphaned calves is very challenging and success is not ensured all of the time. Tamilnadu forest department camps have occasionally received orphaned calves and have had moderate success, in raising many of them. Over the years, they have understood the 'do’s' and 'don’ts' with regards to rearing orphaned calves. This knowledge coupled with observations made from the growth pattern, dietary requirements, and habits of other calves with their mothers, can be applied to rearing orphaned calves.

Villagers or people who find the calf, normally over feed it, with a variety of food like bananas, fruits, and vegetables. This may upset the calf’s digestion. Therefore it is safer to underfeed the calf, during the first few days of its arrival at the camp.

The calf has to be checked for general health condition, injuries or sprains, from falling into the pit. Calves below one month of age retain their umbilical cord. These may be infested with maggots and have to be treated. The colour of such young calves is normally light, the eyes are red in colour, and they always hang their head.

It is important to develop a strict feeding routine or feed chart for the calf, as soon as it is bought into the camp. Several points have to be followed to ensure a safe and healthy diet.

1. The animal must always be given fresh food.
2. The environment where food is prepared must be clean. Cooking vessels used, must be sterilised before use.
3. The food (especially milk), in the early stages, must be given at the calf’s body temperature.

II. Diet of elephant calves

1. Initial diet: For the first 45 days, after arrival, it is advisable to feed only milk. Milk powder ie. Amul Spray, (baby food, available in the market) may be used instead of milk, as it is rich in iron contents. Milk powder can also be stored for long periods and can be prepared afresh before every feed. Goat’s milk is an alternate or substitute to milk powder, but it is difficult to obtain in sufficient quantities of the same. Cow’s milk is not advisable for calves, since it (contains large fat globules and) causes diarrhoea. Cow’s milk available commercially from market, is not safe as it may be adulterated.

2. Mode of feeding: The milk can be fed using an enema can. Enema can offers the following advantages when compared to bottle feeding.

1. The flow of milk can be regulated
2. The flow is smooth and uninterrupted
3. Easy to clean and store.

Bottle feeding can be time consuming as each bottle has to be changed or refilled and the calf may get impatient. It may pull too hard at the nipple on the bottle, if one is not careful.

3. Frequency of feed: Normally up to 2 months, calves suckle their mother every 60-90 minutes. During each feed they consume at least 1 lit of milk. The same pattern can be applied to hand reared calves. Calf should cry out when hungry. It is a sign of appetite and also progress in health. It can be fed regularly between 5 AM and 10 PM.

4. Concentration of feed: Studies have shown that concentration of mother’s milk (ie of cow elephants), varies as the calf grows older. The first few days after delivery, the elephant milk contains colostrum, essential for the calves to develop immunity. It is therefore essential to duplicate the function of colostrum with artificially prepared milk. In a zoo condition, it is possible to draw the milk out of the mother which has rejected its calf and administer this milk to the calf.

Initially, the concentration of the milk powder must be very low (ie highly diluted with water). For the first week, the feed should contain 50 gms of milk powder in 1 litre of water. This can be continued and later the concentration of powder can be increased. If the calf is feeding well, it will manifest signs of health such as urination 10-12 times a day and faecal excretion twice a day. The dung may be semisolid and slightly yellow in colour. A healthy calf will rest between feeds.

5. Concentrate foods: After 2 months, the calf can be introduced to semisolid foods like cereals, rice, tapioca ragi etc. Ragi has to be processed properly. Dirt and stones have to be removed by winnowing and the ragi soaked in water for 4-5 hours. The soaked ragi is then suspended in a moist sack and allowed to sprout. The sprouts are dried in the sun, fried in a pan and powdered finely. For adults, the powdering does not have to be very fine. The processed ragi has to be stored in a dry place, to prevent fungal attack. Ragi is an excellent concentrate feed, as it has a balanced calcium and phosphorus ratio.

A well nourished calf is very active. Hand reared calves generally have a slow growth rate when compared to calves raised by their mothers. After 6 months, the calf can be introduced to solid foods. The milk intake can be reduced to 1 - 1/2 litres/day until the 1st year.

6. Green fodder : Calves have a tendency to eat mud. They should be discouraged from doing so, until three to four months of age. Calves in a herd, imitate feeding habits of their mother or other adults of the herd. Around the 2nd or the 3rd month, they eat their mother’s fresh dung, which encourages the growth of bacterial flora in the intestine. This helps in digestion of green fodder, which the calf may begin eating soon. The hand reared calf is given a similar stimulant. Fresh dung of one of the healthy cow-elephants from the camp is collected, diluted in water, filtered and administered to the calf.

Around 8-9 months of age, calves consume 30-40 kg of fodder per day. They sometimes suffer from lack of appetite. Carminative mixture concentrate (which has to be stocked adequately in the camp), can be mixed with the feed, to help digestion. 500 gms of glucose, vitamins and calcium tablets can also be administered, along with the feed.

