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Elephant
Bibliographic
Database
www.elephantcare.org
References updated Mar 2003
- Soltysiak,Z., Barcikowska,M., and Nieman,S. 2002. Specification
patterns of amyloid-beta deposits in old fish, reptile, bird and
several old mammal brains. Proba wykazania amyloidowego-beta
depozytu w mozgach starych ryb, gadow, ptakow i niektorych ssakow.
Medycyna \Weterynaryjna 58:(1):74-76
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2239 Language: Polish
with English summary
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/nervous system/other animal
Abstract: The study was conducted to demonstrate whether there
are amyloid-beta deposits in old fish, reptiles, birds and some
mammals. The thick brain sections were stained with cresyl violet,
Congo red, tioflavin S and by immunocytochemistry using mAb 4G8.
Amyloid-beta deposits were not found in old fish, reptile and bird
brains. Amyloid-beta was found in old mammal brains in three forms:
parenchymal amyloidosis, congophilic angiopathy and diffuse amyloid
deposits. Three types of plaque were found in old mammal brain
cortexes: diffuse, primitive, and classic (neuritic). The neuritic
plaque alveas consisted of three components: degenerating neurites,
amyloid, and reactive cells. Parenchymal amyloidosis and congophilic
angiopathy were found only in five mammal brains, two from wolf, two
from fox and one from elephant brain. Congophilic angiopathy was
discovered in all investigated mammals.
- Cozzi,B., Spagnoli,S., and Bruno,L. 2001. An overview of the
central nervous system of the elephant through a critical appraisal of
the literature published in the XIX and XX centuries. Brain Res
Bull 54:(2):219-227
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 1927 Language: English
Keywords: African/anatomy and physiology/nervous
system/evolution
Abstract: The two species of elephants (Indian: Elephas maximus
and African: Loxodonta africana) possess the largest brain among land
mammals. Due to its size, the elephant brain is discussed in virtually
every paper dealing with the evolution of the central nervous system
of mammals and comparative brain size. Studies on the social habits of
elephants also deal with the skills and the "intelligence" and brain
size of these species. Yet most of the descriptions and conclusions
reported in comparative studies rely on second-hand data derived from
investigations performed several decades before, often dating as far
back as the XIX century. Furthermore, many of the original papers
actually describing gross and detailed features of the brain of
elephants are either no longer available, are written in languages
other than English, or are difficult to trace. The present study gives
a short description of the anatomy of the central nervous system of
elephants, with special attention to its distinctive features, reports
all available literature on the subject, and briefly discusses its
origins and rationale.
- Crossley,D.A. 2000. Elephant tusks: where are the nerves?
J.Vet.Dent. 17:(1):37
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 1899 Language: English
Keywords: nervous system/tusk
- Malik,M.R., Shrivastava,A.B., Jain,N.K., and Rakhi,V. 2000. A
note on encephalometry of Asian elephant. Indian Journal of
Veterinary Anatomy 12:(1):103-104
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 1662 Language: English
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/Asian/nervous system
- Subhachalat,P., Panichkriangkrai,W., Mahasawangkul,S.,
Angkawanich,T., Yibchok-A-Nun,S., Piyarat,S., Wara-Panichkriangkrai,
Sittidet-Mahasawangkul, Taweepok-Angkawanich, and
Sirintorn-Yibchok-A-Nun 2000. Serum cholinesterase levels in
elephants. Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 30:(3):63-68
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 1650 Language: Thai;
English summary
Keywords: Asian/nervous system/serum chemistry/male/female
Abstract: Serum cholinesterase (ChE) levels were determined in
adult elephants in the summer, rainy and winter seasons by a
colorimetric method using acetylthiocholine as the substrate. ChE
levels were found to be lower in adult males than in adult females at
all 3 seasons (P < 0.05). ChE level was highest in the rainy season.
It became lower in the summer and winter seasons. The difference was
found in both sexes. This study is the first report on the measurement
of ChE levels in elephants.
