Tetanus
Elephant Care International Fact Sheet

Susan Mikota DVM

Etiology

• Clostridium tetani, a large, rod-shaped bacteria
• saprophyte, found world-wide, opportunistic pathogen
• found in soil, manure,  feces of cows, horses, humans
• anaerobic, spore-forming (spores survive in air for long periods)
• potent toxin producer (also C. botulinum)

Epizootiology

• all mammals susceptible but varies  between species
  • horses and human most susceptible
  • dogs, cats, birds, relatively resistant
  • humans may be carriers (up to 25%)
• occurs in elephants but infrequent; susceptibility unknown

Transmission and Pathogenesis

• incubation period ~ 10-14 days
• spores gain entry via puncture wounds or lacerations
• bacterial cell lysis→toxin release→ enters CNS
• potent neuro toxin(tetanospasmin)
• recovery does not confer immunity

Clinical Signs in Elephants

• hypersensitivity to noise and touch
• prolapsed 3^rd eyelid
• painful spasms, rigidity
• unable to eat or drink → “lockjaw”
• recumbency
• +/- fever

Diagnosis

• clinical signs
• history of wound (may not be obvious or may be healed before signs appear)
   

Differential diagnosis

• other toxicities
• rabies

Management

• prevention
  • vaccination with equine tetanus toxoid → measurable titers
  • preliminary data suggests 1 cc dose with a booster at 4 weeks
  • duration of protection not determined; some facilities booster annually
• treatment
  • tetanus anti-toxin
  • supportive care crucial
  • debride, clean wound, antibiotics,
  • sedatives, muscle relaxants, quiet environment
  • fluids, force feeding, slinging

Zoonotic potential

·        none

Links for general info about tetanus:

1. Todar’s On-line Textbook of Bacteriology: http://gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch018.htm

2. Medical Microbiology: http://textbookofbacteriology.net/clostridia.html

3. CDC  http://www.cdc.gov/nip/diseases/tetanus/default.htm

http://www.cdc.gov/nip/publications/pink/tetanus.pdf

4. MedLine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tetanus.html

Tetanus References with Abstracts June 2005

Elephant Care International Bibliographic Database (www.elephantcare.org)

    1.   Chakraborty,A. 2003. Diseases of elephants (Elephas maximus) in India-A Review. Indian
          Wildlife Year Book 2:74-82.

   2.   Rahman,T., 2003. Infectious and non-infectious disease of elephants. In Das,D. (Editor). Healthcare, Breeding and Management of Asian Elephants.New Delhi Project Elephant. Govt. of India, pp. 108-118.

   3.   Chandrasekharan,K. 2002. Specific diseases of Asian elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7(3):31-34.
Abstract: The earliest writing describing the diseases of elephants in ancient literature said to be the works on "Gajasastra" (Elephantology) written in Sanskrit by authors like Gautama, Narada, Mrigacharma, Rajaputra and Vyasa. "Hasthyayurveda" a legendary book in Sanskrit written by a safe Palakapya deals with some diseases, treatment, desirable and undesirable points of selection, management practices and some mythological aspects on the origin of elephants. The earliest book in English dealing with diseases of elephants seems to be that of W. Gilchrist "A practical treatise on the treatment of diseases of elephants" published in 1848. Later Slym (1873), Sanderson (1878), Steel (1885), Evans (1910), Herpburn (1913), Milroy (1922), Ptaff (1940), Ferrier (1947), Utoke Gale (1974), Chandrasekharan (1979) and Panicker (1985) have documented their findings on the incidence, etiology and control of diseases of Asian elephants.

   4.   Nayar,K.N.M., Chandrasekharan,K., and Radhakrishnan,K. 2002. Management of surgical affections in captive elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7(3):55-59.

   5.   Ratanakorn,P. 2001. Elephant Health Problems and Management in Cambodia, Lao and Thailand. A Research Update on Elephants and Rhinos; Proceedings of the International Elephant and Rhino Research Symposium, Vienna, June 7-11, 2001, pp. 111-114.

   6.   Mikota,S.K. 1999. Diseases of the Elephant: A Review. Verh.ber.Erkrg.Zootiere 39:1-15.

   7.   Singhal,N. 1996. Treatment of an injured wild elephant in north Bengal forests. Indian Forester, Special issue: wildlife management. 122(10):969-970.
Abstract: A note is given on the treatment of a solitary male wild elephant found in Panighata Resume land forest with a badly injured foreleg knee joint, possibly caused by a gunshot wound. The elephant was immobilized with a dart of Immobilon, and the wound cleaned and washed with iodine solution, and treated with 500 g of povidine iodine ointment and a fly repellent (surgicare). The animal was also given dexa-methazone (5 ml) intravenously, and Decadron (12 ml), Oxy-Vet (30 ml) and tetanus toxoid intramuscularly. The operation lasted 54 minutes, after which the animal was revived with Revivon, and later offered bananas and banana culms. The animal has made a full recovery.

   8.   Chandrasekharan,K., Radhakrishnan,K., Cheeran,J.V., Nair,K.N.M., and Prabhakaran,T., 1995. Review of the Incidence, Etiology and Control of Common Diseases of Asian Elephants with Special Reference to Kerala. In Daniel,J.C. (Editor). A Week with Elephants; Proceedings of the International Seminar on Asian Elephants.Bombay, India Bombay Natural History Society; Oxford University Press, pp. 439-449.
Abstract: Incidence, etiology, symptoms and control of specific and non-specific diseases of captive and wild elephants have been reviewed. Asian elephants have been observed to be susceptible to various parasitic diseases such as helminthiasis, trypanosomiasis and ectoparasitic infestations, bacterial diseases such as tetanus, tuberculosis, haemorrhagic septicemia, salmonellosis and anthrax, viral diseases such as foot and mouth disease, pox and rabies and non-specific diseases like impaction of colon, foot rot and corneal opacity. A detailed study extending over two decades on captive and wild elephants in Kerala, revealed high incidence of helminthiasis (285), ectoparasitic infestation (235), impaction of colon (169) and foot rot (125). Diseases such as trypanosomiasis (21), tetanus (8), tuberculosis (5) pox (2) and anthrax (1) were also encountered. The line of treatment against the diseases mentioned, have been discussed in detail.

   9.   Chandrasekharan,K., 1992. Prevalence of infectious diseases in elephants in Kerala and their treatment. In Silas,E.G., Nair,M.K., and Nirmalan,G. (Editors). The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, January 1989).Trichur, India Kerala Agricultural University, pp. 148-155.

10.   Chandrasekharan,K. 1979. Common diseases of elephants. State Level Workshop on Elephants, pp. 51-61.

11.   Burke,T.J. 1975. Probable tetanus in an Asian elephant. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 6:22-24.

12.   McGaughey,C.A. 1962. Diseases of elephants. Part 4. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 10:3-9.

13.   Goss,L.J. 1942. Tetanus in an elephant (Elephas maximus). Zoologica 27:5-6.

14.   Goss,L.J. 1942. Diagnosis and treatment of diseases of wild animals in captivity. The Cornell Veterinarian 32:155-161.

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