Calves have to be weighed and measured regularly. Healthy calf weighs between 80-100 kgs at birth. They gain at least 2 inches in height every year

III. Tethering area

Calves must be kept in a clean and dry (preferably cemented) place. Foreign substances like plastic, paper, rubber must be removed as calves, eat them. Gunny bags must be provided to sleep on, in the night. During winter, the calf requires warmth and so they can be housed in the cooking shed, where the stove can be lit, to provide warmth. In Mudumalai elephant camp, the mahout’s family also sleeps in the shed, along with the calf, so that it feels protected.

IV. Weaning and training of calves

Calves are weaned usually at the age of 15-18 months. Previously they were weaned when they are 2 years old. Early weaning is done these days, so that the mother can be put to work earlier and it has to be noted that, this early separation does not affect the growth of the child. The weaned calf is put in the kraal, and the kavady (assistant mahout), of the mother or cow elephant, is in charge of the calf.

During the first two or three days of weaning, the calves cry continuously for their mother and some calves are very aggressive. The training of the calf begins as soon as it is enkralled. Basic commands like Jhuk (to bend down) etc are taught. The calf is also trained to wear chains and hobbles. Within 10-15 days of enkralling, the preliminary training is completed and the calf is removed from the kraal. The calf has to be dewormed and vaccinated for anthrax by the veterinary doctor. The diet is changed from rice to ragi along with a few vitamins that are mixed in the food. Every morning and evening, the calf is trained for an hour. They are sent out for grazing with the adults during the day, but are chained at the camp in the night.

After the age of six, the animals have to undergo, serious training at the camp. This helps in controlling vices and disciplining the animal, at an early age. Stereotype movements (like weaving, rocking forwards and backwards), due to chaining, must be controlled at a very early age, as it may persist throughout the animal’s life. After 6 years of age, the animal has to be trained for light timber work and made to follow the same routine as the adults. This training does not exactly substitute actual work of the adult, but helps keep the calf fit. It also learns to be subservient and remains engaged mentally and physically.

Return to top of page

HAND REARING AND TRAINING OF AN ELEPHANT CALF

M.T.Paili, E. K. Radhakrishnan

Hand rearing elephant calves is a very demanding job and requires tremendous commitment from the mahout, as well as, support from management. Kerala Forest Department also has had some experience in rearing elephant calves. The elephant training centre at Kodanadu, continues to maintain calves even today. There has been a case, 2 years ago, of hand rearing a female calf which was 15 days old, and found abandoned in the jungle. The authors of this article, were responsible for rearing the calf.

The calf was given very diluted milk for the first few days. The milk was diluted with twice the amount of water, along with turmeric powder. Turmeric has antiseptic properties. A small amount of glucose was also added into the milk. The milk had to be boiled properly and given at a lukewarm temperature. The calf had frequent diahorrea, during the early days. So the mahouts provided coconut water as a relief. This was also to prevent dehydration. During the first month of the calf’s arrival, the mahouts had a very trying period. The calf had to be supported with the mahout’s legs at night, for warmthand comfort. After 2 months the calf was introduced to green fodder ie tender bamboo and grass shoots. The shoots were sprinkled with salt water. The calf began to chew the leaves for the salt and gradually developed a taste for green fodder. After 15 months, the quantity of fodder was raised to 4 kilos of grass per day. Besides grass she was also given 10 litres of milk, concentrates (twice a day), jaggery, vitamins, glucose and other tonics.

Towards the end of her first year she was taken out of the kraal for preliminary training. The mahouts took her out for short walks to familiarise her with vehicles, crowds and other sights and sounds. It was also necessary to avoid excessive human contact, and so was placed in the kraal for almost a year.

Return to top of page

BATHING AN ELEPHANT

A.K. Ponnappan

A bath is very important to an elephant both in captivity and wild. They love spending lots of time in water. A bath cleans the body, helps in lowering the body temperature and also relaxes the elephant. Mahouts also clean wounds, sores or swellings during bath time. This prevents skin and foot infection and improves blood circulation. The scrub bath is also an opportunity for the mahout to bond with his elephant. It is best to wash an elephant in the mornings. Elephants that start to work early in the day are washed in the evenings. These elephants are given a shower with a hose before work.

Elephants are normally washed in streams or rivers. They are made to lie on one side in the water and ordered to stay still. The mahouts sprinkle water on the elephant and begin scrubbing the body with a coconut husk. The coconut husk is trimmed to a particular shape for scrubbing. The scrubbing has to be done in a sequential manner. The mahouts divide the elephant’s body between themselves for scrubbing. The hands must not bend at the elbows and the motion of the hands must be forwards and sideways along the elephant’s body. The entire body has to be scrubbed clean. Mud between folds of skin and the wrinkles must be removed. The process is exhausting and the mahouts rest for a few seconds between scrubbing. Pumice stone is also sometimes used for scrubbing.

The elephant is made to lie on its other side, after the first side is washed. It is then made to sit up and the head and the neck are washed in this position, followed by washing the feet and legs. The other side is washed in the same manner.