- Fagan,D.A., Benirschke,K., Simon,J.H., and Roocroft,A. 1999.
Elephant dental pulp tissue: where are the nerves? J Vet Dent
16:(4):169-172
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 1944 Language: English
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/dental/nervous system
Abstract: Dental pulp tissue from three elephants was examined
histologically with hematoxylin and eosin and s-100 protein stains. In
all specimens, normal pulp was found with the exception that no nerve
fibers (myelinated or non-myelinated) were demonstrable in any of the
numerous sections prepared.
- Pribe,C., Grossberg,S., and Cohen,M.A. 1997. Neural control of
interlimb oscillations. II. Biped and quadruped gaits and
bifurcations. Biol Cybern 77:(2):141-152
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 1984 Language: English
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/human/musculoskeletal/nervous
system/other animal
Abstract: Behavioral data concerning animal and human gaits and
gait transitions are simulated as emergent properties of a central
pattern generator (CPG) model. The CPG model is a version of the
Ellias-Grossberg oscillator. Its neurons obey Hodgkin-Huxley type
equations whose excitatory signals operate on a faster time scale than
their inhibitory signals in a recurrent on-center off-surround
anatomy. A descending command or GO signal activates the gaits and
triggers gait transitions as its amplitude increases. A single model
CPG can generate both in-phase and anti-phase oscillations at
different GO amplitudes. Phase transitions from either in-phase to
anti-phase oscillations or from anti-phase to in-phase oscillations
can occur in different parameter ranges, as the GO signal increases.
Quadruped vertebrate gaits, including the amble, the walk, all three
pairwise gaits (trot, pace, and gallop), and the pronk are simulated
using this property. Rapid gait transitions are simulated in the
order--walk, trot, pace, and gallop--that occurs in the cat, along
with the observed increase in oscillation frequency. Precise control
of quadruped gait switching uses GO-dependent modulation of inhibitory
interactions, which generates a different functional anatomy at
different arousal levels. The primary human gaits (the walk and the
run) and elephant gaits (the amble and the walk) are simulated,
without modulation, by oscillations with the same phase relationships
but different waveform shapes at different GO signal levels, much as
the duty cycles of the feet are longer in the walk than in the run.
Relevant neural data from spinal cord, globus pallidus, and motor
cortex, among other structures, are discussed.
- Rasmussen,L.E.L. and Munger,B.L. 1996. The Sensorineural
Specializations of the Trunk Tip (Finger) of the Asian Elephant,
Elephas maximus. The Anatomical Record 246:127-134
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2567 Language: English
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/Asian/behavior/male/nervous
system/special senses
Abstract: Background: The dorsal extension of the tip of the
trunk of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), often referred to
as "the finger," possesses remarkable mechanical dexterity and is used
for a variety of special behaviors including grasping food and tactile
and ultimately chemosensory recognition via the vomeronasal organ. The
present study describes a unique sensory innervation of this
specialized region of the trunk. Methods: The tip of the dorsal aspect
of the trunk is referred to as the trunk tip finger and has been
studied grossly in 13 living elephants. One tip from a male Asian
elephant was obtained for histologic study when it was accidentally
severed. The tissue was fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin, and
portions were either sectioned frozen or embedded in paraffin and
serial sectioned. Sections were stained with silver in both cases.
Results: The skin of the trunk tip finger differs from that of the
surrounding areas; it contains a high density of free nerve endings,
numerous convoluted branched small corpuscles, and vellus vibrissae
that resemble vellus hairs, which do not protrude beyond the skin
surface. The finger is thus densely innervated with three distinctive
types of sensory terminals. Corpuscular receptors consist of small
Pacinian corpuscles and convoluted branched simple corpuscles. Both
are present in the superficial dermis. Abundant regular vibrissae are
present in the skin surrounding the trunk tip finger. Short vibrissae
that do not protrude from the skin surface, referred to as vellus
vibrissae, are abundant in the finger tip. Both types of vibrissae are
innervated by hundreds of axons resembling the mystacial vibrissae of
rodents. Free nerve endings are numerous in the superficial dermis,
often making intimate contact with the basal cells of rete pegs.
Conclusions: The dorsal finger of the trunk tip of Asian elephants has
a unique sensory innervation that resembles aspects of sensory
innervation of mystacial skin of rodents or lip tissue of monkeys.
This dense sensory innervation can be correlated with the tactile
ability of these animals to use the trunk finger to grasp small
objects for feeding and to insert chemically active samples into the
ductal orifices of the vomeronasal organ for subsequent chemosensory
processing.
- Soltysiak,Z. 1996. Age-related changes in the brain of an
Indian elephant. Zmiany starcze w mozgowiu slonia indyjskiego.
Zycie-Weterynaryjne 71:(9):309-311
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 1778 Language: Polish
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/Asian/geriatrics/nervous
system
- Van Aswegen,G., Van Noorden,S., Kotze,S.H., de Vos,V., and
Schoeman,J.H. 1996. The intestine and endocrine pancreas of the
African elephant: a histological, immunocytochemical and
immunofluorescence study. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary
Research 63:335-340
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2627 Language: English
Keywords: African/anatomy and
physiology/gastrointestinal/nervous system
Abstract: Histological, immunocytochemical and
immunofluorescence methods were employed to study the intestine and
endocrine pancreas of the elephant. The histological findings were in
line with those in monogastric animals. In the mucosa of intestine,
endocrine cells were immunoreactive to somatostatin, gastrin, CCK, GIP,
secretin, motilin, glucagon and NPY. Nerve cells immunoreactive to
somatostatin, substance P, VIP, PHI, NPY, bombesin and CGRP were
detected. No immunoreactivity to neurotensin was observed. Islets of
the pancreas had insulin cells in their cores and glucagon and
somatostatin cells in their mantles. The antisera employed failed to
demonstrate PP cells in the pancreas, but NPY-immunoreactive cells
were present.
- Kramer,B. and Hattingh,J. 1995. The neuromuscular junction in
the African elephant Loxodonta africana and African buffalo
Syncerus caffer. South African Journal of Wildlife Research
25:(1):p14, 3p, 2bw
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2509 Language: English
Keywords: African/anatomy and
physiology/anesthesia/drugs/nervous system/other animal/respiratory
Abstract: Differences in the physiological response to the drug
succinyldicholine occur between the African elephant Loxodonta
africana and African buffalo Syncerus caffer, irrespective
of the route of administration of the drug. The response in elephants
has suggested the presence of unique acetylcholine receptors in their
respiratory muscles. In this paper the first observations of the
neuromuscular junction in the African elephant and African buffalo are
reported. While the basic structure of the junction was found to be
typically mammalian in both species, differences were found in the
morphology of the postjunctional area where these receptors reside.
Elucidation of the structure and function of this junction in these
animals is important in the selection of drugs that act as
neuromuscular blockers.
- Ringo,J.L., Doty,R.W., Demeter,S., and Simard,P.Y. 1994. Time
is of the essence: a conjecture that hemispheric specialization arises
from interhemispheric conduction delay. Cereb Cortex 4:(4):331-343
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2025 Language: English
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/human/nervous system/other
animal
Abstract: Tomasch (1954) and Aboitiz et al. (1992) found the
majority of the fibers of the human corpus callosum are under 1 micron
in diameter. Electron microscopic studies of Swadlow et al. (1980) and
the detailed study of LaMantia and Rakic (1990a) on macaques show the
average size of the myelinated callosal axons also to be less than 1
micron. In man, the average-sized myelinated fiber interconnecting the
temporal lobes would have a one-way, interhemispheric delay of over 25
msec. Thus, finely detailed, time-critical neuronal computations
(i.e., tasks that strain the capacity of the callosum and hence could
not be handled by just the larger fibers) would be performed more
quickly via shorter and faster intrahemispheric circuits. While one
transit across the commissural system might yield tolerable delays,
multiple passes as in a system involving "setting" would seem
prohibitively slow. We suggest that these temporal limits will be
avoided if the neural apparatus necessary to perform each
high-resolution, time-critical task is gathered in one hemisphere. If
the, presumably overlapping, neural assemblies needed to handle
overlapping tasks are clustered together, this would lead to
hemispheric specialization. The prediction follows that the large
brains of mammals such as elephants and cetaceans will also manifest a
high degree of hemispheric specialization.