Wounds, swellings and abscesses are cleaned during a bath. Nails and the skin around the nails are trimmed. The inner regions of the mouth, space between nails, penis, anus and vagina are washed thoroughly. The inner thigh and hind legs of cow elephants in particular, must be scrubbed properly to remove urine stains.

Precautions while bathing an elephant:

• Leave one chain fastened to the elephant’s hind leg, like a trail chian, even in water. This makes it easier to chain the elephant, if it tries to bolt. Mahouts must be careful not to get entangled by the chain, when the elephant moves or stands up.
• The water must be clean and safe for the elephant to drink
• At least two mahouts must be present while bathing an elephant
• The head and tusks are washed by the first mahout, because the elephant may try to attack the other mahouts.
• Mahouts must be aware of the movement of elephant’s feet under water. The elephant might accidentally crush some one’s feet.
• The stick and hook must be accessible to the mahout at all times. They must carry at least a small knife on them, for self defence.
• Washing the belly, while the elephant is lying down, is usually a risky position. The mahout has to stand between the fore and hind legs of the elephant. He may get trapped between the legs and can drown, if the elephant rises abruptly. In such a case, the mahout has to stay close to the elephant’s belly and stay on its side, as the elephant rises up.
• Some elephants may be nervous about entering unfamiliar water bodies. It is up to the mahout to use his ingenuity to get the elephant to the water.
• The coconut husks must not be trimmed on the elephant’s body. Experienced mahouts may do so occasionally, but it is not advisable for amateur mahouts to follow the example.

Return to top of page

ELEPHANT FOOD AND FODDER

A.K. Ponnappan and E.V. Radhakrishnan

Green fodder

In Kerala, the staple food of elephants in captivity is, coconut or palm leaves (Caryota urens). Coconut is cultivated in large scale for its commercial value. Hence mahouts do not have problems locating fodder. Most elephants prefer caryota palm to coconut palm. Caryota requires moist and shady areas to grow and is usually found growing along river banks. It does not have as much commercial importance as the coconut palm and so is not cultivated in a large scale. Hence the tree is becoming scarce and its distribution now, is limited to a few districts in Kerala. Due to this scarcity, fodder has to be delivered from these far away places in vehicles. There are fodder deliverers who collect fodder from wherever available and deliver it to the site on a weekly basis. Several temples and private owners procure fodder by this method.

Fodder collection: A mahout must know to climb palm and coconut trees. A circular loop called the talappu is used around the feet, by which the mahout hauls himself up the tree. The talappu is made smooth coir or a piece of cloth. During the climb, the mahout relies entirely on muscles of his hands and feet. The first time a mahout attempts to climb the tree, he may sustain scratches and bruises on his body.

Palm tree climbing requires tremendous practice and skill. While climbing, the mahout usually is clad only in a brief towel or dhoti, and he carries a big knife or vettukatthi with him around his waist with the sharp edge pointing downwards. After reaching the top, he has to look out for good branch and cut it using his vettukathi, with one hand. This is a very precarious position as the mahout relies only on the strength of one hand and his feet to stay on top. While cutting the branch, he must be careful not to drop them on roof tops or crops and fields. It is possible to direct the direction of fall of the stalk by slightly tilting the branch’s broad base with the vettukatthi as it falls.

The mahout must respect the demands of the tree owner and cut only those branch that he permits. He must remember that general good will of the public is essential for his elephant's survival, not only to obtain fodder but for any other favours as a well.

Climbing a palm tree is much more difficult, than a coconut tree. The palm trees become narrow towards the top, and the bases of the branches are smooth. The branches are also difficult to chop, as they are heavier. It is not safe to climb the tree during strong winds or monsoons. Mahout must observe the terrain around the tree. Trees on rocky or steep terrains should be avoided. Mahouts are forced to take risks however, in case of fodder non -availability, as he cannot let his elephant starve.

Ants are found on palm trees and the mahouts may suffer from ant bites occasionally. While on top of the tree, the mahout must test the branches before resting his weight on them. Dried branches should be avoided. He should not stay on a branch for too long and should constantly shift his weight around. Getting down is done by relying on the rope between the feet.

After the branches are cut, they are plaited and bound with a strong, lengthy rope. While binding, the broad base of the branches should face the right side. If the branches extend too much on to the right side, they should be cut and shortened. At the top of the pile, one branch is placed inverted, with the midrib protruding upwards, for the (cow) elephant to get a grip, while picking up the bundle. Cow elephants carry fodder by their mouth and bulls carry them on their tusks. Fodder collection is a very exhausting process. It requires a lot of stamina and endurance.

Concentrate feed

Elephants are given 'ration' or concentrate feed, once a day in most of the captive establishments. In the Forest Department, the feed is a combination of wheat, ragi and horse gram mixed and powdered together. Any cereal like rice, ragi, millets and lentils like horse gram, moong dhal or green gram (Phaseolus mungo) or Bengal gram can be combined together, to c