- Anderson,W.I., Cummings,J.F., Steinberg,H., De-Lahunta,A., and
King,J.M. 1993. Subclinical lumbar polyradiculopathy, polyneuritis
and ganglionitis in aged wild and exotic mammalians. Journal of
Comparative Pathology 109:(1):89-91
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 1843 Language: English
Keywords: Asian/geriatrics/nervous system/other
animal/pathology/free-ranging
Abstract: Subclinical lumbar polyradiculopathy was present in
the intradural dorsal and ventral nerve rootlets of 19 aged
individuals of the following wild and exotic mammalian species:
woodrat, raccoon, mink, lynx, reindeer, red deer, musk ox,
scimitar-horned oryx, Arabian oryx, hybrid waterbuck, Persian onager,
Przewalski's wild horse, Malayan sun bear, Asian elephant, East
African river hippopotamus, vervet monkey and rhesus monkey. It was
characterized by mild to severe multifocal ballooning of myelin
sheaths. Occasionally, ballooned myelin sheaths contained thin strands
of myelin and macrophages surrounding distorted axons. Additionally, a
mild incidental lymphocytic polyneuritis was present in intradural
nerve rootlets of the Malayan sun bear, and moderate lymphocytic
spinal ganglionitis in the East African river hippopotamus.
- Hattingh,J. and Petty,D. 1992. Comparative physiological
responses to stressors in animals. Comparative Biochemistry and
Physiology [A] 101:(1):113-116
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 1070 Language: English
Keywords: behavior/nervous system/endocrinology/stress
- Tobler,I. 1992. Behavioral sleep in the Asian elephant in
captivity. Sleep 15:1-12
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 782 Language: English
Keywords: Asian/behavior/captive/female/nervous system
Abstract: Sleeping behavior was investigated during 294 nights
for female Asian elephants (circus: n = 7; zoo: n = 5; including an
infant). The animals were recorded continuously on time-lapse video
tapes for 7-16 days consecutively. Seasonal changes in sleep behavior
were studied by comparing summer (16-day) and winter (13-15-day)
recordings; and sleep development was assessed by recording a mother
and her infant for three consecutive nights per month for 15 months
(age 5-19 months). Sleep occurred in a recumbent (RS) and in a
standing position (standing sleep: SS). Although signs of paradoxical
sleep (PS) were often evident, the exact onset and end of a PS episode
could not be determined. Sleep onset occurred after 2100 hours, and
sleep increased progressively reaching a maximum between 0100 and 0400
hours. Total sleep time (TST) in the adults comprised 4.0-6.5 hours
per night (including 13.8- 130.9 minutes of SS) and did not differ
between the two groups. Seasonal differences were present in TST and
in the distribution of sleep within the night; more sleep occurred in
the winter. The duration of RS episodes in the adults was 72.0
minutes, a value far below the sleep-cycle length of 124 minutes that
others have reported for elephants. TST in the infant decreased during
the course of the 15-month recording period from 8.1 hours to 5.1
hours. SS occurred for the first time at the age of 9 months
- Cheng,H.-C. and Yamashiro,D. 1991. Synthesis and receptor
binding activity of elephant beta- endorphin, a beta-endorphin homolog
with highly potent analgesic activity. International Journal of
Peptide and Protein Research 38:66-69
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 786 Language: English
Keywords: nervous system/endocrinology/anatomy and physiology
Abstract: Elephant beta-endorphin and its analog, elephant
beta- endorphin(6-31) were synthesized by standard solid phase method.
Receptor binding activity showed that elephant beta-endorphin was five
to six times more potent than human beta-endorphin in its ability to
bind to opiate receptors on rat brain membrane. In a previous study
(Wong, C.-L., Wai, M.-K., Cheng, H.-C., Chung, D. & Yamashiro, D
(1990) Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 16,
33-37), tail flick test for intracerebroventricularly administered
beta-endorphin showed that the antinociceptive potency of elephant
beta-endorphin was seven to eight times higher than that of human
beta-endorphin in mice. Results from both studies suggest that
elephant beta-endorphin was a much more potent antinociceptive agent
than human beta- endorphin in tail flick test and its higher analgesic
activity might be due to its higher affinity for opiate receptors in
the brain.
- Cole,G. and Neal,J.W. 1990. The brain in aged elephants.
Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology 49:(2):190-192
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 804 Language: English
Keywords: nervous system/geriatrics
- Wong,C.-L., Wai,M.-K., Cheng,H.-C., Chung,D., and Yamashiro,D.
1990. Preliminary study on the antinociceptive effect of elephant
beta- endorphin. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and
Physiology 17:33-37
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 796 Language: English
Keywords: nervous system/anatomy and physiology/endocrinology
Abstract: 1. Intraventricular administration of human
beta-endorphin and elephant beta-endorphin significantly prolonged the
tail flick response tested 30 min later. However, elephant
beta-endorphin was about 7-8 times more potent than human
beta-endorphin in the tail flick test. 2. beta-Endorphin antagonized
the antinociceptive effect of both human beta-endorphin and elephant
beta-endorphin by the same extent. Naloxone also antagonized the
antinociceptive effects of the beta-endorphins but it was less
effective than beta-endorphin. 3. Human beta-endorphin and elephant
beta-endorphin were of equal potency in inhibiting the abdominal
constriction response induced by intraperitoneal (i.p.) acetic acid.
Both beta-endorphin and naloxone antagonized these effects of the
beta-endorphins with naloxone being more effective. 4. The present
study showed that different opioid receptor subtypes may be involved
in the tail flick test and the abdominal constriction test.
Furthermore, elephant beta-endorphin was a better antinociceptive
agent than human beta-endorphin in the tail flick test
- Haug,H. 1987. Brain sizes, surfaces, and neuronal sizes of the
cortex cerebri: a stereological investigation of man and his
variability and a comparison with some mammals (primates, whales,
marsupials, insectivores, and one elephant). American Journal of
Anatomy 180:126-142
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 834 Language: English
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/human/nervous system/other
animal
Abstract: This study deals with the stereological estimation of
macroscopic sizes of brain and cortex, i.e., volume, surface, and
folding, and of microscopic neuronal sizes, i.e., density, mean size,
size distribution, and number of neurons. The results show that the
degree of variability in man amounts to about 15%. A decrease in
volume of the different gray structures can be observed in man after
the age of 65 years. The surface, folding index, and length of
convolution do not alter with aging. The comparison with mammals of
various sizes allows the conclusion that there is a high correlation
to brain size for nearly all macroscopic values. Man and elephant,
however, have a cortical surface which is, in comparison with whales,
relatively small. In contrast, whales have very small cortices
compared with man. At the cytoarchitectonic level, the neuronal
density has a correlation to brain size. Contrary to other mammals,
the primates and man have a high fraction of small granular neurons,
especially in layer 4. The assumption that the number of cortical
neurons beneath a given surface area of cortex is the same in all
mammals cannot be verified, especially in those with large brains. The
allometric connection between brain size and parameters is not valid
for all measurements (e.g., thickness of cortex, mean size of neurons,
perikaryal size distribution, and glial density). Yet some other
measurements are well correlated.
- Wright,P.G. and Luck,C.P. 1984. Do elephants need to sweat?
South African Journal of Zoology 19:270-274
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 525 Language: English
Keywords: African/anatomy and physiology/integument/nervous
system
- Wright,P.G. 1984. Why do elephants flap their ears? South
African Journal of Zoology 19:266-269
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 563 Language: English
Keywords: African/anatomy and physiology/behavior/nervous
system
- Markowitz,H., 1982. On elephants forgetting and bathing.
In: Behavioral Enrichment in the Zoo. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,
New York pp. 86-93
Ref Type: Book Chapter Ref ID: 1118 Language:
English
Keywords: behavior/captive/Asian/nervous system
- Markowitz,H., 1982. Reaffirming that animals are smarter than
investigators. In: Behavioral Enrichment in the Zoo. Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York pp. 132
Ref Type: Book Chapter Ref ID: 1119 Language:
English
Keywords: captive/behavior/nervous system
- Paynter,D. 1982. Death of Shingwidzi. African Wild Life
36:70
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 552 Language: English
Keywords: African/free-ranging/mortality/cardiovascular/nervous
system
- Kreps,E.M., Chirkovskaia,E.V., Pomazanskaia,L.F., Avrova,N.F., and
Levitina,M.V. 1979. Brain lipids of a mammoth, Elephas primigenius,
which died more than 40,000 years ago. Zh Evol Biokhim Fiziol
15:(3):227-238
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2081 Language: Russian
Keywords: mammoth/nervous system
Abstract: Studies have been made on the brain lipids of the
6--7-month mammoth which remained in the eternal ice for more than
40.000 years. Thin layer chromatography of chloroformmethanol extract
of the brain lipids shows that all glycerophospholipids in the brain
were destroyed. On the contrary, sphingophospholipid sphingomyelin
yielded the evident spot which was identified by specific reactions
and by comparison with sphingomyelin from the brain of rat.
Sphingomyelin content was evaluated. Using gas-liquid chromatography,
fatty acid composition of sphingomyelin was investigated. It was found
to be close to that in contemporary mammals. Other shingolipids --
cerebrosides, sulfatides, gangliosides -- persisted (probably, only
partially) and were studied quantitatively. Relative content of
cerebrosides with normal fatty acids and hydrooxyacids was determined.
Studies were also made on fatty acid composition of cerebrosides,
sulfatides and gangliosides, as well as on the composition of
spingosine bases of gangliosides. Free cholesterol was found in the
brain of the mammoth. Other sterols were not detected. With respect to
quantitative evaluation of the preserved lipids, it should be
mentioned that on the one hand, the brain underwent dehydration which
increased lipid content per a unit of "wet" weight, whereas on the
other one lipids were partially degraded, this process decreasing
their content.
- Verdan,C. 1979. The trunk, the elephant's hand. Study of its
prehensile and tactile nerve
endings. Ann Chir Plast 24:(4):392-396
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2084 Language: French
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/nervous system
- Hass,G. 1978. Behavioural disorders in a female Indian elephant
(Elephas maximus bengalensis) with bony structures on the
intermediofacial and statoacoustic nerves. Zoologische Garten
48(4,S.):297-298
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 650
Keywords: female/behavior/musculoskeletal/special
senses/anomaly/nervous system
- Dropp,J.J. 1976. Mast cells in mammalian brain. Acta Anat
(Basel) 94:(1):1-21
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2092 Language: English
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/nervous system/other animal
Abstract: Mast cells, which had until recently been believed to
be not present in the mammalian brain, were studied in the brains of
29 mammalian species. Although there was considerable intraspecific
and interspecific variation, mast cells were most numerous within the
leptomeninges (especially in those overlying the cerebrum and the
dorsal thalamus - most rodents, most carnivores, chimpanzees, squirrel
monkeys and elephant), the cerebral cortex (most rodents, tiger, fox,
chimpanzee, tarsier, and elephant) and in many nuclei of the dorsal
thalamus (most rodents, tiger, lion, and fox). In some mammals, mast
cells were also numerous in the stroma of the telencephalic choroid
plexuses (chimpanzee, squirrel monkey), the putamen and the claustrum
(chimpanzee), the subfornical organ (pack rat, tiger, chimpanzee), the
olfactory peduncles (hooded rat, albino rat), the stroma of the
diencephalic choroid plexus (lion, chimpanzee, squirrel monkey), the
pineal organ (chimpanzee, squirrel monkey), some nuclei of the
hypothalamus (tiger), the infundibulum (hooded rat, tiger, fox) the
area postrema (pack rat, chinchilla, lion, spider monkey, chimpanzee,
fox) and some nuclei and tracts of the metencephalon and the
myelencephalon (tiger). Neither the sex of the animal nor electrolytic
lesions made in the brains of some of the animals at various times
prior to sacrifice appeared to effect the number and the distribution
of mast cells. Age-related changes in mast cell number and
distribution were detected in the albino rat.
- Burke,T.J. 1975. Probable tetanus in an Asian elephant.
Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 6:22-24
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 103 Language: English
Keywords: Asian/bacteria,bacterial
disease/captive/mortality/musculoskeletal/nervous system/tetanus
- Markowitz,H., Schmidt,M., Nadal,L., and Squier,L. 1975. Do
elephants ever forget? Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
8:(3):333-335
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 453 Language: English
Keywords: Asian/captive/eye/female/nervous system/special
senses/anomaly
Abstract: The adult female elephants (Elephas maximus)
were tested on a light-dark discrimination problem with an eight year
intertrial interval. The first subject took only six minutes to reach
criterion and made only 2 errors, suggesting remarkable retention. The
other 2 subjects were identified to have visual anomalies which would
have gone undetected without this research.
- Haug,H. 1972. The epiphysis and the circumventricular
structures of the epithalamus in the
brain of the elephant (Loxodonta africana). Zellforsch Mikrosk
Anat 129:(4):533-547
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2102 Language: German
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/nervous system
- Lange,W. 1971. Comparative studies on the cerebellum of man,
the elephant and certain toothed whales. Vergleichende
Untersuchungen am Kleinhirn des Menschen, des Elefanten und einiger
Zahwale. Verhandlungen der Anatomischen Gesellschaft 65:137-138
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 495 Language: German
Keywords: nervous system/anatomy and physiology
- Pavelka,R. 1971. The peripheral conduction systems in the
hindlimb of Elephas maximus. Anat Anz 128:(2):150-169
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2104 Language: German
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/nervous system
- Haug,H. 1970. Comparative studies of the brains of men,
elephants and toothed whales. Vergleichende Untersuchungen an den
Gehirnen des Menschen, des Elefanten und der Zahwale. Verhandlungen
der Anatomischen Gesellschaft 64:191-195
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 491 Language: German
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/nervous system/other animal
- Haug,H. 1970. The macroscopic structure of the cerebrum.
Qualitative and quantitative studies on the brain of humans, dolphins,
and the elephant. Ergebnisse der Anatomie und
Entwicklungsgeschichte 43:(4):3-70
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 490 Language: German;
English summary
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/nervous system/other animal
- Elias,H., Haug,H., Lange,W., Schlenska,G., and Schwartz,D. 1969.
Surface area determination of the cerebral cortex of mammals with
special
reference to humans, Cetacea, elephants and Marsupialia]. Verh
Anat Ges 63:461-462
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2110 Language: German
Keywords: anatomy and physiology/human/nervous system/other
animal
- Friant,M. 1969. Brain development and morphology in a
proboscidian, the African elephant
(Loxodonta africana Blum.). Acta Neurol Psychiatr Belg
69:(1):20-32
Ref Type: Journal Ref ID: 2111 Language: French
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Keywords: anatomy and physiology/nervous system
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Keywords: behavior/nervous system
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Keywords: anatomy and physiology/nervous system
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Keywords: behavior/African/nervous system
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Keywords: anatomy and physiology/nervous system
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Keywords: behavior/nervous system
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Keywords: behavior/nervous system
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Keywords: behavior/nervous system
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